Library Study
(Central Business District)
Central Business District
The CBD or Central Business District is the focal point of a city. It is the commercial,
office, retail, and cultural center of the city and usually is the center point for
transportation networks.
There are no boundaries to the CBD. The CBD is essentially about perception. It is
usually the "postcard image" one has of a particular city. There have been various
attempts at delineating the boundaries of the CBD but, for the most part, one can
visually or instinctively know when the CBD starts and ends as it is the core and
contains a plethora of tall buildings, high density, a lack of parking, transportation nodes,
a large number of pedestrians on the streets and generally just a lot of activity during the
daytime.
The "CBD" is the central district of a city, usually typified by a concentration of retail and
commercial buildings. City centre differs from downtown in that the latter can be
geographically located anywhere in a city, while a city centre is generally located near
the geographic heart of the city.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
The shape and type of a CBD or downtown almost always closely reflects the city's
history. Cities with maximum building height restrictions often have a separate historic
section quite apart from the financial and administrative district.
Central business districts usually have very small residential population.
Goals and Concepts of a C.B.D.
• The ultimate goal to which nearly every major city aspires is to create an environment
conducive to a lively atmosphere and satisfying day/night variety of “People Activities”.
• The building of a balanced mix of new
office, shopping and recreational facilities
which must include the extension of
facilities to attract people in the after
business hours, e.g, theater, sports, music
and special events; the diversification of
jobs and an increase in the employment
opportunities. The provision for multilevel
parking for private and public sectors, the
preservation and restoration of buildings of
historical heritage add a character to the
city and creates an interest for the citizens.
• The provision for protected pedestrian
walkways (whether elevated, at ground
level, or underground) linking the major
shopping, office and the municipal
buildings.
Source: Redstone, Louis G., The New Downtowns (Rebuilding Business Districts), 1976, Pg: 19
Historical Background
The CBD developed as the market square in ancient cities. On market days, farmers,
merchants and consumers would gather in the center of the city to exchange, buy, and
sell goods. This ancient market is the forerunner to the CBD. As cities grew and
developed, CBDs became fixed location where retail and commerce took place. The
CBD is typically at or near the oldest part of the city and is often near a major
transportation route that provided the site for the city's location, such as a river, railroad,
or highway.
Over time, the CBD developed into a center of finance and control or government as
well as office space. In the early 1900s, European and American cities had CBDs that
featured primarily retail and commercial cores. In the mid-20th century, the CBD
expanded to include office space and commercial businesses while retail took a back
seat. The growth of the skyscraper occurred in CBDs, making them more and more
dense.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
Agora
The Roman Agora served as a marketplace where
merchants kept stalls or shops to sell their goods
amid colonnades. Actually Agora served as a twin
function of being a centre for political and
commercial space activity.
Forum
A forum was the public space in the middle of a
Roman city.In addition to its standard function as
a marketplace, Forum was a gathering place of
great social significance, and often the scene of
diverse activities, including political discussions
and debates, meetings, et cetera.
Bazaar
A bazaar was a permanent merchandising area,
marketplace, or street of shops where goods and
services are exchanged or sold. The word derives
from the Persian word bāzār, meaning "the place
of prices". Although the current meaning of the
word is believed to have originated in Persia, its
use has spread and now has been accepted into
the vernacular in countries around the world.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/agora
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/forum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bazaar
Souq
A souq is a commercial quarter in an Arab
or Berber city. The term is often used to
designate the market in any Arabized or
Muslim city. In Modern Standard Arabic the
term refers to markets in both the physical
sense and the abstract economic sense.
Mercado
Mercado in Mexico and throughout Latin
America combines the elements of open-air
street markets, and the more formal
structures that house the bigger vendors in
the major cities. Many of the Mercado have
the qualities of the Mexico city’s tiangus,
street markets selling a variety of goods
from produce to small appliances, clothing
and handicrafts that setup in different
neighbourhoods each day of the week,
providing variety and stability at the same
time.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/souq
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mercado
Urban Structure
Urban structure is the arrangement of land use in urban areas. Sociologists, economists,
and geographers have developed several models, explaining where different types of
people and businesses tend to exist within the urban setting. Urban structure can also refer
to the urban spatial structure, which concerns the arrangement of public and private
space in cities and the degree of connectivity and accessibility.
Concentric Ring Model
The Concentric ring model also known as the Burgess model is one of the earliest
theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by sociologist Ernest
Burgess in 1925.
The zones identified are:
• The center was the CBD
• The transition zone of
mixed residential and
commercial uses
• Low-class residential
homes (inner suburbs), in
later decades called inner
city
• Better quality middle-class
homes (Outer Suburbs)
• Commuters zone
CBD
Factory zone
Zone of transition
Working class zone
Residential zone
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/urban_structure
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/concentric_ring_model
Commuter zone
Sector Model
The sector model, also known as the Hoyt model, is a model of urban land use
proposed in 1939 by economist Homer Hoyt. It is a modification of the concentric zone
model of city development. The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it
allows for an outward progression of growth. As with all simple models of complex
phenomena its validity is limited.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sector_model
Multiple Nuclei Model
The multiple nuclei model is an ecological model put forth by Chauncy Harris and
Edward Ullman in the 1945 article "The Nature of Cities." The model describes the layout
of a city. It notes that while a city may have started with a central business district, similar
industries with common land-use and financial requirements are established near each
other. These groupings influence their immediate neighborhood. Hotels and restaurants
spring up around airports, for example. The number and kinds of nuclei mark a city's
growth.
The theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to
increased car ownership. This increase of movement allows for the specialization of
regional centers (eg. heavy industry, business park). There is no clear CBD (Central
Business District) in this type of model.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/multiple_nuclei_model
The Core - Frame Model of a C.B.D.
The Core frame model is a model showing the urban structure of the Central Business
District of a town or city.
The model includes an inner core where land is expensive and used intensively,
resulting in vertical development. This area is the focus of the transport system and has
a concentrated daytime population. The outer core and frame have lower land values
and are less intensively developed. The various land uses are linked to the bid rent
theory. The zone of assimilation and zone of discard are together called the zone of
transition.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/zone_of_transition
Basic Layouts of the CBD
Layout I
•It introduces separate area for pedestrians in
the form of a pedestrian mall.
•Service traffic is not separate from customer
traffic.
•Long walk from parking to access.
Layout II
• It shows a similar layout but end placed
structures are activity notes like a museum or
library.
• Access to parking is provided by a circulatory
road within the site itself.
• Introduction of basement delivery road.
Layout III
• It shows an arrangement with three different
blocks enclosing a common space.
• Pedestrian flow would tend to flow from one of
the main magnet to another.
