ACCESS AND USE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR
TEACHING AND LEARNING AMONGST SCHOOLS IN UNDER RESOURCED
COMMUNITIES IN THE WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA
Nhlanhla B.W. Mlitwa
Department of IT, Faculty of Informatics and Design (FID),
Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT)
80 Roeland Street, Cape Town mlitwan@cput.ac.za
Kesewaa Koranteng
Department of IT, Faculty of Informatics and Design (FID),
Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT)
80 Roeland Street, Cape Town kesewaajkoranteng@gmail.com

This paper reports on an investigation into the status of ICT deployment into schools, and its integration into school curricula. The objective is to understand successes and failures of the implementation of the e-Education policy to this effect, so as to inform solutions. A qualitative study was conducted, using a case study method. A purposive sampling method was used to select participants; educators and school coordinators of ICT programs in Western Cape schools. Literature was also explored for background information, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants in 4 sampled schools. Activity theory was used to develop an activity system analytical framework for the study. The framework presents the sampled schools
ICT deployment and integration programme as an activity system consisting of actors, mediators, tools and activities that work together to inform outcomes. Outcomes can either be positive or negative, depending on the interplay between negative and positive mediators, availability and relevance of tools as well as relevance of activities. The framework is used in the context of the e-Education policy whose main goal is to ensure the full ICT deployment and integration into curricula in all schools. Findings indicate that the status of ICT deployment and its integration into school curricula is far from favourable in underdeveloped schools in the
Western Cape. With regards to physical deployment of ICT, computer density was found to be disappointing. An ideal situation would be that of one computer per learner, or according to a realistic practice in developed countries, the ratio should at least be 5 learners per computer.
The learner to computer ratio in sampled schools was far from ideal, with the average ratio of 76 learners per computer. In terms of the status of ICT integration into school curricula, very few subjects had a computer facilitated aspect. ICT skills amongst teachers were also found to be minimal, with most of those who claimed some level of literacy, only having received basic computer training that did not empower them to use computer-based educational programs.
Drawing on the activity system framework, it emerges that the goals, mediating factors, and activities in the e-Education policy implementation are disjointed. As a result, intended outcomes remain illusive. Implementers are advised to revise the deployment of ICT into schools and possibly have personnel to audit the process, including the funding model. This would include clarifying the motives and guidelines for the implementation processes. Lastly authorities should invest in teacher training programs and ensure that competent facilitators are appointed to train educators. Also the teacher-training programs provided should be prioritised.
Key words: ICT, Integration, Deployment, ICT literacy, Disadvantaged Schools, Underresourced communities
2

Information and communication technology (ICT) and its continuous innovations have improved efficiencies in various domains of modern living. Efficiencies through e-Government (Dwivedi &
Bharti, 2005; Gupta, 2011), e-Commerce (Goel, 2007), e-Health and e-Learning solutions are such examples. Access to quality education in particular, is enhanced through web-enabled educational software, systems and networked applications (Jhurree, 2005; Bunt-Kokhuis, 2012).
Educational software aids in simplifying difficult concepts, making learning fun and easy
(Simkins et al ., 2003). Most significantly, Mobile (M) and Electronic (e) Learning in particular, allow learning to be done anywhere and at anytime (Goi & Ng, 2009).
With access to ICT therefore, all learners in South African (SA) schools can benefit from these efficiencies. However, access to educational technology in SA is still limited to the advantaged few in the more urban areas whilst many learners in disadvantaged areas remain on the periphery (Mlitwa & Nonyane, 2008; Nonyane, 2011). For this reason, the government undertook through the e-Education policy in 2004, to equip schools with ICT. The goal was to empower schools with ICT facilities to improve the quality of education so as to improve learning outcomes
(Eom, et al., 2006) in all schools. The policy provides for the deployment of educational hardware and software to every school in SA, and for a full integration of ICT into curricula, including the e-skilling of teachers (by integrating ICT skills programs into the teacher-training curriculum).
Research Problem
Schools in rural and in some urban areas remain under-resourced, lacking basic infrastructure including classrooms, furniture and ICT resources. Even in urban areas with notable initiatives such as the ‘Khanya Project’ and ‘Gauteng Online’, universal success remains illusive, as many schools are yet to be catered for (The Khanya, 2010; Gauteng Online, 2010).
The main research problem therefore, is that whilst policy provisions are inspiring, it is not clear why a number of schools remain under-resourced, with the majority of teachers still computer illiterate. Unless the situation is clearly articulated and understood, learners in affected schools may continue to be marginalized, with bleak chances of being competitive in their future careers and ultimately, of improving the quality of their lives.
3

