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Syntactic Analysis is the study of how sentences are formed.
Syntactic Analysis is the study of how a specific language combines words to form sentences.
Morphology is the study of how words are formed.
The study of Syntax involves two related tasks:
1- Breaking down the sentence into its components parts (i.g. constituents)
2- Assigning some grammatical label to each constituent .
Sentence  Clause  Phrase  Word  Morpheme
Node is the point in a tree diagram, which carries a category label (e.g. S, NP, VP, N …etc)
Branch: e.g. S2, S3, and Coord are branches of S1
Terminal Node is one at the bottom of the tree (e.g. Det, N,V,PRN )
Terminal nodes are immediately above words (i.e. lexical items)
Non terminal Node is one which is not at the bottom of the tree
Mother : (e.g. S1 is the mother of S2 and S3)
Daughter : (e.g. S2, and S3, are daughters of S1)
Sister (e.g. S2, and S3 are sisters)
Constituency is a syntactic unit, which combines with other components to form a larger
structure such as a phrase , a clause or a sentence .
Types of constituents : Words , phrases , clauses .
How to test constituents :
1- Clefting : is a process by which a constituent can be given more emphasis by placing it at the
beginning of the sentence and surrounding it by the words (it is , was … that )
2- Pseudo-clefting is a process that is similar to clefting but it involves the use the word what to
form a sentence .
3- Passivisation is a process by which a constituent undergoes movement from the object
position to the subject position .
4- Substitution : Under coordination a constituent can be substituted by a single word.
5- Fronting: a constituent may be fronted as a unit .
Linguistic competence is the linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language .
Word classes in English are : Nouns ,Verbs ,Adjectives , Adverbs , Prepositions, Pronouns ,
Determiners , Conjuctions.
The noun is the head of the noun phrase .
The head is the central element (non-omissible) of the phrase .
NP .. determiners  pre-modifiers  Noun
A Determiner can be :
A definite article such as the .
An indefinite article such as a and an.
A possessor pronoun such as his , her , their , our , my , your and its.
A demonstrative pronoun such as this, that , these and those.
A numeral such as one, Two, three
An item like some , any , each , every , all , both , half , many , much , which , and whose.
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Determiners may be :
Predeterminers (e.g. half, all, both)
Central determiners (the , a , my , that , this)
Postdeterminers ( two , three )
Determiners .. predeterminers  central determiners  postdeterminers
Adjectives are modifiers because they modify the head noun .
Elements that follow the nouns are called post-modifiers .
Subject ( I, you, he , she , it , we , you , they )
Object ( me , you , him , her , it , us , you , them )
Possessive Determiner ( my , your , his , her , its , our , your , their )
Possessive Pronoun ( mine , yours , his , hers , its , ours , yours , theirs )
Reflexive ( myself , yourself , himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves , themselves )
Predicate : might be a single word or a group of words
Agreement : In many languages , verbs agree with their subjects .
Modal auxiliaries or modals : e.g. will , would , can could , may might , shall , must )
Primary auxiliaries : are used to indicate the aspect and the voice of the sentence , they can also
be used as main verbs .
Aspect : A term typically used to denote the duration of the activity described by a verb .
Voice : A term refers to whether a sentence or a clause is ACTIVE or PASSIVE .
Active voice : the thieves stole the jewels Passive voice : the jewels were stolen by the thieves
Intransitive verb : the boy laughed  takes no complement
Copula verb : the story was interesting  requires Adjp as its complement
Monotransitive verb : Ahmad finished the course  takes NP as its complement
Ditransitive verb : He told the girl an interesting story  requires two complements
Complex transitive verb : He called him stupid  requires two complements
Adjuncts : Adjuncts are those elements whose presence is syntactically optional ( The boy put
the cup on the table last night )
Some elements can be both adverbs and adjectives such as early , fast , hard , and late
An adjective may be preceded by an adverb phrase which specifies it .
An adjective may also be followed by a PP or an S which serves as a complement
Adjective phrases may occur as a Premodifier inside a NP or as predictative complement inside
VP
An adverb may be preceded by another adverb which specifies it .
An averb phrases may occur inside a VP or an Adjp
Prepositions can be preceded by some element which are called specifiers like (right on the wall,
straight through the wall .
Conjunctions : a- Coordinators like and , or , but , for. B- subordinators
A subordinator is referred to as complementizer because it appear in COMP position .
Coordinators appear between two clauses whereas subordinators are parts of the subordinate
clauses .
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Declarative sentences : used to give information.
Interrogative sentences : to ask for information .
Declarative sentences :
1- Simple sentences : are those that normally contain on statement .(Ahmad works in the
airport)
2- Compound sentences : are those which contain two or more clauses of equal status joined by
a coordinator ( The snake killed the rat and it swallowed it )
3- Complex sentences : are those which contain two or more clauses that are not equally
balanced (The policeman ask me what I had seen there ) ( The snake killed the rat before it
swallowed it )
A clause is a group of words that contain a verb .
A clause may be a part of a sentence or it may be a complete sentence in itself .
A main clauses is the one that makes sense on its own .
A subordinate clause depends on the main clause for its meaning . its cannot stand alone.
