Reading Motivation
Reading Motivation:
Using the Reading Motivation Theory to Promote Engagement and
Comprehension
Tiffany Schaefer
North Carolina State University
ECI 545: Theory and Research in Literacy
1
ABSTRACT
To be a proficient reader, one needs to read frequently and from a variety of sources.
However, there is a decline in reading motivation among middle school students. Educators
can be powerful influences in literacy motivation. By providing relevant text, supply many
choices of literature, maintain self-efficacy, have opportunities to collaborate, and introduce
students to exciting text such as graphic novels motivation to read will occur.
INTRODUCTION
Reading Motivation is the learner’s goals and beliefs toward reading, which then
influences the individual’s frequency, time, and interactions with text. (Guthrie & Wigfield,
1999). It is a difficult task to motivate many middle-schoolers to read, especially if they are
at-risk or below grade level in reading. Motivation to read also declines due to discrepancy
between reading interest and the types of readings students are exposed to. In addition, the
Reading Motivation
emphasis of reading instruction weakens beginning in fourth grade when content area learning
is the focus of class lessons (Melekoglu, 2011). The goal for this action research project is to
understand and put into practice ways to increase reading motivation in sixth graders so that
reading comprehension is improved, specifically for below grade level readers. When
preparing classroom instruction, teachers often overlook motivational support. By providing
quality motivations for reading, students will more likely acquire reading proficiency (McRae
& Guthrie, 2009).
I chose to focus on my In Class Resource (ICR) class. Most of the class is below grade
level in reading comprehension and lack motivation to read and turn in assignments. My
students are required to read a minimum of 90 minutes per week and turn in a reading log
with a reflection. At the beginning of the second semester my ICR students had a low turn in
rate of 50-70%. Many of their reflections were poor if they turned in the work at all. When
given time to read independently many of the students showed avoidance behaviors. This
behavior is due to the lack of intrinsic motivation. I want to increase their motivation to read
independently more frequently, which will increase their comprehension skills. My
concentration was to find research that supported increasing intrinsic motivation. By focusing
on intrinsic over extrinsic motivation, there is a deeper connection to intellectual curiosity,
understanding, and critical thinking (Ruddell & Unrau, 2004). Enhancing reading motivation
of students who struggle should be the primary focus of educators. It is the job of the teacher
to prepare students with the tools they need to be successful after secondary education
(Melekoglu, 2011).
LITERATURE REVIEW
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Reading Motivation
Historical Context
The history of literacy motivation consists of many areas of research by behavioral,
humanistic, cognitive, and social-cognitive psychologists. Early theories leaned toward the
idea that literacy is obtained based on external forces. In the beginning of the 20th century
behaviorists such as Skinner, Thorndike, and Watson stated that our motivations were created
due to the need to attain incentives or avoid negative outcomes during our contact with the
environment. However, this provoked humanistic psychologist to argue that humans are
driven by more of an internal need (Malloy & Gambrell, 2008). Maslow’s hierarchy (1943) of
needs outline four deficiency needs and three growth needs. The internal growth needs of
intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation, and self-actualization cannot be acquired
unless the deficiency needs of survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem are first met
(Malloy & Gambrell, 2008).
Deci and Ryan (1985) developed the self-determination theory, the need for one to
have the ability to choose. If learners feel they have control over their activities or texts then
they are more likely to be motivated to succeed and accept challenges. When teachers provide
choice for students in the classroom, it allows them to use their interest and values, which
sustains their effort to engage and think critically (Turner & Paris, 1995). In contrast, when
people are controlled they develop pressure that could have a negative outcome that will
produce a lack of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
Also in agreement, cognitive psychologists think the foundation of motivation is
internal. This produced a subtheory by Weiner (1985) called attribution theory. Attribution
theory is when learners are strongly motivated by the outcome of being able to feel good
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Reading Motivation
about themselves, which will interpret the success or failure of their current efforts and
ultimately their future tendency to perform these same behaviors. There are three
characteristics of the theory. The cause of the achievement or failure may be internal or
external, stable or unstable, or controllable or uncontrollable. This led to the idea of goal
theory in relation of task goals and ability goals. Then the creation of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation was developed. Intrinsic motivation is when self-produced interest in a task, and