Research Objective
The study investigates the status of ICT deployment and its integration into school curricula in disadvantaged areas of the Western Cape. The aim is to understand the problem, identify causes, and ultimately inform solutions.
Methodology
The work of the paper is predominantly qualitative, in that data is descriptive and explanatory rather than statistical or quantitative. Given the appropriateness of a case studies for in depth insight into social phenomena (Yin, 1994), a case study method was used. In this respect, the intepretivist paradigm was followed, using both secondary (literature) and primary (semistructured interviews) data sources.
Given the qualitative nature of data (and findings), a method of analysis in which “words and phrases within a wide range of texts, including books, book chapters, essays, interviews and speeches” could be examined (Palmquist, 1993), was more ideal. For this purpose, content analysis in conjunction with a theoretical framework – the e-Schools Activity Theory based framework (Figure 1), was used to analyse and interpret data.
Since the aim of the study was to identify specific cases with conditions typical to the problem under investigation, a purposive sampling method was deemed appropriate. Also known as judgemental sampling, purposive sampling is used to select the units that are representative of the population, according to the purpose of the study and researcher discretion (Singleton &
Straits, 2005). In this respect, a purposive method of sampling was used to select participant samples in 4 schools (i.e. Kulani Secondary, Sithembele Matiso Secondary, Macassar
Secondary and Marvin Park Primary in the Western Cape (WC). The WC province was selected for 2 key reasons. Firstly, in acknowledgement of progressive efforts in the form of the Khanya project where it would be expected that all schools would be catered for, and on the basis of close proximity of schools to researchers. Schools were selected on the basis of their location in disadvantaged areas with minimal resources. Language and easy access to the school also played a significant role in the sampling decision process.
As outlined in Table 1 overleaf, coordinators of ICT programs in the Western Cape (WC) department of education, coordinators of ICT programs in schools (e-schools coordinators), and educators were identified as the population from which units of observation and ultimately, research samples, were selected.
4

Table 1: Selection of Participation Samples
Question
Motivations for
ICT integration & use in schools
Status of ICT
Deployment in
SA schools
Status of ICT integration into the curriculum
Status of ICT skills among educators
Explanations to the status of ICT deployment
Totals
Data
Source

Literature
Data
Collection tool

Reading

Analysis

Government
Dept of
Education

Schools

Government
Dept of
Education

Schools

Semi structured interviews

Questionnaires

Reading;

Analysis

Semi structured interviews

Questionnaires

Teacher
Training
Institutions

Schools

Literature

curriculum

Government
Dept of
Education

Schools

Semi structured interviews

Questionnaires

Semi structured interviews

Questionnaires
Units of Analysis Units observation No. of
Participants

Books, Journals, Internet

Policy documents: Western
Cape Provincial Dept of
Education

Primary & Secondary
Schools in disadvantaged areas of the Western Cape

Policy documents: Western
Cape Provincial Dept of
Education

Primary & Secondary
Schools in disadvantaged areas of the Western Cape

University Departments of education

Primary & Secondary
Schools in disadvantaged areas of the Western Cape

Teachers

Policy documents: Western
Cape Provincial Dept of
Education

Primary & Secondary
Schools in disadvantaged areas of the Western Cape

Methodology

Educational theories & philosophies

Computers in Education etc.

e-schools initiative policy document

2 teacher per school

(1 Coordinator of ICT per school; 1 not teaching
ICT related subjects)

e-schools initiative policy document

2 teacher per school
(1 Coordinator of ICT per school; 1 not teaching
ICT related subjects)

Analyse the curriculum (online)

2 teacher per school
(1 Coordinator of ICT per school; 1 not teaching
ICT related subjects)

e-schools initiative policy document

1 Coordinator of ICT programs per school
8 participants : 8 teachers (1 Coordinator of ICT programs; 1 not teaching ICT related subjects)
4
4
4
4
Sign represents school areas: * Langa Township; ** Gugulethu; # Macassar
4

