Second language acquisition
theories
Popular beliefs
(Lightbown & Spada,1993)
1. Languages are learnt mainly through imitation.
2. Parents usually correct young children when
they make errors.
3. People with a high IQ are good language
learners.
4. Early start in L2 learning brings more success.
5. Most mistakes learners make in L2 derive from
interference of the L1.
6. Learners’ errors should be corrected as soon
as they occur to prevent bad habits.
Criteria for a theory of SLA/SLL
(Long, 1990)
Account for
1. universals.
2. environmental factors.
3. age, acquisition rate and proficiency.
4. cognitive and personal variables.
5. learning as well as acquisition.
6. other varibles besides exposure and input.
7. interlanguage systemacity.
8. the varied cognitive processes involved in
acquisition.
An Innatist model:
Krashen’s Input Hypothesis
(1977-1997)
Aspects:
1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
• Conscious vs. Unconscious
• No interface
2. The Monitor Hypothesis
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis
4. The Input Hypothesis
• Comprehensible input „i+1”
• Emergence of speech
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
• Low stress and anxiety
Criticism of Krashen’s model
• What is conscious or unconscious learning?
(McLaughlin, 1978, 1990)
• Is there no interface? (Gregg, 1984)
• „Zero option” for grammar? (Ellis, 1997)
• Comprehensible input= language learning success?
- intake
- Seliger (1983): High and Low Input Generatiors
- Lapkin (1995): Output Hypothesis
• How to define „i+1”?
• Waiting for speech to emerge?
A Cognitive model:
McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model
(1978-1990)
Controlled
Automatic
Focal
formal rule learnig
test situation
Peripheral
implicit or analogic
learning
communication
 Controlled processes:
- Capacity limited and temporary
- Focus on new skills (driving)
 Automatic processes:
- Relatively permanent
- Automatising or restructuring info
used together (cf. Krashen’s „no interface”)
 Both can be focal and peripheral
 Controlled and automatic processing can be
used interchangeably
A Social Constructivist Model:
Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (1996)
 Major claim: Comprehensible input results from
modified interaction:
- slow-down
- comprehension checks
„Go down the subway – do you know the
word subway?”
- clarifications/repair requests
„Did you say to the right?”
- paraphrase
„Could you give me a hanky- you something
to wipe my nose with?”
Relation between interaction and
acquisition
Awareness, autonomy and
authenticity
Contexts of interaction are carefully
designed
Individual learner language through
a socially constructed process
A Humanistic Approach:
Rogers’s Humanistic Psychology (1951)
Involving the whole person in the
learning process
Non-threatening environment
Fully functioning person
Shift of focus from teaching to learning
Learning to learn – autonomy and
responsibility
Delegating rights of decision to learners
Teachers as facilitators

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


establish interpersonal relationships
with learners
are real and genuine (congruent)
give up their role as controller
appreciate learners as valuable
individuals
communicate openly and empathically
Criticism of Rogers
Non-directive approach, discovering
everything – too time-consuming
Non-threatening enviroment eliminates
facilitative tension (competition)
Learner training!
Paolo Freire (1970)
Empowerment of students in
- negotiating learning outcomes
- cooperating with teachers and learners
- engaging in critical thinking
- relating learning material to their own
reality