SUBYEK HUKUM INTERNASIONAL
Cekli Setya Pratiwi, SH. (UB),LL.M.(Utrecht)
Email: c.s.pratiwi@gmail.com
Homepage: http://ceklipratiwi.staff.umm.ac.id
Tujuan Instruksional Khusus
Dalam Bab ini mahasiswa diharapkan mampu
memahami dan menjelaskan:
• Definisi dari subyek hukum internasional
• Karakteristik dari international personality
• Hubungan antara subyek hukum internasional dengan
international personality
• “Negara” sebagai subyek HI yang utama
Diskusi
• Apakah definisi dari subyek hukum
internasional?
• Bagaimanakah karakteristik dari international
personality?
• Apakah hubungan antara subyek hukum
internasional dengan international
personality?
• Apakah “negara” adalah satu-satunya subyek
Hukum Internasional?
Definisi Subyek Hukum Internasional
• Subject of International Law is an entity
capable of possesing international rights and
duties and having the capacity to maintain its
rights by bringing international claims. (ICJ,
1949).
What is the meaning of having capacity to maintain its rights?
1. Capacity to make claims in respect of
breaches of international law
2. Capacity to make treaties and aggreements
valid on international plane
3. The enjoyment of immunities and privileges
from national jurisdiction
• Pemegang hak dan kewajiban langsung
berdasarkan hukum internasional;
• Entitas yang memenuhi syarat diatas
selanjutnya disebut memiliki “international
legal personalities”;
• Entitas yang tidak memenuhi unsur diatas
disebut sebagai “obyek” dari hukum
internasional
Mochtar Kusumaadmaja
Subyek hukum internasional dibagi 2 :
1. Penuh: pemegang seluruh hak dan
kewajiban menurut hukum internasional,
yaitu NEGARA;
2. Terbatas: pemegang hak dan kewajiban
dalam hukum internasional secara terbatas;
Negara sebagai subyek hukum internasional penuh:
1. Aturan hukum internasional sebagian besar
mengatur hak dan kewajiban negara/hubungan
antar negara;
2. Hanya negara yang dapat berperkara di
hadapan Mahkamah Internasional (Pasal 34
Statuta MI);
3. Hanya negara yang dapat mengesahkan
berlakunya suatu aturan hukum;
4. Negara mempunyai force, power, authority;
J.G.Starke
Subyek hukum internasional dikelompokkan
menjadi 3:
1. Negara-negara;
2. Organisasi dan lembaga internasional;
3. Individu dan kesatuan lain selain negara;
Kriteria kesatuan lain selain negara :
1. Diakui oleh negara-negara dalam praktek,
mempunyai perwakilan di PBB, hanya untuk
hal-hal tertentu, tidak mempunyai hak suara;
2. Dapat dilihat dari Konvensi-konvensi atau
Perjanjian internasional secara umum;
Bour Mauna
Subyek HI
• Sebelum Perang Dunia II: Negara
• Setelah Perang Dunia II:
1. Negara;
2. Organisasi internasional;
3. Individu;
4. Vatikan;
5. Palang Merah Internasional (ICRC);
6. Belligerent;
1. National Law: legal personality, legal person,
subject of the law.
2. The concepts of international personality
Legal personality and subjects of the law
Legal personality is primarily an ‘Legal
acknowledgement that an entity is capable of
exercising certain rights and being subject to
certain duties under a particular system of
law.
Subjects of the law are the persons to whom the
law attributes rights and duties. Therefore, the
term ‘subject of the law’ is synonymous with
the term ‘legal person’.
Karakteristik Subyek Hukum Internasional
An entity has international personality if it has
rights and duties under international law. The
following are generally accepted as
characteristics of international personality:
(1) Rights and obligations under international law;
(2) Treaty-making capacity;
(3) Capacity to make international claims; and
(4) The enjoyment of privileges and immunities from
national jurisdictions.
These are also known as ‘indicia of
international personality’. In practice, it is only
States and certain international organizations
like the United Nations that have all of these
capacities to the fullest degree.
“Subjects of international law” are those who
possess “international personality”.
Apakah “Negara” sebagai satu-satunya subyek HI?
In the 19th century, States were the only subjects
of international law.