ICT as a Tool and a Catalyst for Development
ICT is said to improve educational efficiencies, and is a significant means to address educational shortcomings in the developing world (Mlitwa, 2011; Gutterman, et al ., 2009).
Against this background, world governance structures committed to Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) to exploit ICT in redressing social inequality among world populations, by halving the poverty, disease and illiteracy rates by 2015 (MDG report, 2008). Achieving universal access to primary education is presented as the second highest priority (after poverty reduction) in the MDGs, with ICT as the major enabler (Nonyane, 2011). Similar undertakings have also been instituted by multinational institutions and in continental structures. At multi-national level, the Global e-Schools Communities Initiative (GeSCI) 1 emphasizes the deployment of ICT in schools, to improve teaching and learning in developing countries (GeSCI, 2009).
Continental structures in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, have also turned ICT for solutions in advancing the quality of, and access to education (IDB, 2000). The Policy Forum 2 on the
Integration of ICT into Education by ten Asian countries in 2007 (World Links, 2007) is an example. In the same light, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) also established the UNESCO SchoolNet project in 2003. The goal was to improve teaching and learning outcomes through teacher training as well as the integration of computers into school programs (ASEAN, 2010). In Africa, the New Partnership for African Development
(NEPAD) also established the e-Schools initiative with the objective to provide computers to every school in the African continent (The Nepad e-Africa Commission, 2010). Through this initiative, NEPAD also undertook to advance ICT skills to primary and secondary school students as well as educators. Through this initiative, NEPAD also undertook to coordinate
ICT curriculum and content development in all schools in Africa, so as to enhance the quality of schooling across the continent ( ibid ).
Within individual countries, South Africa also established the e-Education policy in 2003
(DoE, 2003). In this policy, ICT is viewed as a resource for teaching and learning, and an enabler of the development of the school as a whole. On this basis, the e-Education policy is aims to equip schools with ICT to improve management and administration; to facilitate curriculum incorporation; improve communication and engagement as well as collaboration
1
The Global e-Schools and Community Initiative (GeSCI) is founded on the consensus within the UN, that education in developing countries need critical development. Funded by Ireland, Sweden,
Switzerland and Finland, GeSCI has undertaken to invest in, and deploy ICT to improve teaching and learning in developing countries (GeSC, 2009).
2 This forum develops policies to ensure a successful integration of ICT in the classroom. The I-
Schools Project (to develop open content to enable the equal access to education for learners), and the Smart Schools Program (that promotes access and use of ICT for teachers) are some of the collaborative initiatives of the forum (World Links, 2007).
2

between teachers and between learners (DoE, 2007). The goal is to ensure that every learner is able to use ICT confidently and creatively to develop skills and knowledge needed to achieve personal goals. In this quest, further provisions are to integrate ICT into all South
African schools by the year 2013 (DoE, 2003). The idea is to push for universal access to
ICT, through the deployment of networked computers, educational software and online learning resources to all schools in South Africa. Hopefully, to enable the development and distribution of electronic learning content so that every learner, teacher, manager and administrator has the knowledge, skills and support needed to integrate ICT into educational processes. Guidelines to integrate ICT into the teacher pre-service and in-service training programmes are also outlined in the policy. To facilitate implementation, the policy provides for the assigning of a “ dedicated teacher to manage ICT facilities and to champion the use of
ICT ”, and the provision of technical training for teachers in every school (DoE, 2003).
ICT facilities and ICT skills are important, but need to be productively integrated into the curriculum if they are to make a positive impact in education (Mlitwa, 2010). A Curriculum entails the philosophy, the content, the approach and the assessment of learning programme
(Harvey, 2004). Integrating ICT into the curriculum therefore, implies the alignment of educational technologies with pedagogy.
Given that the e-Education policy was put forward in 2003, it is logical to expect that reasonable progress in the integration and deployment of ICT into the school curriculum, should have taken place by the year 2012.
This study investigates the dynamics of the e-Education policy implementation, with emphasis on its goal to deploy and integrate ICT into curricula, in all South African schools.
Selected schools in underdeveloped areas of the Western Cape were chosen as case samples. Activity theory (AT) was used to provide an analytical framework for the study.
A Theoretical Framework: Activity Theory (AT)
AT is used as a framework for examining and transforming networks of interacting activity systems (Hardman, 2005). The activity systems transform one condition to another, hence are a considered to be the instruments of reor ganisation (Engeström, 1987). The basic components of an activity system are comprised of the subject, object, mediating artefacts
(i.e. tools), rules, community and division of labour ( ibid ). The subject is an individual or entity (actor or actors) from whose perspective an object is to be viewed (Daniels, 2004).
In the case of this study, actors are the Government department of education (DoE),
Teacher training institutions and Schools at the institutional level, as well as Provincial e-
Schools co-ordinators, schools ICT coordinators and educators at the individual (human) level. An object is the reason for an action or the goal (Engeström, 1987). As detailed in
Figure 1, the goals of the DoE, the provincial and school level implementers vary in terms