• Produces a variety of spaces.
Layout IV
• In this layout a centralized parking is provided with
a peripheral service road, which leads to
segregation of customer and service traffic.
• Store fronts and signs can be viewed both from
public road and parking lot.
• One major disadvantage of this layout is that it
faces rush and traffic jams during peak hours when
offices open and close for work.
Layout V
• It represents an approach with one court & two
magnets placed in diagonal manner.
• Complex is widened by court. This court can be
used for public events, kiosks etc.
• Provides equal opportunities to the stores.
• Even distribution of pedestrian flow.
Layout IV
• This shows approach to the centre with two
magnets.
• This is simplest and most often used solution.
Essential Features of a Central Business District:
If an area meets many or all of the following criteria, it would probably be considered a
CBD:
• Houses large public buildings such as libraries, churches, stations and town halls.
• Contains specialist shops and branches of major department stores.
• Contains social amenities such as cinema halls, clubs and theatres.
• Contains little housing, but often hotels.
• Contains little or no industry.
• Contains offices and other professional buildings.
• Contains buildings that tend to be
taller than other buildings in the
city (because
land prices tend
to be at a premium, making highrise
buildings
economically
favorable)
• Has high pedestrian levels and the
greatest parking restrictions.
• Often is the geographical centre of
the settlement.
• Often is the area with the highest
land value.
• Is well connected by public
transport, with large numbers of
passengers.
• Has a high traffic level.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
The Modern CBD
By the beginning of the 21st century, the CBD had become a diverse region of the
metropolitan area and included residential, retail, commercial, universities, entertainment,
government, financial institutions, medical centers, and culture. The experts of the city are
often located at workplaces or institutions in the CBD – lawyers, doctors, academics,
government officials and bureaucrats, entertainers, directors and financiers.
In recent decades, the combination of
residential expansion and development of
shopping malls as entertainment centers have
given the CBD new life. One can now find, in
addition to housing, mega-malls, theaters,
museums, and stadiums.
Pedestrian Malls
Pedestrian malls are also common today in
CBDs in an effort to make the CBD a 24 hour
a day destination for not only those who work
in the CBD but also to bring in people to live
and to play in the CBD, keeping the vehicular
movement restricted to the outskirts and to a
minimum. Without entertainment and cultural
opportunities, the CBD is often far more
populated during the day than at night as
relatively few workers live in the CBD and
most do commute to their jobs in the CBD.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
Land Value and the Bid Rent Theory
Land users, whether they be retail; office; or residential, all compete for the most
accessible land within the CBD. The amount they are willing to pay is called bid rent.
This can generally be shown in a ‘bid rent curve’. Based upon the reasoning that the
more accessible the land, generally in the centre, is the more expensive land.
• Commerce (in particular large department stores/chain stores) is willing to pay the
greatest rent to be located in the inner core. The inner core is very valuable for
them because it is traditionally the most accessible location for a large population.
As a result, they are willing and able to pay a very high land rent value.
• As you move from the inner core, the amount commerce is willing to pay declines
rapidly. Industry, however, is willing to pay to be in the outer core.
• As you move further out, so the land is less
attractive to industry due to the reducing
communication links and a decreasing market
place. Because the householder does not rely
heavily on these and can now afford the
reduced costs (when compared with the inner
and outer core) is able to purchase land.
• The further you go from the inner core and
outer core, the cheaper the land. This is why
inner city areas are very densely populated
(terraces, flats and high rises), whilst the
suburbs and rural areas are sparsely
populated (semi and detached houses with
gardens).
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
Central Business District- Components
GENERAL APPEARANCE
The study of various aspects like urban and open spaces , enclosure and
relation of buildings is important at planning stage. Design harmony among
buildings is attained by describing a predominant character to urban spaces.
An interesting skyline is maintained along with landscaped green open spaces
and plantings to create a unifying design concept among the buildings.
•Variety of vistas, visual focal points and views are created along with
interesting architectural details.
•Unnecessary signs, poles and wires add visual chaos to the surroundings so
they need to be avoided and vacancies are to created that allow space for
expansion.
A urban space must be distinguished by a predominant character:
•Quality of enclosure
•Quality of its detailed treatment
•Activity that takes place in it
•The scale of open spaces is determined by trees, rocks, shrubs and group
surface rather than their gross width and length.
Assuming that the CBD will be served by accessible transport, we need to
introduce the universal design elements in the physical design of CBD. The
proposed design for the CDB has been modified for the following components.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.6-9,10
THE GRAND PUBLIC SPACE
A public space is a social space such as a town square that is open and
accessible to all, regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, age or socio-economic
level.
Located near a diversity of land uses( office, retail, warehouses) it tends to
attract the users from a greater distances and in a great variety.
Such a plaza is often big and and flexible enough to host the brown-bag lunch
crowds, outdoor cafes; passers through; and the occasional concerts, art
shows, exhibits, and rallies.
•The
street
plaza:
an
area
predominately hard surfaced, centrally
located, and highly visible. It is often the
setting for programmed events such as
concerts, performances etc.
•The city square: a centrally located,
often historic place where major
thorough fares intersect. It is usually
bounded by streets.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.-1
WALKWAY SYSTEMS AND SKYWAY BRIDGES
• Elevated walkway systems are a comparatively recent development in the
provision of a pedestrian linkage to the major buildings in the most effective
area of the central business district.
•These second level passages not only offers protection from bad weather
but also afford the pedestrians a safe and pleasant means of circulation
within the CBD, completely separated from the motor vehicles and their
pollutants.
•The space in the buildings connected by skyways is often devoted to retail
business, so areas around the skyway may operate as a shopping mall.
Primarily, the skyway plan consists of •Mid-block crossings which connect the interior
arcades through the buildings to form one
continuous system.
.
•They also connect with a series
of strategically located enclosed
courts which provide comfort
and beauty and provide for yearround activities.
Source: Redstone, Louis G., The New Downtowns (Rebuilding Business Districts), 1976, Pg: 29
INFORMATIONS AND SIGNS
Signage serves two functions—
•Provide direction of flow to occasional visitors and
new employees in cbd
•to convey information and to attract attention. The
overall facade composition, including ornamental
details, color and materials, should be considered
when determining the location, size and character of
signage.
Points of consideration:
1.SIGN DESIGN.
Consider both pedestrian and vehicular traffic in
selecting and designing signage.
2.SIGNAGE AND THE BUILDING
Signage should be low-key in order to avoid
competition with the architecture of the structure.
Materials and design should be compatible with
the building’s materials and style. Locate signs so
that they emphasize design elements of the
facade, but do not obscure architectural details,
windows or other significant features.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-11
•Signs can also reinforce the horizontal lines of
moldings and transoms, and accent architectural
details when placed appropriately.
