Integration of Scientific and
Political Elites
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences
School of Medical Education
Strategic Policy Sessions: 17
Definitions
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

Research: “any systematic effort to
increase the stock of knowledge”

Policy: a “purposive course of action
followed by an actor or set of actors”

Evidence: “the available information
supporting or otherwise a belief or
proposition”

Evidence-based Policy: “public policy
informed by rigorously established
evidence”.
Policy Processes
Identify the problem
Commission research
Analyse the results
Choose the best option
Establish the policy
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Implement the policy
Evaluation
Policy Processes
Cabinet
Donors
Policy
Formulation
Agenda
Setting
Parliament
Decision
Making
Civil Society
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Monitoring and
Evaluation
Private
Sector
Ministries
Policy
Implementation
Different Notions of Evidence
Researchers’
Evidence
• ‘Scientific’ (Context
free)
Policy Makers’
Evidence
• Colloquial (Contextual)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
• Proven empirically
• Anything that seems
reasonable
• Theoretically driven
• Policy relevant
• As long as it takes
• Timely
• Caveats and
qualifications
• Clear Message
Source: Phil Davies Impact to Insight Meeting, ODI, 2005
Existing theory
1.
X
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
13.
14.
15.
16.
Linear model
Percolation model, Weiss
Tipping point model, Gladwell
‘Context, evidence, links’
framework, ODI
Policy narratives, Roe
Systems model (NSI)
External forces, Lindquist
‘Room for manoeuvre’, Clay &
Schaffer
‘Street level bureaucrats’, Lipsky
Policy as social experiments,
Rondinelli
Policy Streams & Windows,
Kingdon
Disjointed incrementalism,
Lindquist
The ‘tipping point’, Gladwell
Crisis model, Kuhn
‘Framework of possible thought’,
Chomsky
Variables for Credibility, Beach
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
The source is as important as
content, Gladwell
Linear model of communication,
Shannon
Interactive model,
Simple and surprising stories,
Communication Theory
Provide solutions, Marketing I
Find the right packaging, Marketing
II
Elicit a response, Kottler
Translation of technology, Volkow
Epistemic communities
Policy communities
Advocacy coalitions etc, Pross
Negotiation through networks,
Sebattier
Shadow networks, Klickert
Chains of accountability, Fine
Communication for social change,
Rockefeller
Wheels and webs, Chapman &
Fisher
A Practical Framework
External Influences
Politics and
Policymaking
Campaigning,
Lobbying
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Scientific
information
exchange &
validation
political context
Media,
Advocacy,
Networking
links
Policy analysis, &
research
Research,
learning &
thinking
evidence
Range of Research Needs
Jonathan Lomas. Improving Research Dissemination and Uptake in the
Health Sector: Beyond the Sound of One Hand Clapping. 1997.
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Audience
Decision-Maker
Research Needs
Legislative
Politician
Bureaucrat
Interest Groups
Problem Definition
Affirmation of Assumed Causes
Policy Ideas
Administrative
Program Manager
Regional Administrator
Hospital Executive
Program Evaluation
Practice Variation
Cost-Effectiveness
Clinical
Practitioner
Professional Society
Expert Panel Member
Effectiveness
Ethics
Patient Preference
Industrial
Company Scientist
Corporate Executive
Venture Capitalist
8
Marketable Product
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Biomedical, InformationTechnology Research
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Audience
Decision-Maker
Research Needs
Legislative
Politician
Bureaucrat
Interest Groups
Problem Definition
Affirmation of Assumed Causes
Policy Ideas
Administrative
Program Manager
Regional Administrator
Hospital Executive
Program Evaluation
Practice Variation
Cost-Effectiveness
Clinical
Practitioner
Professional Society
Expert Panel Member
Effectiveness
Ethics
Patient Preference
Industrial
Company Scientist
Corporate Executive
Venture Capitalist
9
Marketable Product
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Clinical Research
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Audience
Decision-Maker
Research Needs
Legislative
Politician
Bureaucrat
Interest Groups
Problem Definition
Affirmation of Assumed Causes
Policy Ideas
Administrative
Program Manager
Regional Administrator
Hospital Executive
Program Evaluation
Practice Variation
Cost-Effectiveness
Clinical
Practitioner
Professional Society
Expert Panel Member
Effectiveness
Ethics
Patient Preference
Industrial
Company Scientist
Corporate Executive
Venture Capitalist
10
Marketable Product
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Health Services Research
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Audience
Decision-Maker
Research Needs
Legislative
Politician
Bureaucrat
Interest Groups
Problem Definition
Affirmation of Assumed Causes
Policy Ideas
Administrative
Program Manager
Regional Administrator
Hospital Executive
Program Evaluation
Practice Variation
Cost-Effectiveness
Clinical
Practitioner
Professional Society
Expert Panel Member
Effectiveness
Ethics
Patient Preference
Industrial
Company Scientist
Corporate Executive
Venture Capitalist
11
Marketable Product
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Health Policy Analysis
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Audience
Decision-Maker
Research Needs
Legislative
Politician
Bureaucrat
Interest Groups
Problem Definition
Affirmation of Assumed Causes
Policy Ideas
Administrative
Program Manager
Regional Administrator
Hospital Executive
Program Evaluation
Practice Variation
Cost-Effectiveness
Clinical
Practitioner
Professional Society
Expert Panel Member
Effectiveness
Ethics
Patient Preference
Industrial
Company Scientist
Corporate Executive
Venture Capitalist
12
Marketable Product
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Is there a gap?
Research
Policy
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Is there a gap?
Research
Policy
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Is there a gap?
Technocratic
networks
Universities
Political
Ideological NGOs
parties
think tanks
Internal
Regulatory
think tanks bodies
UN Think
tanks
Lobbies
Public think Executive
tanks
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
corporations
Integration of Scientific & Political
Elites
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Scientific Elite Pool
Integration of Scientific & Political
Elites
Political Elite Pool
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Scientific Elite Pool
Integration of Scientific & Political
Elites
Political Elite Pool
Weak Integration:
Toward Populism
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Scientific Elite Pool
Integration of Scientific & Political
Elites
Political Elite Pool
Strong Integration:
Toward Elitism
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Scientific Elite Pool
Integration of Scientific & Political
Elites
Political Elite Pool
Differentiated Civil Society Organizations
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Scientific Elite Pool
What is a think tank?
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
•Knowledge-based, policy-oriented institutions
•Serve governments, intergovernmental
organizations, and civil society
•Generate policy-oriented research, analysis,
and advice on domestic and international
issues
•Engage policymakers, ,the media and the
public on key policy issues
•Enable policymakers and the public to make
informed decisions about public policy issues
21
Recent Think Tank Trends
2000s
1980s
1960s
and
1970s
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
• TTs start to
appear in
large
numbers,
especially in
OECD
countries
• Global
expansion of
TTs begin as
TTs start to
specialize
• First studies
of TTs in
literature
appear
1990s
• Explosive
increase in
number of TTs
worldwide
• Global
networks of TTs
form the most
comprehensive
source of
information
internationally
available for
policy makers
22
A Brief History of American Think Tanks
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