of roles, though overlapping at the main goal of achieving full integration of ICT into curricula, and in improving the quality of learning outcomes.
Mediation refers to the use of tools to mediate human activity (Vygotsky, 1978). The tool is the artefact to be created and transformed during the development of the activity itself
(Uden & Damiani, 2007). Rules are the norms and regulations that are either implicit or explicit, but influential in the activities that take place (Engestr öm, 1999). The community represents groups, rules and arrangements such as the division of labour (Owen, 2008).
The problem with goal implementations in a multi-level and complex activity system such as the e-Schools process is that it needs clear rules and guidelines across different actors if it is succeed. Whilst implicit guidelines maybe ambiguous, subject to misinterpretation and manipulation, the worst situation would a complete lack of rules or guidelines and enforcement procedures.
Rather than a predictive theory, AT is a descriptive framework, a concept and a theoretical approach or a viewpoint (Mursu et al.
, 2007). In most instances AT is used to analyse human activity from a needs-based and goal oriented viewpoint (i.e. people are driven by needs and therefore have specific goals to achieve) (Mlitwa, 2011). Consequently it is used to understand human interaction through mediated tools and artefacts (Hashim &
Jones, 2007). An activity is seen as a factor that ties the actions to the context, hence an activity is a basic unit of analysis in Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987). Since human actions derive their meaning from the context, “actions without context are meaningless”
(Mursu, et al ., 2007: 6), hence actions must be viewed within a context (Leont’ev, 1978).
As outlined in Figure 1, different functions (activities of different actors) in the policy implementation process investigated in this study are such units of analysis.
The Use of Activity Theory in this Research
As indicated in Figure 1, the AT work-activity concepts are used to present the e-Schools
programme as an activity system. An actor is an individual, a group of people ( Engeström,
1987) or even an entity/institution (Mursu, et al, 2007). The motives/goals refer to the DoE policy undertaking to deploy & integrate ICT into curricula in all school. This goal is associated with relevant activities such as budget provision, communication with relevant stakeholders, monitoring and enforcing the implementation. At a teacher training institution, the goal is simply to see teacher training programme integrated with ICT, and to produce ICT literate (and competent) teachers. At a school level, co-ordinators want to see full deployment, maintenance and use of ICT for educational purposes in their respective centres of operation. Under this framework, the goal of teachers is to competently use ICT to improve learning outcomes. Whilst these goals seem logical at the framework level, it

remain to be seen when they equally logical in the practical implementation process. The issue of mediating factors thus, becomes important in this respect.
Mediators are factors that can enable or inhibit the successful achievement of a goal
(Vygotsky, 1978). For example, it is unhelpful to have clear goals, actors and rules, but lack financial resources, lack coordination of activities and integration process, basic infrastructure such as classroom and electricity or not to have ICT literate teachers. The transformation process combines the enabling factors, the tools and the activities, in order to achieve a positive outcome (Uden & Damiani, 2007).
The relevance of AT in this study is that it provides a holistic operational view of phenomena
at hand. From an AT perspective the e-School Activity Theory Analytical framework (Figure
1) aids in understanding the factors affecting the successful realization of the government’s e-Education policy goal (i.e. universal access of ICT for teaching and learning).

Activities/ Actions Mediators
D.o.E:
Appoint coordinators & oversee implementation e-Schl coordinator:
Liaise with schools in ensuring deployment of
ICT, & its integration with Curriculum
Teacher Training Inst:
In addition to the conventional curriculum,
Integrate relevant ICT skills into the teacher training programme
The School:
Create supportive social
& technical environment.
Establish a link between pedagogy, curriculum, &
ICT.
Protect & maintain facilities
The Educator:
Competently use teaching & learning facilities, to deliver quality instruction & to support quality learning
Positive Outcome:

All schools supplied with computers.

Skilled & competent educators.