•The design and style of both the lettering and sign
should complement the style of the building.
•Signs for multiple businesses in a single building
should be designed with similar materials, backs
and lettering styles.
3.MATERIALS
Glass, painted wood, painted metal or architectural decorative metals such as
copper, bronze, brass, aluminum or stainless steel are appropriate sign
materials. Unfinished, non-decorative materials, including unpainted wood and
highly reflective materials are discouraged. Plastic is only allowed as
individual three dimensional letters applied to a sign or building, or where the
face of an existing sign is to be replaced with like materials.
4.SIGN LIGHTING.
Sign lighting should be indirect, not bright and glaring. Internal illumination of
signs is prohibited. Neon lighting should be used only in small amounts and
where appropriate to the building design.
5.The signs should be such that they direct the visitors to the elevators,
restrooms, telephones and cafeterias or coffee shops.
6.On leaving the building, clear signs indicating the way to the transit stop, taxi
stands, and the nearby streets.
7.For larger developments and parking lots, directional signs can be
incorporated that are designed to be an attractive addition to the streetscape.
Public Seating
Points of consideration:
1.The design must recognize that the seating is the most important element
in encouraging the plaza use.
2.The seating meets the needs of the various types of sitters commonly
found in most of the plazas.
3.These seating must be placed in those locations that are not sunny during
the lunch hours; in the shade.
4.Secondary seating (mounts of grass, steps with a view, seating walls,
retaining walls that allow sitting) must be incorporated in the plaza design, to
increase the overall seating capacity without creating a “sea of benches” .
5.A sense of privacy must be created for some of the seating, through the
placement of the planters and the other design elements.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-7
VENDORS
In addition to traditional brick-and-mortar businesses,
street vendors also contribute to the urban landscape
and can be found throughout downtown’s Central
Business District (CBD).
•Vending is restricted to specific locations, but in
general, vending is allowed on public streets and
sidewalks within the CBD and within 300 feet of the
CBD. Types of merchandise that can be sold by a
street vendor include food, beverages, flowers,
cards, pens and regional souvenirs. The sale of
clothing items other than T-shirts or caps is not
permitted.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-10
•Street vendors and informal trade, provides employment and incomes to a
significant percentage of people, in particular within the urban areas.
•The trade takes place at strategic points with heavy human traffic - along
main roads, streets, parks, pavements, within shopping centers, and at
prominent corners of streets and roads where traders are visible to
pedestrians and motorists.
•Vending certain types of goods in particular locations increases the
popularity of retail areas, enliven the environment of a plaza or a sidewalk,
and provides security.
Points of consideration:
• The plaza should be designed to accommodate the vendors, whose
presence will add to the vitality of that place, provides a measure of security,
and often increases the popularity of the surrounding retail outlets.
• Providing vendors should be colorful, fabric ”roof” be provided for that area,
to draw the attention to the facility, provide the shelter and shade, the
contrast with the scale of the CBD buildings.
• The area for the vendors or market should be situated so as to be easily
accessible and highly visible.
ART IN THE CBD environment
In planning the central business district environment, art, in its various
forms must become an element that will bring spiritual and aesthetic
satisfaction-as important as the part of man’s existence as the satisfaction of
purely material needs.
Art to be used in the public places such as plazas, playgrounds, lobbies of the
government buildings and parks- wherever people congregate .
Art in all forms like- sculpture, fountains, special landscaping, well designed
lighting, good graphics, outdoor furniture, and interesting sidewalk patternscan create an exciting atmosphere.
Source: Redstone, Louis G., The New Downtowns (Rebuilding Business Districts), 1976, Pg: 55
LANDSCAPING
Landscaping helps to soften the harshness of development, and creates
attractive areas to view, visit and use.Trees and shrubs help to reduce the
amount of wind and dust in an area. Landscaping is especially important for
patios,sidewalks and parking areas.
•Trees shall be provided along major pedestrian corridors.
•Full growth size of tree shall be considered when planting, so there is space
between the tree canopy, the building façade, and other architectural
elements.
•Trees shall not be placed closer than 30 feet from intersections. They shall
remain out of the clear vision triangle.
•Branch height of mature trees on traffic side shall be no less than 13’-6”
above the street.
•Branch height on pedestrian side shall be no less than 8’above the sidewalk.
•Proper irrigation systems shall be installed to establish and maintain healthy
growth.
•Tree species shall be selected that can withstand the harsh conditions of the
urban environment. When an area is to be unified, plant only one species.
•Mature tree height and canopy fullness shall not obscure important building
features or business identification.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-8
Major Functions of Plant
Materials
Aesthetics
Environmental Modification
Screening
Circulation Control
Mature street trees shall be maintained
for clear head clearance.
Plants can act as barriers or
screens, providing privacy and
eliminating trash areas.
To provide visual control
planting should be at least 6
feet high.
Depending
upon
the
thickness of the foliage, the size
of the branches and the
loudness of the sound, noise
and sound can be controlled by
plants.
•Plant materials are grouped into general categories relative to their size and
habitat .These categories include:
•Overstory -- tall plants (typically trees) that form overhead canopies
•Understory -- shorter plants (shrubs and small trees)
•Ground cover -- plants that grow close to the ground (typically less than 12"
tall). May be used to stabilize soil or slopes.
•Vines -- plants that attach themselves to other objects for support.
•On the basis of texture: fine , medium and coarse
LANDSCAPED
AREA
Street Trees
.
Trees for internal
and screening areas
Shrubs for
internal and screening
areas
TREE NAMES
Thornless Honey Locust
Callery Pear
Red Oak
Littleleaf Linden
White Fir
Norway Maple
Tulip Tree
Austrian and Red Pine
Deciduous and
Evergreen trees
Lilac
Dogwood
Juniper
Winterberry
Bearberry
TYPE SIZE
3” caliper
5 foot for evergreens
with a 30” spread and
3” caliper for deciduous
No less than 30” in
height and 2’ spread
STREETS
A street is a paved public thoroughfare in
a built environment. It is a public parcel
of
land
adjoining
buildings
in
an urban context, on which people may
freely assemble, interact, and move about.
A street can be as simple as a level patch
of dirt , but is more often paved with a
hard, durable surface such as concrete,
cobblestone or brick .
•Originally the word "street" simply meant a
paved road .The word "street" is still
sometimes used colloquially as a synonym
for "road", but a crucial modern distinction
is that: a road's main function is
transportation, while streets facilitate public
interaction.
