Liquidity Ratios: Short-Term Solvency
Current Ratio
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2002
2001
Current assets
Current liabilities
_______________________________________________
The current ratio is a commonly used measure of short-run solvency – the ability of a
firm to meet its short-term debt requirements as they come due. The available cash
resources to satisfy these obligations must come primarily from cash or the conversion to
cash of other current assets such as accounts receivable and inventories. Accounts
receivable and inventory may not be truly liquid. A firm could have a relatively high
current ratio but not be able to meet demands for cash because the accounts receivable
are of inferior quality or the inventory is salable only at discounted prices.
Quick Ratio
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2002
2001
Current assets – inventory
Current liabilities
_____________________________________________________
The quick ratio is a more rigorous test of short-run solvency that the current ratio
because the numerator eliminates inventory, considered the least liquid current asset and
the most likely source of losses.
Cash Flow Liquidity Ratio
______________________________________________________________
2002
2001
Cash + Mkt. Securities + CFOa
Current liabilities
______________________________________________________________
aCash
flow from operating activities
Another approach to measuring short-term solvency is the cash-flow liquidity ratio,
which considers cash flow from operating activities (from the statement of cash flows).
The cash flow liquidity ratio uses in the numerator (as an approximation of cash
resources) cash and marketable securities, which are truly liquid current assets; and cash
flow from operating activities, which represents the amount of cash generated from the
firm’s operations, such as the ability to sell inventory and collect the cash. It is helpful to
compare this ratio to the current and quick ratios. Contradictory pictures between this
ratio and other liquidity ratios should be investigated thoroughly because, ultimately,
companies need cash to pay high bills. High current and quick ratios combined with low
or negative cash flow liquidity ratios could signal problems.
Cash Flow From Operation
One of the most important numbers in all of the financial statements is Cash Flow From
Operations. It is important to evaluate a firm’s success over time by identifying the
underlying causes for the trends and the fluctuations of a firm’s cash from operations.
The relative comparisons of cash provided from operations and the net income over time
will frequently give an indication if the company is managing earnings. One of the best
indications of earnings management is when the growth of net income is up and smooth
and the trend of cash from operations is not. Over time these numbers should track in the
same manner. The cash flow from operations are taken directly from the cash flow
statement.
Accounts Receivable Turnover
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2002
2001
Net sales
Accounts receivable
____________________________________________________
Inventory Turnover
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Cost of goods sold
Inventory
____________________________________________________
Payables Turnover
______________________________________________________
2002
2001
Cost of goods sold
Accounts payable
______________________________________________________
The accounts receivable, inventory, and payables turnover ratios measure how many
times, on average, accounts receivable are collected in cash, inventory is sold, and
payables are paid during the year. These three measures are mathematical complements
to the ratios that make up the net trade cycle, and therefore, measure exactly what the
average collection period, days inventory held, and days payable outstanding measure for
a firm; they provide an alterative way to look at the same information.
Average Collection Period
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2002
2001
Accounts receivable
Average daily sales
____________________________________________________
The average collection period for accounts receivable is the average number of days
required to convert receivables into cash. This ratio helps gauge the liquidity of accounts
receivable – the ability of the firm to collect from customers. It may also provide
information about a company’s credit policies. For example, if the average collection
period is increasing over time of is higher than the industry average, the firm’s credit
policies could be too lenient and accounts receivable not sufficiently liquid. The
loosening of credit could be necessary at times to boost sales, but at an increasing cost to
the firm. On the other hand, if credit policies are too restrictive, as reflected in an
average collection period that is shortening and less than industry competitors, the firm
may be losing qualified customers.
Days Inventory Held
__________________________________________________________
2002
2001
Inventory
Average daily cost of sales
__________________________________________________________
The days inventory held is the average number of days it takes to sell inventory to
customers. This ratio measures the efficiency of the firm in managing its inventory.
Generally, a low number of days inventory held is a sign of efficient management; the
faster inventory sells, the fewer funds are tied up in inventory. However, too low a
number could indicate understocking and lost orders, a decrease in prices, a shortage of
materials, or more sales than planned. A high number of days inventory held could be
the result of carrying too much inventory or stocking inventory that is obsolete, slowmoving, or inferior, such as increased demand, expansion, or an expected strike.
Days Payable Outstanding
_________________________________________________________
2002
2001
Accounts payable
Average daily cost sales
_________________________________________________________
The days payable outstanding is the average number of days the firm takes to pay
accounts payable in cash. This ratio offers insight into a firm’s pattern of payments to
suppliers. An optimal strategy is to delay payment of payables as long as possible but
still make payment by the due date in order to avoid finance charges.