Oppenheim emphatically stated: “Since the law
of nations is based on the common consent of
States, and not of individual human beings,
States solely and exclusively are subjects of
international law”. HOWEVER:
In the present day,
it is not true.
While States remain the predominant actors in
international law, the position has changed.
After the Second World War, new actors have
emerged on the international plane, such as
public international organizations established by
States (IGOs), non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) created by individuals, multinational
corporations and even individual human beings.
They are now recognized as possessing some,
although limited, international personality.
NEGARA (a State)
Professor Oppenheim defines ‘State’ in these
terms: “A State is in existence when the
people is settled in a country under its own
sovereign government.
Syarat-syarat konstitutif Negara
menurut Oppenheim’s
Oppenheim’ sense:
(1) People: who live together as a community in spite of
the fact that they may belong to different races or
religions, or of different colours
(2) Country : there must be a country in which the
people have settled down.
(3) Government
(4) Sovereignty: ‘Sovereignty’ means the supreme
authority above which there is no other higher
authority. Sovereignty denotes ‘independence’ all
round within and without the boundary of a state.
Criteria of statehood under
international law
Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention on Rights
and Duties of States 1933 provides as follows:
The State as a person of international law should
posses the following qualifications:
1. A permanent population;
2. A defined territory (stable political community
and this must be control of a certain area);
3. Government; and
4. Capacity to enter into relations with other
States.
(1) Defined Territory
For a State to exist, there must be a defined
territory. The control of territory is the essence of
a State.
This is the basis of the central notion of
establishing the ‘territorial sovereignty’, exclusive
competence of the State to exercise sovereign
authority within that territory.
But absolute certainty about a State’s boundaries is
not required; many states have out-standing
frontier disputes.
(2) Permanent population
• There must be people linked to a specific
territory on a more or less permanent basis and
who can be regarded as its inhabitants.
Wandering tribes do not qualify to be a State.
• In the Western Sahara case (1975) ICJ Rep. 12,
the territory of the Western Sahara is populated
by nomadic tribes who go freely across the the
territory is such that they may be regarded as its
‘population’.
(3) Government
• To be a State there must be a government. The
government must be ‘effective’ within the
defined territory and exercise control over the
permanent population. The mere existence of
a government in itself does not suffice, if it
does not have ‘effective control’.
Aaland Island Case
• The main question in this case was the date on which
Finland became a state. Finland had been a part of the
Russian Empire until the Russian Revolution. The
Finnish Parliament declared Finland’s independence on
December 4, 1917. But there was opposition within
Finland by those who rejected the idea of
independence. As a result, violence broke out and for a
time the government of the new state was able to
maintain order only with the help of the Soviet
troops.
• Held: Only in 1918, Finland became a state.
(4) Capacity to enter into relations with other
States
• When the Montevideo Convention refers to
‘capacity to enter into relations with other
States’, it is referring to “independence” in law
from the authority of other States.
• In Austro-German Customs Union case, (1931)
PCIJ Reports, Series A/B, No. 41, Austria and
Germany, by a Protocol of 1931, reached an
agreement on a customs union establishing
free trade between the two States.
Judgment of Judge Anzilotti:
“Independence may also be described as sovereignty by
which is meant that the state has over it no other
authority than that of international law.
• It also follows that the restrictions upon a State’s
liberty, whether arising out of ordinary international
law or contractual engagements, do not as such in the
least affect its independence. As long as these
restrictions do not place the State under the legal
authority of another State, the former remains an
independent State however extensive and burdensome
those obligations may be.
Federal States
• A federal State is a union of several sovereign
States. The union is, first, based on an
international treaty of the member states, and
secondly on a subsequently accepted
constitution of the federal State.
• In the view of Professor Wade, federation presupposes a desire for some form of union
among independent States, which, though they
desire union for some purposes, nevertheless
wish to preserve their identity and some
measure of independence.
A distinctive feature of a federal State is
that in foreign policy it acts as a single
subject of international law. Thus a federal
State is said to be a real State and an
international person.
• On the other hand, the international
position of the member states is not so
clear.
 Units (member states) within a federal State may
or may not be allowed by the federal constitution
some freedom to conduct their own foreign
affairs.
• If, and to the extent that, they are allowed to do
so, such units are regarded by international law
as having international personality.