Examples of streets include pedestrian
streets, and city-centre streets too crowded
for road vehicles to pass.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streets
ALLEYS
An alley or alleyway is a narrow, pedestrian lane found in urban areas which
usually runs between or behind buildings. In older cities and towns in Europe,
alleys are often what is left of a medieval street network, or a right of way or
ancient footpath in an urban setting. In older urban development, alleys were
built to allow for deliveries such as coal to the rear of houses.
"Alley" is of French
origin, meaning "a
way to go", and has
been adapted in
English as a name
for avenue or a
parkway i.e. any type
of road lined with
trees.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alleys
PEDESTRIANS WALKING DISTANCES
Walking distances, are important because they are a factor in plan configuration,
and a measure of design serviceability. The practical limit of human walking
distances appears to be related more to the context and the situation than the
human energy.
For most persons the maximum tolerable distance is in the range of a normal
5-10 minute walk.
WALKING SPEEDS
The pedestrians vary their walking speeds over a wide range. The average
free flow walking speed of the non baggage carrying pedestrians in the
surveys, for
• all males: 270ft(88m) /min
• females: 254ft(77m) /min
•and the combination of all the pedestrians: 265ft(80m) /min
PEDESTRIAN VOLUME
The equation for pedestrians flow volume,(P), in pedestrians per foot width of
the pedway section, per minute,(PFM)is expressed as follows:
Ped volume= Average Ped Speed,feet/min
Average Ped Area, sq.ft/ped
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.5-5
HUMAN BODY DIMENSIONS:
the body ellipse
Body depth
18”
Body depth and the shoulder
breadth are the primary human
measurements
used
by
designers of pedestrian spaces
and facilities. Shoulder breadth
is a factor affecting the practical
capacity of the doorways
,passageways, stairways and
24”
mechanical devices such as
escalators and the moving
Shoulder breadth
walks. In a plan view, the
average adult human body A large ellipse of 18inch by 24inch,
occupies an area of about 1-1.5 equivalent to an area of 2.3 sqft(2 sq.mts),
sq.ft(1.4 sqmts).
allow for the fact that many pedestrians are
carrying
personal
articles,
natural
psychological preferences to avoid bodily
contact with the others. This determines the
practical standard for pedestrian design as
an ellipse of 24inch by 18inch.
In this formulation, the designer has a clearer concept of relative design
quality, since the units are easier to understand and manipulate. For e.g. a
normal average walking speed of 250sq.ft per minute is attained with an
approximate average pedestrian area of 25sq.ft.person. the simple division of
area occupancy into average speed gives an equivalent design volume of 10
pedestrians per foot(density) width of walkway per minute.
PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY AND SECURITY IN PUBLIC PLACES
•Design for the pedestrians to move about in the well-lit, wide circulation
routes that reflect the existing patterns of movement
the principle asserts the well-used and the vibrant streets are essential for the
safety. Measures that detract from the street life nay increase the risks, such as
overhead walkways and underground malls.
•Consider safety of people and property together rather than separately
In the traditional Neighbourhood Watch approaches and the Business Watch
approaches, it is sometimes assumed that the concern is about robbery rather
than the personal safety. Street crime, assault and harassment-less visible than
the broken windows and stolen property-have higher economic and social
costs.
•Use opportunities for enhancing natural surveillance.
Responsible business owners, neighbours and strangers are the best defenses
against crime. Urban plazas, parks, pathways and parking lots should be
designed not only to allow people to see and be see and be seen but also be
provided with call boxes and graphics clearly indicating ways of helping
yourself or getting help.
•Provide good maintenance
Good maintenance is crucial for lasting design improvements. Adding lighting
does no good if not frequently cleaned or if burned out bulbs are not
immediately replaced. A broken fence no longer fulfills its function. Critical
maintenance items should be designed for easy access for easy access for
cleaning, replacements and repair.
•Make sure solutions to one problem don’t cause another
Safety is part of the integrated design objectives to improve urban quality and
public amenity.
Active, carefully designed, well lit and well maintained urban places help
address all such concerns.
•Involve neighborhoods in public safety planning
Local business owners, residents, and community leaders will know local and
nuisance patterns that pose safety risks and should be invited to serve a
significant role in creating a comprehensive urban design plan for safety and
security.
TRAFFIC CALMING
Traffic calming is becoming an increasingly important part of the effort for
cities, towns, and villages to become safer and increasingly livable,
economically successful and sustainable.
Traffic calming involves physical measures that:
•Reduce the negative effects of motor vehicle use,
•Alter driver behavior,
•Improve the condition for non motorized street users.
Traffic calming slows motorized to a “desired speed” (i-e, the speeds that
the community wants);typically 20mhp(32kph) or less for residential streets,
and 25-30mhp (40 to 48 kph) on commercial streets, collector streets,
and the arterial streets. Traffic calming can be accomplished by:
•Retrofitting the existing streets with regularly spaced measures, and/or,
•Rebuilding the streets to include the new cross-sections.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 7.2-1
ROUNDABOUTS
•Roundabouts are both traffic calming measure and a highly efficient
intersection design. They calm the traffic by introducing the three successive
reverse curves of short radius; to the right to enter the circle, and to the right to
exit the circle.
• Many roundabouts further calm the traffic by reducing the sight distance for
oncoming the motorists, with the trees or man-made features in the centre
of the roundabout.
The size of the central
island largely determines
the operating speed of
the
vehicles.
Small
islands
cause
little
deflection, and therefore
provide
little
speed
reduction
Splitter islands are typically used at roundabouts that would otherwise be
signalized intersections, because:
•They reduce the disparity in speed between circulating and incoming
vehicles.
•They eliminate the possibility of right-angles collisions.
ROAD INTERSECTIONS
It reduce the severity of potential conflicts
between motor vehicles, buses, trucks,
bicycles, pedestrians, and facilities, while
facilitating the convenience, ease, and
comfort
of
people
traversing
the
intersections.
•As is the case with other aspects of the
highway design process, designers can use a
wide range of intersection design elements in
combination to provide both operational
quality and safety. These include:
•Traffic islands to separate conflicting
vehicle movements
•Street closures or realignments to simplify
the number and orientation of traffic
movements through an intersection
•Separate left and right turn lanes to remove
slow moving or stopped vehicles from
through traffic lanes
•Medians and channelized islands to
provide refuge for pedestrians and
bicyclists out of the vehicular traveled way.
Carriage-way
Textured pavement
raised 3”-5”
Zebra crossing
Lane
Sidewalk corridor/
pedestrian path
DESIGN FEATURES FOR UNIVERSAL DESIGN FROM A MANUAL FOR
A BARRIER FREE ENVIRONMENT.