ICT integrated with the curriculum in all schools
Negative Outcome:

Some schools have educational resources, & the advantages that come with it. Others with their pupils on the periphery.
Figure 1: e-Schools Activity Theory Analytical framework
Enabling Factors

Political will (policy)

Financial resources

National coordination of the program nationally

Basic infrastructure
– secure computer labs, network connections, & electricity in schools

Availability of eeducational resources,
& skilled educators

Supporting technical & social environment

Cooperation by school
 communities

Tools

Policy (e-Education policy; e-Skills Strategy)

Relevant pedagogy & curricula

Educational materials & facilities such as relevant ICT

Educational software

Teacher skills, etc
Inhibiting Factors

Lack of basic infrastructure: i.e. classrooms, electricity & other educational tools.

Objectives unclear or unknown

Poor coordination &
Implementation failures

Unsafe physical environment

Lack of skills (among teachers)
6
Motives/ Goal

Ensure equitable access to quality education for all

Ensure integration of ICT with the curriculum in all schools

Improve ICT literacy for educators

Training colleges – produce educators who are competent in all aspects of curriculum delivery, including the delivery of education programs.

Schools – enhance quality of education through, among other things, the use of ICT
Local e-schools coordinators – ensure deployment of appropriate ICT facilities into all schools
Become effective teachers who are competent in using educational tools such as ICT to enhance the quality of learning in schools.
Actors
D. o. E.
Teacher colleges
The Schools e-Schools coordinators
Educators

Information flows and linkages between the components of the activity system are important in the success of the work-activity.
Without duplicating the content of Figure 1 and the preceding discussion, the framework was
useful in clarifying the context of the investigation, to frame the concepts, work-flows between actors, and to clarify mediators (including tools) as well as activities in this project.
In conjunction with the content analysis tool, the framework also informed the identification of themes towards the analysis and most significantly, the interpretation of data. To this end, findings expose the current status of ICT integration into schools and schools’ curricula. It clarifies information flows between actors and activities, and most significantly, explanations and causes to the status quo.
Findings
Findings are presented in Tables 2 & 3 overleaf, and discussed in sections that follow.

Table 2: Status of ICT Deployment, its Integration & Teacher Skills
# of
Learners
# of
Computers
(PCs)
ICT Deployment
ICT
Coordinators
Working
PCs
PCs with
Internet
ICT Integration
Subjects with
Computer
Programs
Computer
Programs
+- 800
(KH_B30)
+- 700
(MC_F27)
+- 1370
(SM_D22)
+- 38
(KH_B29)
+- 97
(MC_F19)
+- 25
(SM_D21)
1 ( KH_M5)
2 ( MC_F1)
3 ( SM_D51)
+- 33
(KH_B35)
None
(KH_B4)
One:
Maths (KH_B49)
+- 67
(MC_F29)
+- 67
(MC_F32)
+- Four:
Maths, computer application technology, life orientation, sometimes languages & geography
(MC_F20,
MC_F22)
+- 18
(SM_D25)
None
(SM_D27)
Two:
Science & maths
(SM_D35)
# of
Teachers
ICT Teacher Skills
Teacher ICT
Training offered?
Training provider
Adequacy of training
Teachers teaching with computers
Master Maths, for all school grades
(KH_B5)
+- 29
(KH_B45)
Master Maths,
Computer application technology,
GIS & PACE
(MC_F21,
MC_F22)
+- 21
(MC_F27)
Master Maths
& Multi choice
(SM_D9)
+- 38
(SM_D46)
Yes (KH_B9)
Yes
(MC_F11)
DoE
(KH_B10)
Khanya
Project
(MC_F11)
Only basic computer literacy and how to use the learning programs (i.e. maths) (KH_M19).
General computer usage, Word processing, administrative skills
& Internet usage with of subject specific computer programs for only geography teachers
(MC_F11;
MC_F24)
+-7 maths teachers
( KH_B46;
KH_M54)
Maths, computer application subjects, life orientation, languages & geography teachers
(MC_F22,
MC_F24;
MC_F44)
Yes
( SM_D11)
Khanya Basic Computer
Project literacy, ability to
( SM_D11) type question paper.
( SM_D14)
Maths and science teachers
(SM_D49)
+- 1185
(MV_F36)
+- 36
(MV_F27)
3 (MV_F65) +- 36
(MV_F37)
2 for admin use only
(MV_F45)
Three:
Science, Maths &
English (MV_F62)
Cami Maths,
Litnum
(MV_F4)
+- 31
(MV_F52)
Yes
(MV_K12)
WCED/
DoE
(MV_K12;
MV_F15)
Software usage, eteacher, learning areas e.g. maths and languages. It is adequate (ICT
Coordinator:
MV_F18)
Basic computer literacy. (educator:
MV_K12)
Maths, English and Science teachers
(MV_F62)

