Chapter 6: Reactions of Alkenes: Addition Reactions
6.1: Hydrogenation of Alkenes – addition of H-H (H2) to the
π-bond of alkenes to afford an alkane. The reaction must be
catalyzed by metals such as Pd, Pt, Rh, and Ni.
H
H
H
Pd/C
C
+
C
H
H
EtOH
H
H
C-C π-bond
= 243 KJ/mol
H-H
= 435 KJ/mol
H
C
C
H
H
H
H°hydrogenation = -136 KJ/mol
H
C-H
= 2 x -410 KJ/mol
= -142 KJ/mol
• The catalysts is not soluble in the reaction media, thus this
process is referred to as a heterogenous catalysis.
• The catalyst assists in breaking the -bond of the alkene and
the H-H -bond.
• The reaction takes places on the surface of the catalyst. Thus,
the rate of the reaction is proportional to the surface area
of the catalyst.
127
• Carbon-carbon -bond of alkenes and alkynes can be reduced
to the corresponding saturated C-C bond. Other -bond bond
such as C=O (carbonyl) and CN are not easily reduced by
catalytic hydrogenation. The C=C bonds of aryl rings are not
easily reduced.
O
O
H2, PtO2
ethanol
O
C5H11
OH
H2, Pd/C
CH3(CH2)16CO2H
Linoleic Acid (unsaturated fatty acid)
Steric Acid (saturated fatty acid)
O
O
OCH3
H2, Pd/C
OCH3
ethanol
C
H2, Pd/C
N
C
N
ethanol
128
6.2: Heats of Hydrogenation -an be used to measure relative
stability of isomeric alkenes
H
H3C
H
CH3
cis-2-butene
H°combustion : -2710 KJ/mol
H
H3C
H
H2, Pd
CH3
cis-2-butene
H
H3C
CH3
H
trans-2-butene
trans isomer is ~3 KJ/mol
more stable than the
cis isomer
-2707 KJ/mol
H2, Pd
H
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH3
H3C
H
trans-2-butene
H°hydrogenation: -119 KJ/mol
-115 KJ/mo
trans isomer is ~4 KJ/mol more stable than the cis isomer
The greater release
of heat, the less
stable the reactant.
129
Table 6.1 (pg 228): Heats of Hydrogenation of Some Alkenes
Alkene
H2C=CH2
H
H
H3 C
H
monosubstituted
H
H° (KJ/mol)
136
125 - 126
H
117 - 119
H3C
CH3
H
CH3
disubstituted
H3C
H3C
H
114 - 115
H
116 - 117
H3C
H
H3C
H
H3C
CH3
H3 C
CH3
H3 C
CH3
trisubstituted
tetrasubstituted
112
110
130
6.3: Stereochemistry of Alkene Hydrogenation
Mechanism:
H H
H2C CH2
H H H2C CH2
H2C CH2
H2
H
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
H H
C
H
H
C H
The addition of H2 across the -bond is syn, i.e., from the
same face of the double bond
CH3
CH3
H
H2, Pd/C
EtOH
H
CH3
CH3
H
CH3
H
syn addition
of H2
CH3
Not observed
131
6.4: Electrophilic Addition of Hydrogen Halides to Alkenes
C-C -bond: H°= 368 KJ/mol
C-C -bond: H°= 243 KJ/mol
-bond of an alkene can
act as a nucleophile!!
Electrophilic addition reaction
H
H
Br
C C
H
+
H-Br
H
nucleophile
H
H
C C
H
H
H
electrophile
Bonds broken
C=C -bond 243 KJ/mol
H–Br
366 KJ/mol
Bonds formed
H3C-H2C–H -410 KJ/mol
H3C-H2C–Br -283 KJ/mol
calc. H° = -84 KJ/mol
expt. H°= -84 KJ/mol
132
Reactivity of HX correlates with acidity:
HF << HCl < HBr < HI fastest
6.5: Regioselectivity of Hydrogen Halide Addition:
H
Markovnikov's Rule
H Br
Br H
H-Br
C
H
slowest
R
R
R
C
H
R
C
R
C
C
H
C
R
R C C H
H H
H
H-Br
H
H-Br
Br H
R C C H
R H
Br H
R C C R
R H
+
+
+
R C C H
H H
none of this
H Br
R C C H
R H
none of this
H Br
R C C R
R H
none of this
H
R
C
C
R'
H
H-Br
Br H
R C C R
H H
+
H Br
R C C R'
H H
Both products observed
For the electrophilic addition of HX across a C=C bond, the H (of
HX) will add to the carbon of the double bond with the most H’s
(the least substitutent carbon) and the X will add to the carbon of
133
the double bond that has the most alkyl groups.