Tactile warning marking on the
ground around the obstruction
Street furniture at a uniform
interval of 100-200m
Height and design of sill and hanging
hoarding for unobstructed shopping
arcade.
Extra 1.2m to accommodate wheel chair.
Provision of kerbstone along both
sides to resist a slippage
Seperate 1.5m side walkway for combined
walkway traffic of wheelchair and the
sightless person.
Location of ramps: at parking lots
Parking width of 3.6m instead of
normal 2.5m width requirement
Parking width of 2.5m with a
common aisle of 1.2m
WALKWAY
Provision of wheel stop to allow
free passage of wheelchair
•
• For free movement of wheelchair, the minimum width of walkway should
be 1.5m.
•The minimum unobstructed width of walkway should be 0.9m.
•The shopping arcade has 6m wide walkway.
•The walkways along the open space and along the service road have
minimum width and that is 3m. Thus, the walkway widths conform to
universal design guidelines.
•Ramps are introduced at the pedestrian crossing points to let the
wheelchair access the walkway from road.
•The transition between walkway and the green landscaped area should be
marked with edge stone, which would protrude from the floor of the walkway
to alert the sightless persons and also to guide the movement of wheelchair.
• None of these elements generate extra cost for implementation but
demands an eye for detail.
CROSSINGS
•All pedestrian crossings will be provided with ramps. This element also does
not generate any additional cost but demands designer's attention to
detailing.
•Proper signaling system should also be installed to allow wheel chair users
and other mobility impaired individuals to cross safely. Moreover, the nonusers of the facility should be considerate in this matter.
PARKING
•A certain percentage of the parking will be transformed into parking for
disabled people. Thus, the width of parking will be transformed into 3.6 m
instead of 2.5m. Hence, the number of a part of the parking will be reduced to
0.70 (2.5/3.6) times.
•The design elements are Kerb stone, Ramps, Tactile materials to be used for
surface
of
walkway,
Signaling,
Fewer
Parking
Spaces.
Shops
• In order to design satisfactory shops, the first requirement is an understanding of those portions
of current merchandising theories which affect the design problem . Briefly, ''merchandising
psychology" consists of, first, arousing interest ; second, satisfying it .
•
•
•
•
Large shop heights vary from 3.9m – 4.57m
Small shop has an optimum height of 3.04m
Basements 3m high permit economical stock storage
Ground floors are usually 4.2m high if no mezzanine is
included.
• Mezzanines should be at least 2.5m above the floor level.
Grids:
• Large units between 7.3m x 10.9 on frontage and 9.14m on
depth.
• Small units between 5.18m x 5.8m on frontage
Offices
Single/ Group
Normal
Maximum
Depth of Office
3.75 – 7.50 mt
9.25 m
Dist. b/w Windows
1.00 – 3.25 mt
6.00 m
Dist. b/w Columns
1.75 – 7.50 mt
11.00 m
Main Corridor Width
1.75 – 2.50 mt
3.25 m
Side Corridor Width
1.50 – 2.00 mt
2.50 m
Height of Office
2.50 – 4.00 mt
5.00 m
Office
Shop Layouts
Vertical Circulation
1. Staircase :
o Interior stairs shall be constructed of non-combustible material throughout.
o Stairs shall be constructed as a self-contained unit with at least one side adjacent to an external wall
and shall be completely enclosed.
o A staircase shall not be arranged round a lift shaft for building 15.0 mt. and above height.
o The stair-case & lifts shall be so located that it shall be within accessible distance of not more than 25
Mts. from any entrance of tenement or an office provided on each floor.
o The minimum width of treads without nosing shall be 30 cm. for a commercial high-rise buildings. The
treads shall be constructed and maintained in a manner to prevent slipping. No winders shall be
allowed.
o The maximum height of riser shall be 15 cm. in the case of office buildings and there shall not be
more than 12 risers per flight.
o Handrails shall be provided with a minimum height of 100 cm. from the center of the tread.
o Minimum headroom shall be of 2.1m.
2. Ramp :
o Inclined plane or surface connecting different levels; a stair without a risers, to enable a person to
climb without interruption and to permit the use of wheeled carts, chair or vehicles.
o A ramp when provided shall not have a slope greater than 1 : 12. Larger slopes shall be provided for
special uses but in no case greater than 1 : 8.
o Minimum clear width shall be 36” (3 feet).The minimum width of the ramps in the basement using car
parking shall be 6.0 mt.
o Handrails shall be provided on both sides of the ramp.
o Ramps shall have level landings at bottom and top of each ramp and each ramp run.
o If ramps change direction at landings, the minimum landing size shall be 60” x 60”.
o Each ramp shall have at least 180 cm of straight clearance at the bottom.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -444
National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 113
3. Lifts or Elevators :
o The upward and downward moment of people in newly erected
multi-storey buildings is achieved by lifts.
o In large multistory building it is usual to look at the lifts at a
central pedestrian circulation point.
o Lift position should be such that it does not obstruct the main
entrance to the building and adjacent to the principle staircase.
o Area allowed varies from 0.14- 0.28 sq m per person.
o For a block of offices of not more than five stories the speed may
be from 37 to 60 m per min.
o For a multistory departmental store with a restaurant on the top
floor, speed of 90 to 120 m per min.
o A lift shall be provided in buildings as prescribed hereunder:
(i) In case of Building having height more than 13.0 Mts. lift shall
be provided.
(ii) Lift shall be provided of one lift per 1000.00 sq.mts. or part
thereof of built-up area for commercial buildings.
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 971
Passenger Lift
Elevators for Disabled
o In multi-storey building elevators are principal means of vertical circulation for those confined to
wheelchairs and for others with difficulty in walking.
o Minimum dims of elevator car to accommodate standard wheelchair:1100 internal depth, 900width ,
700 clear door opening.
o In public building there should be sufficient space for another person to accompany chairbond:1400 min. width, 1100 width.
o In special residential homes large wheelchairs are to be accommodated; dimensions:1800 depth
,1000width, 800 door opening.
o Elevator cars must be accurate in leveling and at landings.
o Photoelectric devices in doors to prevent premature closing desirable .
o Control buttons should light to operate .
o Mean height should be 1400, max 1600
o To position wheel chairs there should be clear space at least 1500 x 1500 before each lift door.
4. Escalators :
o An escalator is a moving staircase conveyor transport device for carrying
people between floors of a building. It consists of a motor-driven chain of
individual, linked steps that move up or down on tracks, allowing the step
treads to remain horizontal.
o It continuously receives and discharges its live load at a constant speed
with practically no waiting periods at any loading.