First generation: think tanks as policy research institutions

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1910)

Institute for Government Research (1916, Brookings)

Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace (1919)

Council on Foreign Relations (1921)

American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research (1943)

Second generation: the emergence of government contractors

RAND Corporation (1948)

Hudson Institute (1961)

Urban Institute (1968)
A Brief History (continued)

The third generation: the rise of advocacy think tanks




Center for Strategic and International Studies (1962)
Heritage Foundation (1973)
CATO Institute (1977)
The fourth generation: legacy-based think tanks


Carter Center (1984)
Nixon Center for Peace and Freedom (1994)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Global Dispersion of Think Tanks
There are currently 6,976 Think Tanks worldwide
4% 1%
North America: 1913
9%
Europe: 2393
28%
Western: 1872
Eastern: 521
Africa: 507
Asia: 1210
17%
Latin America: 643
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Middle East and North Africa: 271
7%
Oceania: 39
34%
Three Kinds of Think Tanks
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

“University without students:”
 Quality academic research; focus on long-term impact;
research fellow like professors
 Examples: Brookings, AEI, Carnegie Endowment

Government contractors
 Funded by government department / agencies; address
specific concerns of policy-makers
 Examples: RAND, Urban Institute

Advocacy think tanks
 Research plus aggressive marketing; actively
participate in policy debate

Heritage, CATO
University without Students: Brookings
Institution
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

“The Brookings Institution is an independent,
nonpartisan organization devoted to research,
analysis, education, and publication focused on
public policy issues in the areas of economics,
foreign policy, and governance.”

3 Programs: economy, government, foreign
policy; 6 policy centers

Rigorous academic research

Close relation with federal government
Government Contractor: RAND Corporation
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

Mission: “RAND is a nonprofit institution that helps
improve policy and decision-making through
research and analysis.”

More than 1,600 full- and part-time employees,
(85% research staff hold advanced degrees, with
>65% having Ph.D's or M.D.'s. )

Research areas: Child Policy, Civil and Criminal
Justice, Regional Studies, Drug Policy, Education,
Health, Infrastructure, International Policy, National
Security, Population & Aging, Science &
Technology, Terrorism
Advocacy Think Tanks: Heritage Foundation
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

Mission: “formulate and promote conservative
public policies based on the principles of free
enterprise, limited government, individual freedom,
traditional American values, and a strong national
defense.”