Table 3: Summary of Findings, Causes and Explanations
Name of schools
Kulani
Secondary
Status of:
ICT Deployment (1)

High learner per computer ratio

No Internet connectivity
ICT integration (2)

Few computer facilitated subjects
Macassar
Secondary

High learner per computer ratio

Limited Internet access for learners

Few computer facilitated subjects
Sithembele
Matiso
Secondary

Very high learner per computer ratio

No Internet connectivity

Few computer facilitated subjects
Marvin
Park
Primary

Very high learner per computer ratio

Limited Internet access for teacher and learners

Few computer facilitated subjects
ICT Teacher Skills (3)

Basic ICT literacy training

Few teachers teaching with computers

Basic ICT literacy training

Few teachers teaching with computers

Basic ICT literacy training

Few teachers teaching with computers

Basic ICT literacy training
(educators)

Specialized ICT training
(ICT coordinator)

Few teachers teaching with computers
Causes

Lack of funds (1)

Unknown (1)

Unknown (2)

Only basic training was provided (3)








Lack of funds (1)
Lack of skilled teachers (2)
Only basic training is provided (3)
Lack of funds (1)
Server not working (1)
Not enough computers (2)

Only maths and science subjects have a computer facilitated aspect
(2,3)
Educators were trained for their own benefits (3)
Lack of funds (1, 2)

Focus was on math science and
English subject (2)

Educators were not adequately trained (3)
Explanation

Computers were donated by Khanya Project (1)

The school relied on projects such as Khanya to provide computers (1,2)

Unknown (1)

Unknown (2)

Educational authorities believed the learning programs were easy and straight forward to use and therefore did not require further training to master them (3)

The school had some financial means to acquire and maintain ICT resources however it was limited (1,2)

The school suffers from a lack of staff especially once who are specialized in teaching using ICT (2)

One of the tasks of the educational authorities was to train teachers on the basic use of computers therefore teachers were not trained to teach using subject-specific software (3)

The school is waiting for the technicians from the Khanya
Project to fix the Internet (1)

The school relied on the Khanya Project to donate computers (1, 2)

There was not enough financial resources to purchase computers (1, 2)

According to the Khanya Project first preference goes to maths and science subjects (2, 3)

Educators were not trained to teach but they were trained for their own benefits (3)

Computers were donated by the Khanya Project (1)

The school is disadvantaged therefore it lacks funds (1)
 The school couldn’t afford additional computers or learning programs (2)

Main focus of the DoE was to integrate computers into subjects that lack skilled teachers such as Maths, English and Science (2, 3)

Facilitators from the department were not well equipped and therefore unsure of how to conduct the training courses (3)
9