extrinsic motivation is when one is motivated by rewards and acknowledgment (Malloy &
Gambrell, 2008).
Lastly, social-cognitive psychologists developed a current view of motivation called
the expectancy-value theory. A learner’s motivation is determined by how much they value
the goal, and whether they expect to succeed (Malloy & Gambrell, 2008). This theory was
originally studied in the area of mathematics achievement and relied heavily on Bandura’s
study of self-efficacy. Wigfield and Eccles (2000) report students’ beliefs concerning the
degree to which they are confident in accomplishing an academic task (self-efficacy) and the
extent to which they believe that the academic task is important to pursue (task value) are two
critical elements for understanding students’ success behaviors and learning outcomes.
Modern Applications of Reading Motivation
Intrinsic motivation to read is the ultimate goal a Language Arts teacher has for her
students. When a student is intrinsically motivated to read, they read for enjoyment during
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Reading Motivation
class and free time without rewards or punishment. Teachers have the control to support or
weaken student intrinsic motivation (McRae & Guthrie, 2009). Since reading amount and
frequency is a predictor of text comprehension, it is important for teachers to provide
independent reading time during the school day. If students are exposed to more text and
allowed to have more time during school to read, they are more likely to read for enjoyment at
home. A study done by Wigfield and Guthrie reported that motivated readers read outside of
school about 20 more minutes per day than less motivated readers (Ruddell & Unrau, 2004).
Research also shows that students will be motivated to read if teachers provide relevant text,
supply many choices of literature, maintain self-efficacy, have opportunities to collaborate,
and are introduced to exciting text such as graphic novels.
Relevance
Students are more likely to be motivated to read when they can understand the
relevance of the text. It is important for teachers to activate background knowledge during
each stage of the reading process because it will allow for connections from text to real life to
be made. To promote motivation activities and reading material should be tied to real life
experiences that relate to the various cultures of the students (McRae & Guthrie, 2009).
Teaches who want to encourage student to find personal meaning should give students time to
respond, provide time for discussion evocation, and look for a deeper understanding of themes
Teachers are able to find text that students are motivated to read when they first find what
they are interested in. Many times students are interested in topics about their culture or
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Reading Motivation
experiences. By gathering data on students early in the year, an influential teacher can choose
text that they find relevant, which will engage them (Ruddell & Unrau, 2004).
Choice
Choice is a strong motivator. Students who feel that their choice is valued are more
likely to be motivated to complete a task. When teachers provide opportunities for children to
make meaningful choices in their activities and text, students feel a sense of ownership in
their learning experiences. If a teacher has all the control, students will feel like their input
does not matter and possibly resent the teacher. Negative outcomes will be produced such as
stifling critical thinking and student withdrawal of personal responsibility to read (McRae &
Guthrie, 2009). Students who are allowed to select task and reading material are more likely
to not take shortcuts or guess the answer. When there are open-ended activities learners can
have the opportunity to apply their personality and interests, which will engage them (Turner
& Paris, 1995). Adolescents are the ones who will receive the benefits from their text;
therefore, educators need to listen to what choices they make (Pitcher et al., 2007).
Teachers should scaffold the process of making choices. This will promote
independence and teach students how to set goals (Turner & Paris, 1995). Before giving
students full access to available text and activities, it is important to teach them how to make
quality choices. They can do this by limiting options at first, modeling how to make good
choices, and give feedback about the choices they make (McRae & Guthrie, 2009). Teachers
need to broaden the resources available for students, and also provide multiliteracies such as
newspapers, magazines, and Internet sites. This will allow students access to more nonfiction
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Reading Motivation
(Pitcher et al., 2007). Let the individual interest of the student flourish by providing choice of
text on their reading level will create a sense of independence (McRae & Guthrie, 2009).
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is the ability to put forth effort and believe that one can be successful
(Gambrell, 1996). It is the teacher’s duty to promote self-efficacy in her students. It is a
major predictor of reading motivation, and teachers can help students see their self-worth