Characteristics
o These are Installed at an angle of 300 but within 350 .
o Installations are generally 2 speed-with the higher speed (120 fpm) utilized during rush hours and the
o
o
o
o
o
lower (90 fpm) at off hours.
Moving stairways are generally available in widths of 32” and 48”, measured at hip level between the
balustrades; 40” can carry 2 persons/tread.
32” has a tread width of 24” and 48” width has 40” tread.
All treads have a rise of 8” and 16” depth.
32” wide step-5, 000 passengers/hour, with a speed of 90 fpm, and 6,666 passengers/hour with a
speed of 120 fpm.
48” wide step-8, 000 passengers/hr with 90 fpm speed and 10,665 passengers/hr at a speed of 120
fpm.
Criss-Cross Escalators
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 996, 997
Parallel Escalators
Specifications
Source: KONE standards
Parking
o It’s
the act of stopping a vehicle and leaving it unoccupied for
more than a brief time.
o Specialized parking facilities are routinely constructed in
combination with most buildings to facilitate the coming and
going of the buildings’ users. Parking facilities include indoor
and outdoor, the side of the road, a parking lot or car park, and
multilevel structures
o These areas include the area for parking stall plus the
circulation areas.
o Common angled or perpendicular parking stalls are 8 to 9 feet
(2.4-2.75 m) Wide by 16 to 18 feet (4.9-5.5 m) Long.
o Standard Parking Bay is 16’X8’ or 5mt X2.4mt
o The choice of specific parking dimensions depends upon the
function of the parking.
o Further ramp plays an important role to reach the parking
provided in the basement. It may be straight, curved or
combination.
o The maximum ramp slope should be 15 percent. The
min. width of ramp should be 22 ft. for two way traffic.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -443
National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 107,108
Types of Parking
Open
23
Ground floor covered
28
Basement
32
Multilevel with ramps
30
Automated multilevel with lifts
16
(Area in m2 per ECS)
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -440
National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 107
 Parking spaces are usually outlined by 12-20 mm
wide yellow or white painted lines.
 When parking is facing a wall, these lines are often
painted at a height of up to 1 m for better visibility.
 Guide rails in the floor along the side have also
proved popular for demarcation of parking limits, and
can be about 50-60 cm long, 20 cm wide and 10 cm
high.
 When vehicles are parked in lines facing walls or at
the edge of the parking deck in a multi-storey carpark, it is common practice to provide buffers,
restraining bars or railings up to axle height to prevent
cars from going over the edge.
 Where cars are parked face to face, transverse
barriers about 10 cm high can be used to act as
frontal stops.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -439
Specifications of Parking meant for Building Serving Physically Disabled
The size and location of parking spaces required must confirm to the following standards:
 An accessible parking space must be at least 8 feet wide.
 An access aisle adjacent to an accessible parking must be at least 5 feet wide and may not be
restricted by a built-up curb ramp, planters, curbs, wheel stops ,or any other obstructions.
 Two adjacent parking spaces may share a common access aisle.
 An access aisle:
A) Must be part of an accessible route to the building or facility; and
B) Must either merge with the accessible route or have a curb ramp to the accessible route
 An accessible parking space and an access aisle must Have a surface slope of not more than
1:50 in all directions.
 An accessible parking space and an access aisle must be designated with blue lines.
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Annex-D, Clause 12.21, Pg – 126, 127, 128
Fire Fighting
Building regulations require that due consideration must
be given in buildings to:
 The flammability of building materials
 The duration of fire resistance of the components
expressed in terms of fire resistance classifications
 The integrity of the sealing of openings
 The arrangement of escape routes
•The aim is to prevent the start and spread of a fire, stem
the spread of smoke and facilitate the escape or rescue
of persons and animals.
•In addition consideration must be given to effective
extinguishing of a fire. Active and passive precautions
must be taken to satisfy these requirements.
Active Precautions -:
•Active precautions are those systems
automatically deployed in the event of fire.
that
are
•Active precautions include smoke and fire alarm
systems, sprinkler systems, water spray extinguishers
plant, CO2 extinguishing installations, powder and foam
extinguisher plant, and automatic smoke and heat venting
systems.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -131
Passive Precautions -:
•Passive precautions are the construction solutions in the
building and its components.
•Passive precautions relate mainly to minimum structural
sections, casing and coatings.
•In addition to these, other important measure are the layout of
rising mains, installation of fire doors and fire windows,
construction of supporting floors, water cooling of hollow steel
profiles and the dimensioning of casings and coatings of steel
profiles.
The no. of exits & escape routes required also depends on the
maximum no. of people in the area under consideration. Below are
typical requirements:-
500 people
1000
2000
4000
7000
11000
16000
16000+
2exits
3
4
5
6
7
8
8 plus one extra 500 persons
The minimum width of horizontal escape routes is also determined by
the no. of people using them. Typical values are:
50 people
110
220
220+
800mm
900mm
1100mm
extra 5mm per person
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg – 131, 138
Automatic Water Sprinklers
Automatic sprinklers are devices for automatically distributing
water upon a fire in sufficient quantity to extinguish it
completely or to prevent its spread, by keeping the fire under
control, by the water discharged from the sprinklers.
• It consists of a network of pipes 20 mm. dia fixed to the
ceiling of the room. Pipes spaced at 3m c/c.
• Heat actuated sprinkler heads fixed to these pipes at regular
intervals. Pipes get supply from a header.
• Each sprinkler head provided with a fusible plug.
• The fusible plug in the sprinkler nearest to the fire melts and
water gushes out. Fire is thus brought under control in a
short period of time.
Types of Sprinkler Systems:
• Wet - The pipes are permanently charged with water and used for all locations except where freezing
temperatures are likely to occur or special conditions exist.
• Dry - The pipes are normally charged with air under pressure.
• Alternate - Can be arranged to be either wet or dry depending upon ambient temperature conditions.
• Pre-action - The pipes are normally charged with air, and get filled with water when a fire actuates a
separate detection system.
Area covered by
Sprinklers:
Hazard class
General
Special risk areas or
Storage racks
Extra Light Hazard
21m²
9m²
Ordinary Hazard
12m²
9m²
Extra High Hazard
9m²
7.5m²-10m²
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 189, 191
Image from http://google.com/images
Fire Exits
o Every building meant for human occupancy shall be
o
o
o
o
provided with exits sufficient to permit safe escape of
occupants in case of fire or other emergency.
All exits shall be free of a obstructions.
Exits shall be clearly visible and the routes to reach
the exist shall be clearly marked and sign posted at
each floor. All exit ways shall be properly illuminated.
Fire fighting equipment where provided along exits
shall be suitably located and clearly marked but must
not obstructed the exit way.