Discussion of Findings
The study sought to investigate the discrepancies in the deployment of ICT into schools and its integration into school curricula. The research question raised was: “How can the discrepancies of the status of ICT deployment and its integration into the curriculum among disadvantaged schools in the Western Cape, South Africa be addressed?” The main research question was divided into sub-questions: How is ICT being deployed into disadvantaged schools? How is ICT being integrated into school curricula?, Why do teachers not integrate ICT into the curriculum?
8 participants from 4 schools within disadvantaged communities in the Western Cape were interviewed. The schools were: Macassar Secondary, Marvin Park Primary, Sithembele
Matiso Secondary and Kulani Secondary.
Deployment of Computers into Schools
The goal of the main actor (the national DoE) according to Figure 1, is to ensure that all schools are equipped with physical infrastructure in the form of computers, internet and computer-based educational programmes. However, findings in (Table 2) reveal a disappointing learner-to-computer ratio. That is, out of the 4 schools, Macassar Secondary has the lowest ratio of 10 learners per computer (MC_F29), followed by Kulani Secondary with a ratio of 24 learners per computer (KH_B35). Although Macassar had the lowest learner computer ratio in comparison to the other 2 schools in the sample, the ratio is still not practically ideal. Whilst a ratio of 1 learner per computer is preferable, such an expectation would understandably be utopian in a context of a developing country. On this basis, a compromised standard of 5 learners to 1 computer has been adopted in developed countries
(USA DoE, 2000). Despite the policy support however, the situation is disappointingly submarginal in sampled schools. Whilst the learner per computer ratio is 10 learners per computer at Macassar (MC_F29), and 24 learners per computer at Kulani secondary schools
(KH_B35), the situation is worse at Marvin Park Primary and Sithembele Matiso Secondary.
Marvin Park has a ratio of 33 learners to 1 computer (MV_F37), and 76 learners per computer at Sithembele Matiso (SM_D25). The idea of these 33 learners sharing one computer can lead to non-completion of individual learning tasks, and ultimately, stagnation in academic progress. On the other hand, although the ratio of 33 and 76 may be numerically lower than the ratio of 312 learners per computer in many underdeveloped countries, a better situation would have been expected in 2011, given that the policy had been in place since
2003. Given the pressure of assignment deadlines for learners, the practicality of 33 learners sharing 1 computer is questionable. At 76 learners per computer, it is even harder to imagine the integration and application of ICT into curricula that require learners to complete tasks individually. Although both Macassar Secondary and Marvin Park Primary had Internet
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connectivity, access to the Internet was limited (MC_F32). For example, only Macassar had full Internet connection. Here, both teachers and learners were using the Internet, though however learners were only allowed to do so after school hours (MC_F33). Even then, learners need to apply for permission before they could be granted access ( ibid ). During the period of access, a learner is granted only a few minutes, which is hardly adequate to complete an assignment task (MC_F33). Though the school seemed to have full Internet access, time restrictions meant that access was not full and thus limited for learners. As if the limitation of Internet was not inhibiting enough to educational processes, two additional schools; Sithembele Matiso Secondary (SM_D27) and Kulani Secondary (KH_B38) did not had no form of Internet connectivity, what-so-ever. As a result, some of the teachers had to travel to nearest schools to access the Internet (SM_D27). If the main goal of ICT integration is to improve teaching, learning, and ultimately, learning outcomes, limited access reduces such benefits to learners. In this unfortunate situation, both teachers and learners are deprived of the benefits are associated with the use of the Internet (i.e. fast information distribution, anytime anywhere access, communication medium, administrative assistance, accommodation of various levels of learning, increased learners understanding, distribution of learning materials and etc.).
In terms of the analytical framework, deployment and integration of ICT into schools’ curricula are the goals that depend on key mediators to succeed: enabling policy, finance, availability of basic infrastructure such as electricity and classrooms, competent coordinators, skilled educators and effective communication between all stakeholders. Discrepancies in mediating factors, including unclear communication channels between all stakeholders, are correlated to the negative status quo.
Integration of Computers into School Curricula
Findings indicate that very few courses/subjects were facilitated with computers in sampled schools. Only 3 out of 9 subjects in Marvin Park (MV_F59; MV_F62) and 3 out of 12 subjects in Macassar Secondary (MC_F20; MC_F21) had a computer-facilitated aspect. Sithembele
Matiso only had 2 out of the 12 subjects (SM_D35; SM_D40) whilst Kulani Secondary had only 1 out of 13 subjects (KH_B5; KH_B51) that had a computer-facilitated aspect. Mediating factors towards this end according to Figure 1 would be the presence of infrastructure, computer-based educational programmes, clear curricula and skilled teachers, supported by activities where trainers provide adequate training to the teachers, suppliers provide resources and coordinators do their part. Findings reveal a clear discrepancy in these respects, which suggest loopholes in the e-Education policy implementation process.
ICT Skills amongst Educators
As has been mentioned, very few subjects in these four schools were taught using subject specific learning programs (MC_F22; MC_F24; MC_F44). In Macassar Secondary, 3
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subjects out of 12, maths, computer application and life orientation (MC_F20; MC_F21). In
Marvin Park, 3 subject out of 9 English, maths and science (MV_F59; MV_F62). In
Sithembele Matiso, 2 subjects out of 12, maths and science (SM_D35; SM_D40), and in
Kulani Secondary, one out of 13 subjects maths (KH_B5; KH_B51). In addition to a lack of educational software for the rest of the subjects, a lack of relevant skill and access to training opportunities among the majority of teachers is also a strong limiting factor. With regards to training, most educators in sampled schools had only received basic computer literacy training (KH_B13; MC_F11; SM_D14; MV_F18), which is did not help improve competency in using educational software.