(Ruddell & Unrau, 2004). When children believe that they can read well, they are much
more likely to read frequently and accept challenging text. Educators who positively build up
student’s awareness that they can read and have success will have a thriving classroom. One
way to do this is to present students with text that are in their readability range. The text
should be challenging, slightly above their reading level so that there is an increase in
comprehension and vocabulary (McRae & Guthrie, 2009). Moderately challenging tasks
increase motivation because there is active feedback bout how they are progressing (Turner &
Paris, 1995). If the text is too easy, the student will find ways to distract and possibly cause
class management problems because there is no interest and more importantly, nothing is
learned. Teachers also should hold student to high standards so that they will intern have high
expectations for themselves (Ruddell & Unrau, 2004). So many times the textbooks and
assignments for struggling readers are well above their reading level; therefore, the student
will give up and have a negative attitude toward the class and reading. By reading comfortable
and challenging text, the student’s intrinsic motivation will grow (McRae & Guthrie, 2009).
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Reading Motivation
Another way to increase motivation through self-efficacy is to focus on student
learning when assessing. Teachers should grade on effort and accuracy. When a teacher only
holds the student accountable on completing the task instead of what they learned, it weakens
their self-efficacy. Also, it is important for the teacher to have students repeat a task until it is
mastered so they can experience accomplishment. However, if a student is a developing
reader and repeatedly fails at a task, without additional instruction, he is likely to give up and
develop negative feelings toward reading (McRae & Guthrie, 2009).
Collaboration
Reading motivation increases when students share their reading experience with others
because it stimulates a positive peer pressure. It is important to encourage these critical
conversations with family and friends (Pitcher et al., 2007). When student discuss what they
read with each other, they can stimulate each other’s curiosity. Also, students are more likely
to be motivated when they see the success that their peers have. Social guidance and
cooperation in classrooms are essential for reading motivation in today’s classroom (Turner &
Paris, 1995).
Collaboration encourages students to improve their leadership skills, critical thinking,
and increase background knowledge. Students will develop a respect and interest when they
learn that a classmate understood or experienced something they never have before. When
students work only independently they are more likely to have misconceptions and have
limited perspectives. Another benefit of collaboration is that it creates a relaxing environment
where there is less dependence on the teacher (McRae & Guthrie, 2009).
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Reading Motivation
The teacher should model how to have book talks in the classroom; it will influence
the students’ attitude and perception of reading. When the teacher is enthusiastic about
literature it will have a powerful impact on the class (Pitcher et al., 2007). Gambrell (1996)
asserts that just reading while students are reading is not enough. Teachers should share their
reading experiences and how it affect their lives. This involves telling how it relates to and
event, a thoughtful description of a character, and reading of exciting passages. In addition,
teacher should have a book-rich classroom. The in-class library will show how the teacher
values reading and will provide more access to interesting literature.
Graphic Novels
Edwards (2009) states that due to technology advancements like video games and cell
phones and the need to socialize middle school students are not reading in their free time as
much as earlier generations. He proposes that graphic novels will redirect learners to read
more and appeals to at-risk readers. Reading graphic novels requires students to construct
meaning from visual representations, improve reading comprehension, and increases
vocabulary development. Motivation to read is increased when teachers allow students to
choose graphic novels for voluntary reading time during class.
Edwards (2009) conducted a study that found that access to graphic novels combined
with free voluntary reading time produced more intrinsic motivation to read. In the study,
students reported that they could understand what they were reading easier because the
pictures helped them interpret the meaning, which motivated them to read more. Based on the
findings of this study teachers and media specialist should be open-minded about graphic
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Reading Motivation
novels, provide access to various types of graphic novels, integrate them into the curriculum,
and allow for independent reading time during the school day.
LESSON PLAN
Rationale for Lesson
The purpose of creating this lesson is to increase reading motivation for struggling
readers. During the course of the first and second quarter I saw a decrease in grade average in
my second period class. One of the main factors was the lack of reading records. Many