Net Trade Cycle
_________________________________________________________
2002
2001
Average collection period
+ days inventory held
- days payable outstanding
_________________________________________________________
The net trade cycle measures the normal cash conversion cycle of a firm – which
consists of buying or manufacturing inventory, with some purchases on credit (creation
of accounts payable); selling inventory, with some sales on credit (creation of accounts
receivable)’ and collecting cash from accounts receivable. Changes in the net trade cycle
help explain why cash flow generation has improved or deteriorated by analyzing the key
working capital accounts – accounts receivable, inventory, and accounts payable. The
shorter the net trade cycle, the more efficient the firm is in managing its cash.
Activity Ratios:
Asset Liquidity and Asset Management Efficiency
Fixed Asset Turnover
_______________________________________________________________
2002
2001
Net sales
Net property, plant, and equipment
_______________________________________________________________
Total Asset Turnover
_____________________________________________
2002
2001
Net sales
Total assets
_____________________________________________
The fixed asset turnover and total asset turnover ratios are two approaches to
assessing management’s effectiveness in generating sales from investments in assets.
The fixed asset turnover considers only the firm’s investment in property, plant, and
equipment, and is extremely important for a capital-intensive firm, such as a
manufacturer with heavy investments in long-lived assets. Generally, the higher these
ratios, the smaller the investment required to generate sales and thus the more profitable
the firm. When the asset turnover ratios are low relative to the industry or the firm’s
historical record, either the investment in assets is too heavy and/or sales are sluggish.
There may, however, be plausible explanations; for example, the firm may have
undertaken and extensive plant modernization or placed assets in service at year-end,
which will generate positive results in the long-term.
Leverage ratios: Debt Financing and Coverage
Amount of Debt
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
This number is taken directly for the balance sheet.
Debt Ratio (Debt to Asset Ratio)
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Total liabilities
Total assets
____________________________________________________
Long-term Debt to Total Capitalization
______________________________________________________________
2002
2001
Long-term debt
Long-term debt + stockholder's equity
______________________________________________________________
Debt to Equity
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Total liabilities
Stockholder's equity
____________________________________________________
Each of the three debt ratios measures the extent of the firm's financing with debt.
The amount and proportion of debt in a company's capital structure is important to the
financial analyst because of thee tradeoff between risk and return. Use of debt involves
risk because debt carries a fixed commitment in the form of interest charges and principal
repayment. Failure to satisfy the fixed charges associated with debt ultimately results in
bankruptcy. A lesser risk is that a firm with too much debt has difficulty obtaining
additional debt financing when needed or finds that credit is available only at extremely
high rates of interest. Although debt implies risk, it also introduces the potential for
increased benefits to the firm's owners.
The debt ratio considers the proportion of all assets that are financed with debt. The
ratio of long-term debt to total capitalization reveals the extent to which long-term debt is
used for the firm's permanent financing (both long-term debt and equity). The debt to
equity ratio measures the overall riskiness of the firm's capital structure in terms of the
relationship between the funds supplied by creditors (debt) and investors (equity). The
higher the proportion of debt, the greater the degree of risk because creditors must be
satisfied before owners in the event of bankruptcy. The equity base provides, in effect, a
cushion of protection for the suppliers of debt.
Times Interest Earned
_____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Operating profit
Interest expense
_____________________________________________________
Cash Interest Coverage
_________________________________________________________________
2002
2001
CFO + interest paid + taxes paida
Interest paid
_________________________________________________________________
aThe
amounts for interest paid and taxes paid are found in the supplemental disclosures of the
statement of cash flows.
In order for a firm to benefit from debt financing, the fixed interest payments that
accompany debt must be more than satisfied from operating earnings. Generally the
higher the times interest earned ratio, the better the firm's situation; however, if a
company is generating high profits but no cash flow from operations, this ratio is
misleading. It takes cash to make interest payments! The cash interest coverage ratio
measures how many times interest payments can be covered by cash flow from
operations before interest and taxes.
Fixed Charge Coverage
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2002
2001
Operating profit + rent expense
Interest expense + rent expense
_________________________________________________________________
The fixed charge coverage ratio is a broader measure of coverage capability than the
times interest earned ratio because it includes the fixed payments associated with
operating leases. Lease payments, more commonly referred to as rest expense in the
notes, are added back in the numerator because they were deducted as an operating
expense to calculate operating profit. Lease payments are similar in nature to interest
expense in that they both represent obligations that must be met on an annual basis. The
fixed charge coverage ratio is important for firms that operate extensively with operating
leases.