“The Foundation produces research and generates
solutions consistent with its beliefs that are
marketed to the Congress, the Executive Branch,
the news media and others”
Types of Analysis

Scientific



search for truth and build theory about policy
actions and effects
may be too theoretical for most decision
makers
examples: academic social scientists,
National Academy of Sciences
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
30
Types of Analysis (cont’d)

Professional




Dr. Shahram Yazdani
analyze alternatives to solve problems
goal is for practical value
research can be too narrow due to time or
resource constraints
examples: Brookings Institution, American
Enterprise Institute, General Accountability
Office
31
Types of Analysis (cont’d)

Political



advocate and support preferred policies
often ideological or partisan; may lack
analytical depth
examples: Sierra Club, AFL-CIO, Heritage
Foundation
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
32
To achieve what?
Discursive
changes
Attitudinal
changes
Content
changes
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Procedural
changes
Behavioural
changes
Idea Producer or Broker?
Heritage Foundation
Expenses, 2002
Research (40%)
Educational Programs (21%)
Media & Government Relations
(20%)
Fundraising (16%)
Management & General (3%)
Brookings Institution
Expenses, 2002
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Economic Studies (37%)
Foreign Policy Studies (17%)
Governance Studies (15%)
CPPE (11%)
Publications (10%)
External Affairs (6%)
Communications (4%)
Outlets of Think Tanks’ Works

Books, journal articles
Monographs, reports, occasional papers
Short pieces of policy brief
Op-ed pieces

Other informal channels






Conferences, panel discussions
Policy training programs
Media appearance
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
The Top Think Tanks for 2009




Brookings Top Think Tank (US)
Fraser Institute (Canada and Mexico)
Chatham House, (Western Europe)
Carnegie Moscow Center (Eastern and
Central Europe)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
The Top Think Tanks for 2009




Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Fundación Getulio Vargas, (Latin
America)
Carnegie Middle East Center, (Middle
East)
South African Institute of International
Affairs (SAIIA), (Southern Africa)
Japan Institute of International Affairs
(JIIA) (Asia)
The Top Think Tanks for 2009




Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Overseas Development Institute (Int’l
Devleopment)
Harvard School of Public Health Dept of
Health Policy (Health Policy)
Pew Center on Global Climate Change,
(Enviornment)
Council on Foreign Relations (Security
and International Affairs)
The Top Think Tanks for 2009




Brookings Institution (Domestic
Economics)
Peterson Institute for International
Economics, (International Economics)
Urban Institute (Social Policy)
RAND (Science and Technology)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
The Top Think Tanks for 2009




Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Brookings Institution (Innovative Policy
Proposal)
European Council on Foreign Relations
(Best New Think Tank)
Brookings Institution (Best Policy
Research Program)
Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace (Best Use of the Internet)
The Top Think Tanks for 2009


Amnesty International (Best Use of the
Print and Electronic Media)
Center for American Progress (Most
impact on Policy)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
The Top Think Tanks for 2009


Chatham House, UK (Top TT World-Non
US)
Brookings Top Think Tank (World)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Funding Sources: Brookings (FY2002)
Total Revenue: $40,678,000
Gifts and Grants
49%
Endowment
30%
CPPE
9%
Publications
8%
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Government
2%
Miscellaneous
2%
Funding Sources: RAND (FY2002)
Total Income: $186,808,000
Contracts and
grants
90%
Income / gains on
investments
3%
Fees
3%
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Assets released
from restrictions
2%
Contributions
2%
Other
0%
Funding Sources: Heritage (FY2002)
Total Income: $27,539,833
Individuals
59%
Foundation Grants
Corporations
27%
7%
Bequests
3%
Publications / Others
3%
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Investment Income
1%
The Revolving Door between Government and
Think Tanks: Examples from USA

Three secretaries in the Clinton administration landed at Brookings

Think tank alumnus in Bush administration


President’s economic advisors:





Rice (HI), Chao (HF), Haass (BI), Perle (AEI)
Larry Lindsey (AEI), Glen Hubbard (AEI)
Martin Baily (BI, IIE), Gene Sperling (BI), Laura Tyson (IIE), Robert
Lawrence (BI, IIE), Joseph Stiglitz (BI)
William Niskanen (Cato), { M. Boskin (HI), M. Feldstein (NBER) }
Charles Schultz (BI), Arthur Okun (BI)
Others: Alan Blinder (BI), Alice Rivlin(BI)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Political Elites vs.The Statecraft
Interpretation
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

Political elite = party leaders, their political
advisers + top civil servants

Statecraft: ‘the art of winning elections
and achieving some necessary degree of
governing competence in office’ (Bulpitt,
1986: 21)
Statecraft Functions
Dr. Shahram Yazdani

A Winning Electoral Strategy

Party Management

Political Argument Hegemony: ‘a winning rhetoric in a
variety of locations winning because either the
framework of the party’s arguments becomes generally
acceptable, or because its solutions to a particularly
important political problem seem more plausible than its
opponents’ (Bulpitt, 1986: 22).
The Need for Depoliticization of
Policy Process

Depoliticisation: ‘…the process of placing
at one remove the political character of
decision-making’ (Burnham, 2001: 127).

E.g. Operational independence to the
Bank of England (1997)
Dr. Shahram Yazdani
Thank You !
Any Question ?
Dr. Shahram Yazdani