Mechanism of electrophilic addition of HX to alkenes
6.6: Mechanistic Basis for Markovnikov's Rule:
Markovnikov’s rule can be explained by comparing the
stability of the intermediate carbocations
134
For the electrophilic addition of HX to an unsymmetrically
substituted alkene:
• The more highly substituted carbocation intermediate is
formed.
• More highly substituted carbocations are more stable than
less substituted carbocations. (hyperconjugation)
• The more highly substituted carbocation is formed faster
than the less substituted carbocation. Once formed, the
more highly substituted carbocation goes on to the final
product more rapidly as well.
135
6.7: Carbocation Rearrangements in Hydrogen Halide
Addition to Alkenes - In reactions involving carbocation
intermediates, the carbocation may sometimes rearrange if a
more stable carbocation can be formed by the rearrangement.
These involve hydride and methyl shifts.
H
C
H3C
C
H3C
Cl
H
H-Cl
C
H
C
H3C
H3C
H
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
+
H
~ 50%
expected product
H
C
H3C
C
H3C
Cl
CH3
H
C
H
H-Cl
H3C
C
C
Cl
H
H3C
H
C
C
CH3
H
H
H
H
~ 50%
H
C
H3C
C
H3C
H3C
H
+
C
H3C
H3C
H
H
C
C
Cl
H
H
Note that the shifting atom or group moves with its electron pair.
A MORE STABLE CARBOCATION IS FORMED. 136
6.8: Free-radical Addition of HBr to Alkenes
H3CH2C
H3CH2C
R
R
R
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
R
C
R
C
R
C
C
H
C
H
H
H-Br
Br H
H3CH2C C C H
H H
H
H-Br
Br H
H3CH2C C C H
H H
peroxides
(RO-OR)
H-Br
C
H
C
H
C
R
C
R'
H
ROOR
(peroxides)
H
H-Br
ROOR
H
H-Br
ROOR
H
H-Br
ROOR
+
+
H Br
H3CH2C C C H
H H
none of this
H Br
H3CH2C C C H
H H
Polar mechanism
(Markovnikov addition)
Radical mechanism
(Anti-Markovnikov addition)
none of this
Br H
R C C H
H H
none of this
Br H
R C C H
R H
none of this
Br H
R C C R
R H
none of this
Br H
R C C R
H H
+
+
H Br
R C C H
H H
H Br
R C C H
R H
+
H Br
R C C R
R H
+
H Br
R C C R'
H H
Both products observed
The regiochemistry of
HBr addition is reversed
in the presence of
peroxides.
Peroxides are radical
initiators - change in
mechanism
137
The regiochemistry of free radical addition of H-Br to alkenes
reflects the stability of the radical intermediate.
H
H
R C•
R C•
H
Primary (1°)
R
R C•
R
<
Secondary (2°)
R
<
Tertiary (3°)
138
6.9: Addition of Sulfuric Acid to Alkenes (please read)
6.10: Acid-Catalyzed Hydration of Alkenes - addition of water
(H-OH) across the -bond of an alkene to give an alcohol;
opposite of dehydration
H3C
C
H3C
CH2
H2SO4, H2O
H3C
H3C
H3C
C
OH
This addition reaction follows Markovnikov’s rule The more
highly substituted alcohol is the product and is derived from
The most stable carbocation intermediate.
Reactions works best for the preparation of 3° alcohols
139
Mechanism is the reverse of the acid-catalyzed dehydration
of alcohols: Principle of Microscopic Reversibility
140
6.11: Thermodynamics of Addition-Elimination Equlibria
H3C
H2SO4
C
CH2
+ H2O
H3C
Bonds broken
C=C -bond 243 KJ/mol
H–OH
497 KJ/mol
H3C
C
H3C
H3C
OH
Bonds formed
H3C-H2C–H -410 KJ/mol
(H3C)3C–OH -380 KJ/mol
calc. H° = -50 KJ/mol
G° = -5.4 KJ/mol
H° = -52.7 KJ/mol
S° = -0.16 KJ/mo
How is the position of the equilibrium controlled?
Le Chatelier’s Principle - an equilibrium will adjusts to any stress
The hydration-dehydration equilibria is pushed toward hydration
(alcohol) by adding water and toward alkene (dehydration) by
141
removing water
The acid catalyzed hydration is not a good or general method for
the hydration of an alkene.
