RETENTION WITHOUT DRILLS
How Corpora Inform Second
Language Acquisition
By Daniel Wang
daniel.wang1@us.army.mil
Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center
Challenges faced by Adult L2s
in SLA
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Factors
• Chinese as surmountable challenge:
Recent corpus research reports 53,623
words, of which there are 10,632
polysemous words
• The need for a structured and incremental
approach to introducing, acquiring and
applying vocabulary in a communicative
setting
Non-Drill Approaches
To Ensure Retention
To Address Challenges Learners Face While Acquiring,
Reviewing and Applying Vocabulary, this Presentation Seeks
to:
Introduce Motivational Dimensions in Adult L2’s SLA
Process,
Introduce Currently Ongoing Research Based on Respected
Corpora,
Discuss Practical Applications Derived From These Results,
Introduce A Curriculum Design That Enables A Natural
Progression Through FLO Topics,
Discuss How This Combination Enhances Learners’
Metacognitive Skills As Well As Automaticity, and
Conclude by Discussing How the Above Methods Address
Adult L2’s Motivational Dimensions.
Challenge One: Intrinsic Motivation
From Appraisal to Motivation
• Scherer’s Five Dimensions of Appraisal:
– Novelty
– Pleasantness
– Goal relevance
– Coping potential
– Self and social image/ compatibility
A Tripartite System
for Stimulus Appraisal
• Amygdala
• Orbitofrontal Cortex
• Body Proper
Sensory
Association
Cortex
Orbitofrontal Cortex (Makes
decisions based on stimuli’s value
assessments)
Sensory Cortex
Amygdala
(processes sensory
inputs)
(“Hey, we hate that / love that”)
Hypothalamus (Hormonal control of
Thalamus (sorts
physical responses to emotions)
and routes input)
Brain Stem
* Reticular formation carries consciousness
* Medulla oblongata controls basic body functions
Stimulus
* Pons relays movement info between cortex and cerebellum
(visual, tactile,
auditory and
gustatory)
* Midbrain coordinates sensory and motor functions
Endocrine System (Internal regulation
– controls body functions by secreting
hormones and peptides)
Motor System
(External regulation
-- body movements)
Autonomic
Nervous System
Sympathetic NS (Reactive –
Parasympathetic NS (Rest,
agitation response, fight or flight)
digestion and growth)
Challenge Two:
Massive Burden of Vocabulary
• By extrapolating patterns and structures
out of the natural language, corpora
research helps ensure goal relevance by
shedding light on more natural approaches
to curriculum design and classroom
practices.
• Corpora research help learners cope with
the enormous bank of Chinese vocabulary
by suggesting better learning strategies.
Comprehension Process
• Character-Level
• Word-Level
• Sentence-Level
Sentence-Level
Comprehension
Paragraph-Level
Comprehension
• Inter-paragraph
Message
• Intra-Paragraph
Message
• Detect Turns of
Thought
• Nuances
• Beyond-the-Line
References
Overall
Comprehension
We sure can’t ask learners to
“just go through the dictionary”...
Meaning of a Chinese character…
Should not be viewed as a pinpoint, but as a
sphere of possibilities that changes with
context and evolves with time.
汉堡
汉学
家
汉语
拼音
方案
汉
字
汉
老子英雄儿
好汉
门
外
汉
单
身
汉
名
字
金
刚
铁
汉
字幕
数
字
字
字里
行间
赤
字
八字没一撇
字帖
Question: How Then Do We
Prioritize Vocabulary for
Structured Learner Retention?
Solution: Corpora Research
Corpora Consulted in this
Research Project
•现代汉语研究语料库
•清华大学ZW大型通用汉语语料库
•現代漢語平衡語料庫
• Lancaster Corpus of Mandarin
Chinese
According to Latest Data from the 现代汉语研究语料库,
Each POS Occupies the Following Percent
in the Chinese Language
POS Frequency of Occurrence and
Percentage Represented
Derived From 清华大学ZW大型通用汉语语料库
When the following formula is
used…
占总词条比率
Percentage Represented
----------------------------------- = “per-word payoff”
出现频率
(i.e. Effectiveness Ratio)
Frequency of Occurrence
The Following Analyses Become Possible:
We find that:
• Pronouns’ Effectiveness Ratio (per-word
payoff)
= 6.21% / 1.66% = 3.74
• Nouns’ Effectiveness Ratio (per-word
payoff)
= 31.42 / 48.76 = 0.64
• By Comparison: A regimen that assigns
priority early on to pronouns will be 6.13
times more efficient than a regimen
favoring nouns
Research Results Show that:
When Designing Curriculum, Teaching or Learning,
Vocabulary Should be Prioritized by POS
Natural Collocation by POS (1)
Derived From 清华大学ZW大型通用汉语语料库
Natural Collocation by POS (2)
Calculations Based On 清华大学ZW大型通用汉语语料库
Research Result:
Priorities for Introduction and Acquisition
(Collocation Freq Intersection with Word Freq)
Pairing Sequences' Frequency of Occurrence (%) in the Chinese
Language
Noun-Noun
2%
2%
2%
1% 1%
2% 1%
Noun-Verb
10%
Verb-Noun
Part-Noun
2%
2%
Verb-Verb
Verb-Part
2%
Adv-Verb
10%
Noun-Part
2%
Prep-Noun
2%
Noun-Adv
2%
Adj-Part
Num-Meas
2%
Pr-Verb
2%
9%
Part-Verb
Adj-Noun
Verb-Pr
3%
Verb-Adj
Pr-Noun
3%
Noun-Conj
Adv-Adj
3%
7%
Meas-Noun
Conj-Verb
3%
Noun-Adj
Adj-Verb
3%
6%
5%
6%
6%
Conj-Noun
Part-Adj
Noun-Prep
Verb-Adv
Challenge Three: Structured and
Incremental Approach is Needed to…
• Navigate through the FLO topics in natural
progression,
• Pace the introduction of vocabulary in a
manageable and digestible fashion, and
• Develop a thorough understanding of
natural phenomena in the Chinese
language.