Findings reveal a bleak picture in terms of the student to computer ratio, and the progress in terms of ICT integration into curricula in schools. Limited ICT literacy among educators in sampled schools emphasizes this point. These three aspects are the key objectives of the policy. Given the period in which the policy has been in existence (since 2003), the status suggests clear failure in the policy implementation process. The framework (Figure 1) suggests that successful deployment and integration of ICT into schools, and the high computer literacy among teachers would depend on a number of mediating factors: enabling policy environment, appointment of competent coordinators, clarity of the ICT component in teacher training institutions, clear channels of communication between all stakeholders in the activity system, basic infrastructure at school and a continued provision of relevant education software in schools. Whilst the policy, the will and some promising initiatives are is in place, there seem to be contradictions in terms of implementation priorities among national, provincial and school-level stakeholders. For example, most coordinators were even unaware of what they should be doing when there are no facilities, or when facilities are inadequate or malfunctioning. The case of schools with facilities (computer and internet) but restricting learners from using them clarifies this point.
6.1. Conclusion and Recommendations
Considering the findings, we conclude that the goal of the e-Education policy to ensure; universal access to ICT, full integration of ICT into school curricula, that teachers are competent and able to teach using ICT, has hardly been achieved. If the inhibiting factors are not addressed, learners in affected schools will continue to lack ICT access and the associated opportunities towards quality education. This can hinder their progress in life and their future contributions to the country’s economy. With a policy having been in place for over a decade, it would be expected that supporting factors such as financial resources would be available for this purpose. However, financial issues continue to be cited as the main hindrances in schools. Within school budgets, ICT related facilities also appear to have a very low priority. Given clear policy pronouncements however, this can be attributed to poor coordination of human and financial resources than to a lack of political will. At the time
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when the quality of school education at dire need for improvement, it is clear (unfortunately so) that the current model of deploying ICT resources into schools is not working potently. A recommendation therefore, is that authorities should revise the efforts made to deploy ICT into schools and possibly appoint personnel to audit the process, including the funding model. However, the problem in sampled schools is larger than just financial limitations.
There is also a clear lack of common understanding between school communities and policy makers, with teachers and ICT coordinators not knowing the ICT deployment details for their
schools. As a recommendation, The Work Activity Framework in Figure 1 presents this
aspect as a key mediating factors whose presence of absence would determine whether the sought outcomes are negative (failure) or positive (success). On this point, we recommend recommend a revised communication process between the national, provincial and local
(school) coordinators on the full details of ICT deployment in schools. In other words, school principals and coordinators must be aware, and be clear about the number of computers, maintenance needs and procedures as well as specific software and connectivity details required in their schools. These should be communicated to relevant government departments, with these departments also playing an active role in monitoring and auditing progress.
Other mediating factors are supporting technical and social environments (Figure 1). A supporting social environment is a secure environment where facilities are not vandalized, the wiliness of teachers and learners to make use of ICT in education. The actual delivery of tools: computers, Internet, educational software, printers, scanners and copiers etc.) and its integration into educational programmes are also emphasized in the framework.
The causal factors for the poor status of ICT integration according to the educators were; a lack of educational software and relevant ICT (KH_B49; MC_F29; SM_D53; MV_F21).
Furthermore the organisations involved in deploying ICT into schools mainly focused on specific subjects and not into the full curricula (The Khanya Project, 2010). In this regard there seems to be a misunderstanding of priority aspects in of e-Schools phenomenon.
Teachers tend to limit ICT relevance, only to maths and science subjects (KH_B5; SM_D9;
MV_62), with a complete neglect of other subjects. With the e-Education policy advocating for a full integration of ICT into school curricula it would be expected that funds have being allocated to achieve this goal. However, funds allocated for the acquisition of ICT resources
(i.e. education software) are cited as inadequate, lacking, or completely unheard-of, which suggest unclear guidelines in the activity system. Nonetheless the problem seems to be bigger than poor coordination of financial resources. There also appears to be a lack of clear guidelines for implementation. We recommend for stakeholders in the e-Schools activity system (authorities and e-Schools coordinators) to liaise with schools to ignite the implementation process. Educational authorities should also invest in teacher training
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programs and ensure that competent facilitators are appointed to train educators. Also the training programs provided should be constantly revised. Further, whilst tools are important, the work activity framework presents a need for technically skilled teachers as a basis for a successful integration of computer technology into curricula. In other words it is only when teachers are skilled that they will be able to use educational technology to facilitate teaching, therefore emphasis should be placed on helping teachers to master subject specific learning programs, before expecting them to use them in their classes.
Due to time and budget constraints the researcher could not study many schools. Therefore only 4 under-resourced schools in Cape Town, Western Cape were the focus of research.
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