Oxymercuration: a general (2-step) method for the Markovnokov
hydration of alkenes
H
H
C
C4H9
H
1) Hg(OAc)2, H2O
C
H
Hg(OAc)
C
H H
O
C
H3C
C
C4H9
H
Ac= acetate =
OH
O
2) NaBH4
OH
C
C4H9
H
C
H H
NaBH4 reduces the C-Hg
bond to a C-H bond
142
6.12: Hydroboration-Oxidation of Alkenes - Anti-Markovnikov
addition of H-OH; syn addition of H-OH
CH3
1) B2H6, THF
2) H2O2, NaOH, H2O
H
HO
CH3
H
6.13: Stereochemistry of Hydroboration-Oxidation
6.14: Mechanism of Hydroboration-Oxidation Step 1: syn addition of the H2B–H bond to the same face of the
-bond in an anti-Markovnikov sense; step 2: oxidation of the
B–C bond by basic H2O2 to a C–OH bond, with retention of
stereochemistry
143
6.15: Addition of Halogens to Alkenes
X2 = Cl2 and Br2
X2
X
X
(vicinal dihalide)
C C
C C
alkene
1,2-dihalide
6.16: Stereochemistry of Halogen Addition - 1,2-dibromide
has the anti stereochemistry
Br
Br
+
+
Br2
Br
Br
not observed
CH3
Br
Br2
H
CH3
Br
144
6.17: Mechanism of Halogen Addition to Alkenes:
Halonium Ions - Bromonium ion intermediate explains the
stereochemistry of Br2 addition
145
6.18: Conversion of Alkenes to Vicinal Halohydrins
"X-OH"
X
OH
C C
C C
alkene
halohydrin
X2, H2O
X
+ HX
OH
anti
stereochemistry
Mechanism involves a halonium ion intermediate
146
For unsymmterical alkenes, halohydrin formation is
Markovnikov-like in that the orientation of the addition of
X-OH can be predicted by considering carbocation stability

CH3
Br 
+
more + charge on the
more substituted carbon

H2O adds in the second step and adds to the
carbon that has the most + charge and ends
up on the more substituted end of the double bond
CH3
HO
Br2, H2O
CH3
+ HBr
H
Br
Br adds to the double bond first (formation of
bromonium ion) and is on the least substituted
end of the double bond
147
Organic molecules are sparingly soluble in water as solvent. The
reaction is often done in a mix of organic solvent and water using
N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) as he electrophilic bromine source.
O
N Br
+
O
OH
Br
DMSO, H2O
N H
+
O
O
Note that the aryl ring does not react!!!
6.19: Epoxidation of Alkenes - Epoxide (oxirane): threemembered ring, cyclic ethers.
O
Reaction of an alkene with a peroxyacid:
peroxyacetic acid
O
H3C
H
O
H3C
O
H
O
O
H3C
peroxyacetic
acid
OH
HO OH
acetic
acid
peroxide
OH
O
H3C
O
+
O
148
Stereochemistry of the epoxidation of alkenes: syn addition of
oxygen. The geometry of the alkene is preserved in the product
Groups that are trans on the alkene will end up trans on the
epoxide product. Groups that are cis on the alkene will end
up cis on the epoxide product.
H
H
R
R
H3CCO3H
R
R
H
trans-alkene
O
H
R
R
cis-epoxide
cis-alkene
H
H
H3CCO3H
H
O
R
H
R
trans-epoxide
6.20: Ozonolysis of Alkenes - oxidative cleavage of an alkene
to carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones). The - and
-bonds of the alkene are broken and replaced with C=O
double bonds.
C=C of aryl rings, CN and C=O do not react with ozone,
CC react very slowly with ozone
149
3 O2
Ozone (O3):
electrical
discharge
+
O
2 O3
O
O
_
mechanism
R1
R2
R3
R4
O3, CH2Cl2
-78 °C
O
O
O
R1
R3
R1
R2
R2
R4
O O
Zn
-or(H3C)2S
R3
R4
O
ozonide
molozonide
1) O3
2) Zn
O
R3
O
+
O
R2
R4
+ ZnO or (H3C)SO
+
1) O3
2) Zn
O
H
H
+
O C
H
O
1) O3
2) Zn
R1
O
H
O
150
6.21: Introduction to Organic Chemical Synthesis
Synthesis: making larger, more complex molecules out of
less complex ones using known and reliable reactions.
devise a synthetic plan by working the problem backward from
the target molecule
OH
??
H2SO4
H2, Pd/C
OH
??
151
CH3
CH3
Br
??
H
Br
6.22: Reactions of Alkenes with Alkenes: Polymerization
(please read)
152