students were either not turning them in or putting very little effort in their reflections. The
students were required to read three hours every two weeks (18 min/weekday), record their
time that they read, and write a short reflection. Because of low grade average I decided to
look at the source, their motivation. I thought that if I could motivate them to want to read
they will be more likely to turn in their log.
The article Edwards wrote about motivating middle school readers using graphic
novels inspired me. The article told how graphic novels peaked the interest of even the most
resistant reader. My school’s media specialist wrote a grant last year and our library just
received over 50 new graphic novels of all kinds. Also, many of my research discussed the
important of providing time in class for students to read independently text of their choice.
Therefore, my lesson is centered on Sustained Silent Reading (SSR). After reading the article
by Gambrell I found that it was important to model the correct way to write an SSR reflection.
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Reading Motivation
Subjects
I chose to focus on my ICR class, which is filled with struggling readers. Out of 29
students 13 had individualized education plans, five spoke English as their second language,
three were behaviorally and emotional disturbed. All but two of the 29 students passed the
reading EOG the previous year. Clearly, reading is a challenge for many of these students.
Lesson Design and Implementation
The lesson lasted over one class period, which is approximately an hour long. It took
place in the media center so that there was an abundance of books available. As the students
arrived they dropped off their books to return in the circulation desk, turned in their reading
log, and sat in their assigned groups. I organized them in groups of three or four. I was
conscious about personality conflicts and students that like to distract each other. Each group
varied in reading level and gender.
Before Reading
After everyone was seated I announced that we were going to have a guest speaker to
share about the cool new graphic novels that were available in the library. The Media
Specialist gave book talks about several different graphic novels. She also had an attractive
display ready for the students to approach. As she was talking, the students were captivated
by the illustrations and the idea that they were being allowed to read a book with lots of cool
pictures. She discussed the diversity of the text, telling them about the fiction and nonfiction
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Reading Motivation
choices. I chimed in at the end and told them that they could check out any book they wanted
for the independent reading time. I also told them about one of my favorite graphic novels
and read a passage from it. Finally, I told them that after they completed their reading time
and SSR reflection, they would tell their group about what they read in a book talk. A few
students went with other options, but the majority of the class went immediately to the display
table eager to grab their favorite. I have done genre talks before, and I have never seen the
enthusiasm that I witnessed. I even had to settle a few arguments about students wanting to
read the same book.
During Reading
Then the students received the SSR reflection sheets (Appendix A). I went over the
directions, which was to read silently and independently for thirty minutes and then fill out the
reflection. The reflection sheet had various options for response and the students could use
the sentence starters to help them if needed. The reflection needed to be three sentences long.
After I reminded them about the directions of filling out the SSR refection sheet I told
them they were to read the book they chose for thirty minutes. I am happy to report that most
students were on task and reading the entire time. I only had to redirect one student to sit in a
new location because he was distracting others around him. I later found out that he was
trying to tell his neighbors about his book.
The previous day I modeled how to fill out the reflection sheet. We read an article
from Scholastic News Online together and filled out the three-sentence student response sheet
using the Smartboard. I showed them how to use the sentence starters and discuses the
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Reading Motivation
options they could choose from. Then, they had to complete the activity on their own. I had
five different articles from the same magazine they could choose from. This gave them extra
practice for the next day’s activity. It also exposed them to some interesting nonfiction.
After Reading
Thirty minutes passed, and I gave the students five minutes to respond to the text using
their reflection sheets. For the responses students could summarize, predict, question,
evaluate, or connect. Then the students used their reflection sheet to tell about their book to
their group. The room became loud with discussion about what their books were about and
what they thought of them.
Objectives
Objectives from the North Carolina Standard Course of Study:
Competency Goal 1The learner will use language to express individual perspectives drawn from personal or
related experience.
1.02 Explore expressive materials that are read, heard, and/or viewed by:

monitoring comprehension for understanding of what is read, heard and/or viewed.

analyzing the characteristics of expressive works.

determining the effect of literary devices and/or strategies on the reader/viewer/listener.

making connections between works, self and related topics.
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Reading Motivation

comparing and/or contrasting information.

drawing inferences and/or conclusions.

determining the main idea and/or significance of events.

generating a learning log or journal.

discussing print and non-print expressive works formally and informally.
1.03 Interact appropriately in group settings by:

listening attentively.

showing empathy.

contributing relevant comments connecting personal experiences to content.

monitoring own understanding of the discussion and seeking clarification as needed.
1.04 Reflect on learning experiences by:

interpreting how personal circumstances and background shape interaction with text.
Competency Goal 5The learner will respond to various literary genres using interpretive and evaluative
processes.
5.01 Increase fluency, comprehension, and insight through a meaningful and comprehensive literacy program by:

using effective reading strategies to match type of text.

reading self-selected literature and other materials of individual interest.

reading literature and other materials selected by the teacher.

discussing literature in teacher-student conferences and small group discussions.

taking an active role in whole class seminars.

discussing and analyzing the effects on texts
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Reading Motivation

exploring relationships between and among characters, ideas, concepts and/or experiences.
5.02 Study the characteristics of literary genres (fiction, nonfiction, drama, and poetry) through:

reading a variety of literature and other text (e.g., novels, autobiographies, myths, essays, magazines,
plays, pattern poems, blank verse).