Research Finding:
Natural Progression Through FLO Topics (1)
Research Finding:
Natural Progression Through FLO Topics (2)
Select Keywords By FLO Topics
• Example -- Military：军事、军队、国
防、空军、海军、征兵、服役、转业、
民兵、预备役、军衔、复员、文职、
后勤、装备、战备、作战、训练、防
空、军需、武器、弹药、退伍…
Sample Expansion of Vocabulary
by theme/ FLO topics (1)
• Military
•十面埋伏
•十年磨剑
•十年生聚，十…
•十生九死
•十死一生
•十围五攻
•三十六策，走为上策
•三十六计，走为上策
•十二金牌
•(十拿九稳 )
•(十全十美 )
•(十万火急 )
•(十字街头 )
•(十字路口 )
Sample Expansion of Vocabulary
by theme/ FLO topics (2)
• Social/economic -- education
•九流十家
•十年寒窗
•十载寒窗
•闻一知十
•举十知九
•一目十行
•(十拿九稳 )
•(十全十美 )
•(十万火急 )
•(十字街头 )
•(十字路口 )
Sample Expansion of Vocabulary
by theme/ FLO topics (3)
• Social/Econmic -- Employment
•九儒十丐
•七十二行
•三百六十行
•三十而立
•三十六行
•十年树木，百年树人
•十羊九牧
•十步芳草
•(十拿九稳 )
•(十全十美 )
•(十万火急 )
•(十字街头 )
•(十字路口 )
When Vocabulary Requirement
Considerations Take into Account…
• Frequency of use
• Percentage representation in
overall language, as well as
• FLO Topics
•More and potentially better paths
to the goal become discernable,
and
•The resultant vocabulary pool is
far more manageable to students,
increasing students’ coping
potential.
Curriculum Samples
• In the interest of time, this presentation will
narrow in on the first five weeks of the
Intermediate Level Course.
STATISTICAL ANALYSES (1)
Text: Intermediate Weeks 1-5
Total Number of Lessons: 11
Number of Distinct Texts: 17
CHARACTER-LEVEL
ANALYSES
WORD-LEVEL ANALYSES
# of Characters Presented: 16041
# of Distinct New Characters: 1561
Mean Occurrences per Lesson: 1458.27
Mean Occurrences per Text: 943.59
Per Lesson Mean New Occurrence: 141.91
Per Text Mean New Occurrence: 91.82
# of Words Presented: 9944
# of Distinct New Words Presented: 2915
Per Lesson Mean New Occurrence: 265
Per Text Mean New Occurrence: 171.47
Ratio of Distinct New
Characters versus Total
Number of Characters:
9.73%
Recycling Effect = 90.27%
Ratio of Distinct New
Words versus Total Number
of Words: 29.31%
Recycling Effect = 70.69%
STATISTICAL ANALYSES (2)
Text: Intermediate Weeks 1-5
Total Number of Lessons: 11
Number of Distinct Texts: 17
CHARACTER-LEVEL
ANALYSES
WORD-LEVEL ANALYSES
Recycling/Spiraling
Effect Analysis – Distinct
New Characters:
Appeared in 1 text only:
580
Appeared in 2 texts: 266
Appeared in 3 texts: 187
Appeared in 4 texts: 108
Appeared in 5+ texts: 420
Recycling/Spiraling
Effect Analysis -- Distinct
New Words:
Appeared in 1 text only:
2006
Appeared in 2 texts: 493
Appeared in 3 texts: 170
Appeared in 4 texts: 82
Appeared in 5+ texts: 164
Sample Passage (1)
UNDP報告中所謂中國對周邊國家的“威脅”，無
非是兩個方面：第一，中國的勞動力成本低廉；
第二，中國與這些國家出口產品基本同質。其實
歸結為一點，那就是相對於發達國家，中國與周
邊國家具有相同的優勢，因此，產業間和產業內
的相互競爭不可避免。在聯合國發展項目委員會
看來，這純粹是一個零和博弈：中國得即周邊國
家失。造成目前這種局面的原因僅僅在於中國先
行一步，周邊國家“未能趕上中國的步伐”。
Sample Passage (2)
UNDP 报告 中 所谓 中国 对 周边 国家 的 “ 威胁
”， 无非 是 两 个 方面 ： 第一 ， 中国 的 劳
动力 成本 低廉 ； 第 二 ， 中国 与 这些 国家
出口 产品 基本 同质 。 其实 归结 为 一点 ， 那
就 是 相对 于 发达国家 ， 中国 与 周边 国家 具
有 相同 的 优势 ， 因此 ， 产业 间 和 产业 内
的 相互 竞争 不 可 避免 。 在 联合国 发展 项目
委员会 看来 ， 这 纯粹 是 一 个 零和 博弈 ：
中国 得 即 周边 国家 失 。 造成 目前 这 种 局
面 的 原因 仅仅 在于 中国 先行 一 步 ， 周边
国家 “ 未能 赶 上 中国 的 步伐 ”。
Sample Tasks/Activities (1)
Sample Tasks/Activities (2)
Sample Tasks/Activities (3)
Corpora Basis for Choice of
Production Operators (1)
Corpora Basis for Choice of
Production Operators (2)
• Mean Frequency Percentile
Showed That: Words required for
this task is within top 2.51% most
common in the language,
learners' production proficiencies
will benefit from these choices.