Cash Flow Adequacy
_________________________________________________________________
2002
2001
CFO
Capital expenditures + debt
Repayments + dividends paid
_________________________________________________________________
The cash flow adequacy ratio measures how well a company can cover annual
payments of items such as debt, capital expenditures, and dividends from operating cash
flow. Cash flow adequacy is generally defined differently by analysts and credit rating
agencies; therefore, it is important to understand what is actually being measured. For
example, this ratio could be adjusted to include only debt, both debt and lease payments,
or any other combination of items the analyst deemed necessary to lease payments, or
any other combination of items the analyst deemed necessary to evaluate the adequacy of
cash to meet the firm's needs. It is desirable for companies to generate enough cash flow
from operations to cover repayments of debt, some new capital expenditures, and any
cash dividends paid.
Profitability Ratios: Overall Efficiency and Performance
Amount of Gross Profit
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2002
2001
Gross Profit Margin
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Gross profit
Net sales
____________________________________________________
Amount of Operating Profit Margin
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Operating Profit Margin
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Operating profit
Net sales
____________________________________________________
Net Profit Margin
____________________________________________________
2002
2001
Net profit
Net sales
____________________________________________________
Gross profit margin, operating profit margin, and net profit margin represent the
firm's ability to translate sales dollars into profits at different stages of measurement. The
gross profit margin, which shows the relationship between sales and the cost of products
sold, measures the ability of a company both to control costs of inventories or
manufacturing of products and to pass along price increases through sales to customers.
The operating profit margin, a measure of overall operating efficiency, incorporates all of
the expenses associated with ordinary business activities. The net profit margin measures
profitability after consideration of all revenue and expense, including interest, taxes, and
nonoperating items.
Cash Flow Margin
______________________________________________
2002
2001
CFO
Net sales
______________________________________________
Another important perspective on operating performance is the relationship between
cash generated from operations and sales. As pointed out in Chapter 4, it is cash, not
accrual-measured earnings, that a firm needs to service debt, pay dividends, and invest in
new capital assets. The cash flow margin measures the ability of the firm to translate
sales into cash.
Return of Assets (ROA) or Return on Investment (ROI)
__________________________________________________
2002
2001
Net profit
Total assets
__________________________________________________
Return on Equity (ROE)
______________________________________________________
2002
2001
Net profit
Stockholder’s equity
______________________________________________________
Return on assets and return on equity are two ratios that measure the overall
efficiency of the firm in managing its total investment in assets indicates the amount of
profit earned relative to the level investment in total assets indicates the amount of profit
earned relative to the level to common shareholders; this ratio is also calculated as return
on common equity if a firm has preferred stock outstanding.
Cash Return on Assets
_________________________________________________
2002
2001
CFO
Total assets
_________________________________________________
The cash return on assets offers a useful comparison to return on assets. Again, the
relationship between cash generated from operations and an accrual-based number allows
the analyst to measure the firm’s cash-generating ability of assets. Cash is required for
future investments.
Marker Ratios
Although a sophisticated investment analysis is beyond the scope of our analysis, several
of the following common market ratios are of interest to investors. In many respects these
ratios are a scorecard on what the investing public thinks of the future of the company.
Basic Earnings Per Common Share- Regular
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2002
2001
Net Income Available To Common Stockholders
Average Number of Common Shares and Common Stock Equivalents
Earnings Per Common Share- Diluted
_________________________________________________
2002
2001
Net Income Available To Common Stockholders + Interest On Dilutive Securities
Average Number of Common Shares and Common Stock Equivalents-assuming a
all dilutive securities are converted to common stock
Earnings Per Share- Regular
_________________________________________________
2002
2001
Net Income
Number of Common Shares and Common Stock Equivalents
Dividend Payout Ratio
_________________________________________________
2002
2001
Cash Dividends
Net Income
Price to Earnings Ratio
_________________________________________________
2002
2001
Market Price of Stock
Net Income
Earnings Per Share is often used in evaluating a firm’s stock price and in
assessing the firm’s future earnings and ability to pay dividends. The earnings per share
ratio is so important that it is required to be put on the face of the income statement. EPS
is a compact indicator of a company’s performance. Entities with simple capital
structures will have only Basic Earnings Per Share. If a company has outstanding stock
options, warrants, convertible securities, or contingent stock agreements are required to
show both numbers on the face of the statement. The Dividend Payout Ratio gives the
investor an indication of how much of a cash dividend to expect. The Price Earnings
Ratio indicates how much investors are willing to pay for each dollar of earnings. It is not
a financial statement ratio, it is a market ratio. This ratio is an indication of expected
growth. A relatively high Price Earnings Ratio indicates that investors are expecting high
growth.