interpreting what impact genre-specific characteristics have on the meaning of the work.
Learning Outcomes
Overall, the students accomplished the objectives that I intended. I was pleasantly
surprised at the responses on the reflections. Many students thought critically by making
predictions and connections about what they read during the thirty minutes. I feel students
increased their self-efficacy about their reading skills because they were confident in their
discussions and were interested in learning about each other’s books. Also, 25 out of 29
students received “A”s on the assignment. Students were excited to share their reading
selections. During the student book talk time, I overheard a student who usually displayed
avoidance behaviors say, “I want to go first!” They were excited to present to their groups
because they knew there was a far lesser risk of failing or making a mistake because they
comprehended the text. A typical class period with those students contains a fair amount of
resistance to finding a book. Before I found myself redirecting students and reminding them to
stay on task during the independent reading time. However, the use of graphic novels excited
them and caused them to not want to distract others.
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Reading Motivation
I did not see a significant difference in the turn in rate of the IRR. However, the
quality of the answers was improved. This might be due to the fact that they finally
comprehended the text because of the pictures.
Connections to Reading Motivation Theory
The lesson was planned with the reading motivation theory in mind. First, the idea of
choice was available through out the lesson. Research shows how choice plays such a
significant role to increase intrinsic motivation. The students were allowed to pick any text
they wanted for their silent reading time. Also, students could choose how they wanted to
respond to the text in their reflection. In the model lesson on the previous day, student had a
choice from five different articles. I also scaffolded the process of making choices by having a
limited number of choices during the modeled lesson.
Work done by Wigfield, Guthrie, and Edwards reported teachers need to provide
individual reading time during the class time. I provide thirty minutes of free reading time
called Silent Sustained Reading (SSR). During this time the students were engaged in their
selected text. Many of them checked out the text they read for SSR to take home.
Another connection to the research was the concept of challenge. In the article by
Edwards, he reported how graphic novels made readers think critically. It also stated that
graphic novels increased vocabulary. Readers have to interpret the visual representations on
each page, which also helps in comprehension.
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Reading Motivation
Thirdly, collaboration played a role in the lesson plan. During the after reading portion
of the lesson, students were instructed to talk about what they read during the silent reading
time. They used their reflection sheet to help guide their discussion. This act was modeled
during the before reading stage in the lesson. The media specialist illustrated how to give
quality book talks.
Finally, self-efficacy impacted the lesson. By modeling how to fill out the SSR
reflection sheet the day before; the students were not struggling with how to complete the
after reading task. This supported their self-efficacy because they felt confident in what they
had to accomplish. Also, most students chose to read graphic novels. This made it possible
for them to comprehend the text because of the visual representations. They felt more
successful because they were enjoying what they were reading as well.
Conclusions
I will make some necessary changes in my teaching practices. I will add more graphic
novels to my in class library. I am constantly looking for more interesting text to add to my
classroom that will entice readers. I will also include more independent reading time when I
plan class activities. Currently I only provide SSR once every two weeks. Next school year, I
will adjust this to at least twice a week. I will continue to use choice in many ways. I find
that it empowers students when they feel that they have a voice in their education. In the
future, I will research more ways to make a positive impact on my students and their literacy
lives. I want to mold the literacy instruction to meet learner’s needs and interests. If
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educators give students the right tools and help them discover their reading potential then they
will be life- long learners.
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References
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human
behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human
motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne,
49(3), 182-185. doi:10.1037/a0012801
Edwards, B. (2009). Motivating Middle School Readers: The Graphic Novel Link. School
Library Media Activities Monthly, 25(8), 56-58.
Gambrell, L. B. (1996). Creating Classroom Cultures That Foster Reading Motivation.
Reading Teacher, 50(1), 14-25.
Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (1999). How Motivation Fits Into a Science of Reading.
Scientific Studies Of Reading, 3(3), 199-205.
Malloy, J. A., & Gambrell, L. B. (2008). New insights on motivation in the literacy
classroom. In C. Block, S. R. Parris, C. Block, S. R. Parris (Eds.) , Comprehension
instruction: Research-based best practices (2nd ed.) (pp. 226-238). New York, NY
US: Guilford Press.
McRae, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (2009). Promoting reasons for reading: Teacher practices that
impact motivation. In E. H. Hiebert (Ed.), Reading more, reading better (pp.55-76).
New York: Guilford Press.
Melekoglu, M. A. (2011). Impact of motivation to read on reading gains for struggling readers
with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 34(4), 248-261.
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Pitcher, S. M., Albright, L. K., DeLaney, C. J., Walker, N. T., Seunarinesingh, K., Mogge, S.,
& ... Dunston, P. J. (2007). Assessing Adolescents' Motivation to Read. Journal Of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 50(5), 378-396.
Ruddell, R. B., Unrau, N. J., & International Reading Association, N. E. (2004). Theoretical
Models and Processes of Reading. Fifth Edition. International Reading Association.
Turner, J., & Paris, S. G. (1995). How Literacy Tasks Influence Children's Motivation for
Literacy. Reading Teacher, 48(8), 662-73.
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Psychological Review, 92(4), 548-573. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548
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Appendix A
Name_________________________ ___Date________________
Sustained Silent Reading ~ Reflection
Directions: Pick one of the following active reading strategies to use for reflecting on what
you read. Read a text of your choice for 30 minutes. Then complete the form below. If you
need to, use the sentence starters provided to get you started.
Check one:
SUMMARIZE: “This book is about___” “The main character in the story___”
PREDICT: “Based on___, I predict that___” “Later in the story, I think that___”
CONNECT: “This story is like my life because___” “This story is similar to the book___ because__”
EVALUATE: “I think the author is a good/bad writer because___” “I like/do not like this story because…”
QUESTION: “When I read the part about ____, it made me wonder___” “I wonder why the
author chose to___? I think it might be because___”
VISUALIZE: “When I read the part about ____, I pictured___” “I think the main character looks like___”
Text Title: _______________________________________ Author:________________
Type of Text (novel, magazine, etc):__________________________
Started page:_______ Ended page:________
3 sentences of reflection (use the strategies above)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________
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