Elements such as that , whether , if and for , etc are called complementizers
Finite verb phrases are those which are marked for tense (past or present) (John believe the
prisoner to be innocent)
Finite clause is a clause that contains an auxiliary or nonauxiliary verb and have a nominative
subject like I, we , he , she , they
Nonfinite forms include : a Infinitive forms (John believe the prisoner to be innocent)
Grammatical categories can be : Noun , verbs , adjectives , adverbs , prepositions ,
complementizers
Grammatical functions : Subjects , specifiers , predicate , direct object , indirect object , head ,
adjunct, complements .
Subject : is the function related to the constituent introducing the sentence .(Mary put the
money in a box)
Predicate : is the part of a sentence or clause that contains a verb and states something about
the subject.
Adjunct is a word or phrase that constitutes an optional element or is considered of secondary
importance in a sentence
Sentence adjuncts :
1-Adverbs that specify speaker’s attitude toward the rest of the sentence (unfortunately,
certainly, in my view , in fact)
2- Items which serve to connect sentences in a text (yet, moreover, however, nevertheless)
Grammatical functions in VP :
1. Predicative complement : ascribes some property to the subject . \ the verb that selects such
a complement belong to the class of copulas (be, look, seem etc)
predicative complement is obligatory after the verb
2. Direct object : is the grammatical function related to the complement of monotransitive,
ditransitive , and transitive verbs .
Direct object is obligatorily selected by the verb.
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3. Indirect object : is a the grammatical function related to the complement of ditransitive verbs.
Indirect objects are obligatorily selected by the verb .
4. Adverbial complement with intransitive: its related to the complement of intransitive verbs .
It gives information concerning the place , manner, time, duration .
It is obligatorily selected by the verb .
5. Adverbial complement with transitive : it is related to the complement of transitive verbs
Gives information concerning location and manner .
It is obligatorily selected by the verb
6. Complex function : it is related to the complement of complex transitive verbs .
- The constituents following the direct object has both predicative complement function and
adverbial complement function .
Complements are necessary for the grammaticality of the sentence but not adjuncts .
Verb phrases may have adverbial adjunct or predicative adjunct .
General representation for all types of phrases : Specifier – head – complement –
Modifier\Adjunct .
The basic sentence patterns are called underlying structure or deep structure .
Questions formation involves three transformational operations :
1 Subject – Auxiliary inversion : a- basic sentence patterns (deep structure) b- yes\no question
(surface structure).
2 Do-insertion “in case where the sentence has no auxiliary” a- basic sentence patterns (deep
structure) b- yes\no question (surface structure)
3 Wh-movement : a- basic sentence patterns (deep structure) b- Wh-question (surface
structure)
After movement , a gap is left behind in the original position .
The extracted wh-expression is called a filler because it fills the gap.
Sometimes an index is used to indicate movement .
The extracted wh-expression is also called the binder or the wh-operator because it binds the
element in the gap position .
Prepositional phrases :
In wh-movement , if a preposition is moved with the wh-word , then this preposition is said to
be pied-piped .
Sometimes, pied-piping can be obligatory in relative clauses . and optional with pps.
but if a preposition moved to the initial position and the preposition is left behind is said to be
stranded
One of the most important features of human languages is that they allow unlimited number of
embedded sentences inside each other .
Wh-expression does not involve a direct movement from its original position to the initial
position . in fact, it involves multiple movements with intermediate landing sites .
Relative clauses : ( the man whom john met) (the book which john wrote) this wh-word is called
a relative pronoun .
 Types of relative clauses :
 1- Restrictive relative clauses : A restrictive relative clause is the one which provides information
that is essential for the identification of the referent .
 2- Nonrestrictive relative clauses : relative clause is the one which provides additional
information about the referent .
 A- Restrictive relatives : The man whom you met yesterday is a professor
 B- Non-restrictive relatives : Ahmad who studies physics lives in Jeddah
 Non-restrictive relative clauses can be deleted without affecting the meaning of the sentence .
 3- Free relative clauses : clause are also called headless relative clauses because they do not
have a head noun to modify .
 A- Ordinary relative clauses : (the book which you like)
 B- Free relative clauses : (what \ whatever you like)
 Adverbial relative clause are those which are introduced by wh-expressions like (where, when ,
why)
 4- Reduced relative clause (the last man to talk in such situation is your father).
 Appositive clauses : look like that- relative clauses but they are not relative .
 A- Appositive clauses : (the news that john left his wife came as a shock to us all) (the rumour
that Mary is pregnant annoyed her very much)
 Ordinary relative clauses : (the news that john told his wife gave her a shock) (the rumour that
Mary spread in the class was terrible )
 Range of relativization :
 1- Subject relativization : where the modified noun is interpreted as the subject of the verb
inside the relative clause.
 2- Direct object relativization : where the modified noun is interpreted as the direct object of
the verb inside the relative clause
 3- Indirect object relativization : where the modified noun is interpreted as the indirect object of
the verb inside the relative clause .
 4- Object of a preposition : where the modified noun is interpreted as the object of the
preposition inside the relative clause .
 5- Possessor relativization where the modified noun is interpreted as the possessor .
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