Corpora Basis for Choice of
Production Operators (3)
• “Per Unit Categorical Effectiveness of
Task with These POS” Showed That:
POS of these words are very common
(averages to be within top 2.51%
most commonly seen), highly
adaptable in substitution and
expansion exercises.
Corpora Basis for Choice of
Production Operators (4)
• “Mean Unit (3) Categorical
Frequency for These POS Pairing
Sequences” Showed That: These
POS pairing sequences often
appear, meaning learners are
likely to find this pairing to be
helpful in production tasks.
Corpora Basis for Choice of
Production Operators (5)
Sample Snapshot of Application Under
Development: Learner’s Dictionary
Future Direction of This Research
• Learner’s Dictionary
• Correlation to DLPT5: Correlation
under validation, to be released once
target sample size has been reached.
Aren’t You Glad I Used A Systemic
Approach in This Presentation As
Opposed to the “Fire Hose” Approach?
Thank You for Coming.
Are There Any Questions?
References and Sources
参考文献与资料来源
• Bloom, B. S. (Ed.) (1989). Taxonomy of educational
objectives. Handbook I: cognitive domain. New York,
McKay.
• Cepeda, NJ, Vul E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, JT, Pashler, H.
Spacing effects in learning: a temporal ridgeline of optimal
retention. Psychol Sci 2008;19(11):1095-102.
• Leaver, Betty Lou. (2003). Achieving Native-Like Second
Language Proficiency, A Catalogue of Critical Factors, Vol
1 Speaking: 101-106. Salinas, CA: MSI Press-CDLC
Imprints.
• Hauptman, J. (2004). The Effect of the Integrated Key
Word Method on Vocabulary Retention and Motivation.
Ph.D. Thesis. University of Leicester.
References and Sources (cont.)
参考文献与资料来源 （续）
• McEnery A., Xiao Z., The Lancaster Corpus of Mandarin
Chinese: A Corpus for Monolingual and Contrastive
Language Study, LREC 2004 Proceedings, pp. 1175—
1178.
• Schumann, John H. (1999). The Neurobiology of Affect in
Language Learning. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Wang, Daniel. (2008, December). Paving the Road to
Near-Native Reading Proficiency -- Application of Sight
Translation in the Classroom Environment. Presentation
at the 6th CDLC Conference, Linthicum Heights, MD.
• Wang, Daniel. (2008, March). Accelerated Character
Recognition Course (ACRC) 簡繁轉換精簡教程.
Presentation at the LEARN Conference, Monterey, CA.
References and Sources (cont.)
参考文献与资料来源 （续）
•《国务院公文主题词表》
•《康熙部首》
•柯華葳、陳明蕾、廖家寧（2005），〈詞頻、詞
彙類型與眼球運動型態：來自篇章閱讀的證據〉，
《中華心理學刊》，47，頁381-398。(TSSCI)
•王惠：词义•词长•词频——《现代汉语词典》
(第5版)多义词计量分析，《中国语文》，2009
（2）
References and Sources (cont.)
参考文献与资料来源 （续）
•现代汉语常用词表（草案）/《现代汉语常用词
报》课题组，北京：商务印书馆，2008
•“中国语言生活状况报告”课题组，中国语言生
活状况报告（2006）.北京：商务印书馆, 2007
•语料库：
–现代汉语研究语料库
–清华大学ZW大型通用汉语语料库
–Lancaster Corpus of Mandarin Chinese
–現代漢語平衡語料庫
This speech/presentation is authorized by the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language
Center and the Department of Defense. Contents of this presentation are not necessarily the
official views of, or endorsed by, the U.S. Government, Department of Defense, Department of the
Army, or the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center