• E.g., the Republics of the former USSR were all
entitled in law to conduct their own foreign affairs
and two of them – Byelorussia and the Ukraine to a small extent did so.
The Malaysian Practice
• If we read together Articles 74, 76 and the
Federal List of the Federal Constitution of
Malaysia, it is crystal clear that the federal
Parliament and the Federal Executive (the
Cabinet) have the exclusive power relating to
“external affairs”, foreign affairs or international
relations. No such power can be exercised by
the component states.
• The conclusion then is that in Malaysia
international personality is vested in the Federal
State and the component states possess no
international personality whatsoever.
INDIVIDU
1. Dipelopori oleh Kelsen dan Westlake.
Alasan: negara hanya merupakan suatu
konsep hukum semata, tanpa
manusia/individu, konsep hukum negara
tidak ada artinya.
2. Hak dan kewajiban negara adalah pada
individu.
Bukti pengakuan individu sebagai
subyek HI
Deklarasi Hak Asasi Manusia 1948;
Konvensi Jenewa 1949 tentang Perlindungan
Korban Perang;
Konvensi Jenewa 1951 tentang Status
Pengungsi;
Dibidang Penerbangan, seperti : Konvensi Tokyo
1963, Konvensi Montreal 1971 dan Konvensi
Den Haag 1970 (Kejahatan Pembajakan
Pesawat Udara);
Kejahatan perang oleh penjahat
perang (individu)
• Memperlakukan secara melawan hukum
tawanan yang luka/sakit;
Memperlakukan secara melawan hukum
penduduk sipil di daerah yang dikuasai
/konflik;
Menyerang fasilitas-fasilitas sipil/ kota yang
tidak dilengkapi dengan pertahanan yang
memadai;
Melakukan pembunuhan masal (genocida);
• International Criminal Tribunal for the former
Yugoslavia (ICTY):
http://www.un.org/icty/cases-e/indexe.htm
• 2. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
(ICTR): http://69.94.11.53/
• 3. International Criminal Court (ICC):
http://www.icc-cpi.int/home.html&l=en
ICC
Rome Statute of the ICC:
(a) The crime of genocide;
(b) Crimes against humanity;
(c) War crimes;
(d) The crime of aggression;
Admissibility ICC
1. The case is being investigated or prosecuted by a State which has
jurisdiction over it, unless the State is unwilling or unable
genuinely to carry out the investigation or prosecution;
2. The case has been investigated by a State which has jurisdiction
over it and the State has decided not to prosecute the person
concerned, unless the decision resulted from the unwillingness or
inability of the State genuinely to prosecute;
3. The person concerned has already been tried for conduct which is
the subject of the complaint, and a trial by the Court is not
permitted under article 20, paragraph
4. The case is not of sufficient gravity to justify further action by the
Court.
Vatikan dan Tahta suci
1. Pemerintah Tahta Suci, Kardinal Pietro
Gaspari dan Perdana Menteri Kerajaan Italia,
Benito Mussolini: “…the sovereignty and
jurisdiction of the Holy See ever the City of
the Vatican.”
2. Menjadi anggota badan-badan PBB seperti
ILO dan WHO.
The International Committee of the
RedCross (ICRC);
1. Organisasi Privat, berpusat di Switzerland dan
berdasarkan hukum Swiss;
3. Berdasarkan Konvensi Jenewa 1949 tentang
perlindungan korban perang, ICRC
mempunyai “unique distinction” sehingga
dapat berhubungan langsung dengan negaranegara berkaitan dengan perlindungan
korban perang;
Insurgencies
1. Harus dibedakan dengan riots, rebellions dan
insurgencies.
PLO, 1974 mendapatkan status sebagai
Observer dalam United Nations. Tahun
berikutnya Yaser Arafat mendapatkan
kesempatan untuk berbicara di Sidang Umum.
GAM?
2. Setelah mendapatkan status Belligerent,
maka negara-negara di luar konflik harus
netral.
Belligerent
a. Memiliki sebuah organisasi “pemerintahan”
sendiri;
b. Kekuatan militernya telah menduduki wilayah
tertentu
c. Mempunyai kontrol efektif atas wilayah
tersebut.
d. Anggota militernya memiliki seragam dengan
tanda-tanda khusus dengan peralatan militer
yang cukup