All exits shall provide continuous means of aggress
to the exterior of a building or to open space leading
to a street.
o Exits shall be so located so that the travel distance
on the floor shall not exceed 30 m.
o All the exits shall be accessible from the entire floor
area at all floor levels.
Access for firefighters
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 171
Fire Exit Doorways
o Every exit door way shall open into an enclosed stairway, a horizontal exit, on a corridor or passage
way providing continuous and protected means of egress;
o No exit doorway shall be less than 100 cm. in width. Doorways shall be not less than 200 cm. in height.
o Exit doorways shall open outwards, that is away from the room but shall not obstruct the travel along
any exit.
o No door, when open, shall reduce the required width of stairway or landing to less than 90 cm.
o Overhead or sliding doors shall not be installed.
Fire Staircase
oFire escape stairs shall have straight flight not less than 125 cm wide with 25 cm treads and risers not
more than 15 cm.
oHandrails shall be at a height not less than 100 cm from the center of tread.
oFire escape staircase in the buildings above 24 mts. height shall be a fire tower
oWidth of the same shall not be less than the width of the main staircase.
oRisers shall be limited to 15 per flight. The minimum unobstructed head room in a passage under the
landing of a staircase and under the staircase shall be 2.2 m.
oExternal exit door of staircase enclosure at ground level shall open directly to the open spaces
oNo combustible material shall be allowed in the fire tower.
oThe treads shall be constructed and maintained in a manner to prevent slipping.
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 171
Services: Connections
o Mains connection rooms should be planned in collaboration with
the mains service providers.
o They must be in locations which can be accessed easily by all
(e.g. off the staircase or cellar corridor, or reached directly from
outside) and they must not be used for through passages.
o They have to be on an outside wall, through which connections
can be routed.
o Walls should have a fire resistance of at least F30 (minutes).
o A floor gully must be provided where there is connection to
water or district heating mains.
o Mains connections rooms must be ventilated to the open air.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -74
Rain Water Harvesting
•Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and
storing, of rainwater.
•Rainwater harvesting has been used to provide drinking
water, water for livestock, water for irrigation or to
refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge.
•Rainwater systems are simple to construct from inexpensive
local materials, and are potentially successful in most
habitable locations.
•Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in
areas with an average rainfall greater than 200mm per year.
•The rate at which water can be collected from either system
is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency,
and the intensity of rainfall.
•There are a number of types of systems to harvest rainwater
ranging from very simple to the complex industrial systems.
Source: http://wikipedia.com/wiki/rain waterharvesting/
GROUND CATCHMENT SYSTEMS
•Ground catchments systems channel water from a prepared
catchment area into storage.
•Generally they are only considered in areas where rainwater is
very scarce and other sources of water are not available.
•They are more suited to communities than individual families
and if properly designed, ground catchments can collect large
quantities of rainwater.
•In India this includes Bawdis and johads, or ponds which collect
the run-off from small streams in wide area.
•In India, reservoirs called tanki’s are used to store water;
typically they were shallow with mud walls. Ancient tankas still
exist in some places.
ROOF CATCHMENT SYSTEMS
•Roof catchment systems channel rainwater that falls onto a roof
into storage via a system of gutters and pipes.
•The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed
to run to waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings
etc.
•Roof gutters should have sufficient incline to avoid standing
water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to carry
peak flows.
•Storage tanks should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding
and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal growth.
•The water shall be chlorinated using chlorine tablets or solution to
maintain a residual chlorine of approximately 1 mg/1. The tank
must have an overflow leading to a natural water courses or to any
additional tanks.
Source: http://wikipedia.com/wiki/rain waterharvesting/
National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 1068,1069
Sub-soil Water Drainage
Sub-soil water is that portion of the rainfall which is
absorbed into the ground.
Systems of sub-soil drainage
Clay or concrete porous field drain pipes maybe used and
shall be laid in one of the following ways :Natural — The pipes are laid to follow the natural
depressions or valleys of the site; branches discharge into
the main as tributaries do into a river.
Herringbone — The system consists of a number of drains
into which discharges from both sides smaller subsidiary
branch drains parallel to each other, but an angle to the
mains forming a series of herringbone pattern. Normally
these branch drains should not exceed 30 m in length.
Grid — A main or mains drain is laid to the boundaries if the
site into which subsidiary branches discharge from one side
only.
Fan-Shaper— The drains are laid converging to a single
outlet at one point on the boundary of a site, without the use
of main or collecting drains.
Building Block
Moat or cut-off system — This system
consists of drains laid on one or more sides
of a building to intercept the flow of subsoil
water and carry it away, thereby protecting
the foundations of a building.
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 1070,1071
oThe choice of one or more of these systems will naturally depend on the local conditions of the site.
oFor building sites, the mains shall be not less than75 mm in diameter and the branches not less than
65 mm in diameter but normal practice tends towards the use of 100 mm and 75 mm respectively.
oThe pipes shall generally be laid at 600 to 900 mm depth, or to such a depth to which it is desirable to
lower the water table and the gradients are determined rather by the fall of the land than by
considerations of self-cleansing velocity.
oThe connection of the subsidiary drain to the main drain is best made by means of a clayware or
concrete junction pipe.
SUBSURFACE DYKE
oA subsurface dyke is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural
flow of groundwater, thereby raising the groundwater level and
increasing the amount of water stored in the aquifer.
oThe subsurface dyke at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur
under Kerala Agricultural University with the support of ICAR,
has become an effective method for ground water conservation
by means of rain water harvesting technologies. The subsurface dyke has demonstrated that it is a feasible method for
conserving and exploiting the groundwater resources of
the Kerala state of India. The dyke is now the largest rainwater
harvesting system in that region.
ADVANTAGES IN URBAN AREAS
•Rainwater harvesting can be adopted in cities are to provide supplemental water for the city's requirements, to
increase soil moisture levels for urban greenery, to increase the ground water table through artificial recharge,
to mitigate urban flooding and to improve the quality of groundwater.
•In urban areas of the developed world, at a household level, harvested rainwater can be used for flushing
toilets and washing laundry.
•It can also be used for showering or bathing. It may require treatment prior to use for drinking.
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 1071
Image from http://google.com/images
Solid Waste Management
oWaste management is the collection,
transport, processing, recycling or disposal and
monitoring of waste materials.
oThe term usually relates to materials produced
by human activity, and is generally undertaken
to reduce their effect on health, the environment
or aesthetics.
oWaste management is also carried out to
recover resources from it. Waste management
can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive
substances, with different methods and fields of
expertise for each.
Source: http://wikipedia.com/wiki/solidwastemanagement/
Image from http://google.com/images
Diagram of the waste hierarchy
Solid Waste Management Strategy
Waste Disposal Methods
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
By Dumping into a pit
By Dumping into sea
By Sanitary land filling
By Composting
By Ploughing in fields
By Hog feeding
By Grinding and discharging to sewer
By Salvaging
By Fermentation or biological digestion
By Heating it in Incinerator
Refuse Chute System
Refuse chute system is a convenient and safe mode of collection of domestic
solid wastes from buildings exceeding 3 storeys. The internal diameter of the
chute shall be at least 300 mm. The access to the refuse chute shall be provided
from well ventilated and well illuminated common corridor or lobby and preferably
it should not be located opposite or adjacent to entry of individual flats or lift.
Size of trolley
The size of the garbage trolley shall be adequate for the daily quantity of garbage
from a chute. For working out quantity of garbage, a standard of approximately
0.75 kg/person maybe taken.
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 1077
Image from http://google.com/images
Static Water Storage Tank
o A satisfactory supply of water exclusively for the purpose of fire fighting shall always be available in
the form of underground static storage tank with arrangements of replenishment by town's main or
alternative source of supply @ 1000 liters per minute.
o The static storage water supply required for the above mentioned purpose should entirely be
accessible to the fire engines of the local fire service. Provision of suitable number of manholes shall
be made available for inspection repairs and insertion of suction hose etc.
o The static water storage tank shall be provided with a fire brigade collecting branching with 4 Nos.
63mm dia instantaneous male inlets arranged in a valve box.
Drainage and Sanitation Requirements
(Office Building)
Water requirements for office buildings is 45 lts / head / day.
S. No.
ELEMENTS
FOR MALES
FOR FEMALES
i)
Water-closets
1 for every 25 persons or part thereof I for every 15 persons or part thereof
ii)
Ablution taps
1 in each WC
iii)
Urinals
iv)
Wash basins
Nil, up to 6 persons
1 for 7-20 persons
2 for 21-45 persons
3 for 46-70 persons
4 for 71-100 persons
From 101 to 200 persons add @ of 3%
For over 200 persons add @ of 2.5 %
1 for every 25 persons or part thereof
v)
Drinking water
fountains
1 for every 100 persons with a minimum of one on each floor
vi)
Cleaner’s sinks
1 per floor, Min, preferably in or adjacent to sanitary rooms
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 1041
1 in each WC
Punjab Bye Laws for commercial buildings
•Maximum permissible ground coverage is 40% in commercial.
•Height- Unlimited, if there is any airport in the district, then special permission is taken
from the Airport Authority of India.
•F.A.R.-1.75
•Parking- 3 E.C.S. / 100sq m. covered area on all the floors
•For open parking,1 E.C.S.-23 sq m.
•For stilt or ground floor parking,1 E.C.S.-28sq m.
•For basement parking,1 E.C.S.-32 sq m.
•Stilt & basement parking will not considered in F.A.R.
•Stilt floor’s height must not exceed 8’6” beyond the building block except in the set-backs
provided it is used for parking only.
•Multi level basement will be allowed behind the building in zoned area except
in set-backs provided it is proposed for parking purposes only and satisfy the
Public Health and Structural requirements.
•Parking grid in basements & stilt floors must be between 400-600 sq. feet.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-572, 573
Multiplex
•Multiplex complex shall mean an integrated entertainment and shopping
centre/complex having atleast three cinema halls with total minimum seating capacity of
1,000 seats, set up in an area of 4,000 Sq Yards or above but not be more than 3 acres
(Balance land can be used for parking and green belt) with minimum investment to the tune of
Rs.20.00 crore including the cost of land, if owned by the developer.However, investment on
items other than land would not be less than Rs. 15 crore. Apart from Cinema Halls the
entertainment area may have restaurant, fast food outlet, video games parlors, pubs, bowling
alleys, health spa/centers and other recreational activities. The shopping centre may have
retail outlets, showrooms, shopping mall, pharmacy etc.
•FAR of 2.0 shall be allowed for Multiplex sites.
•If at any stage, FAR is increased at any level after the auction of the site, proportionate
additional price shall be chargeable
•Maximum ground coverage shall be 40%.
•Direct access on a road not less than 80 ft. wide with a road frontage of not
less than 100 ft.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.- 567,582
Land Use
Multiplexes will be permitted on land earmarked for commercial use or cinemas in any
master plan or development plan prepared by the Punjab Urban Planning &
Development Authority (PUDA) or any local body. They will also be permitted on land on
which no land use restrictions are applicable under any law.
Provision of basement
The construction of double level basement shall be compulsory for parking and the
entire area of the basement shall be used for parking purposes only except the area
used for Air-conditioning plant and lift room which in no case shall exceed 10% of the
area. Basement shall be permitted only under the built up area at the ground level.
Parking
At present the norms of parking for multiplexes are @ 1ECS for 40 Sq. Yds. Of covered area
on all floors whereas as per NBC the norms for parking work out to be 1 ECS for 44 Square
Yards assuming that in a multiplex 60% area is used for commercial, 25% for cinema and
15% for food courts. After detailed deliberations considering the road network available in the
towns of Punjab and NBC provisions, it was decided that the existing norms in the Municipal
Building Byelaws for parking and other provisions of Multiplexes are in order and should be
retained as such.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-571,582
Filling Stations and Filling-cum-Service Station
o The
term "Filling Station'' as used in this Guide refers to a place of retail
business engaged in the supplying and dispensing of Gasoline (Motor-fuel), and
Motor-oil essential for the normal operation of automobiles.
o The
term "Filling-cum-Service Station" as used in this Guide refers to a place of
retail business engaged in supplying goods and services essential for the normal
operations of automobiles. These include dispensing Gasoline and Motor-oil; the
sale and service of tyres, batteries and other automobile accessories and
replacement items and washing and lubrication. They do not include body or
fender work, painting or other major motor repairs and over-hauling.
o Gasoline
Filing Stations are not recommended in local shopping areas. In
Central Business Districts, they are preferably located on the fringes of the
centre or on the traffic routes to such centres at suitable locations along the
highway. In general Commercial areas they should be carefully located along
traffic routes.
oMinimum size for Filling-cum-Service Station and Filling Station shall be as per the
recommendations of TCPO and shall not be less than 30m X 30m in case of Filling
Station and 36 mX30m in case of Filling-cum-Service Station.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-352,353,358
Ground Coverage
oMaximum ground coverage permitted both under canopy and building
shall not exceed 35% of the total area of the site.
oMaximum area permitted to be covered under the building shall not
exceed 10% of the total area of the site.
oThe area of the canopy shall not be more than 25% of the total area of the
site.
oIn case of a main road provided along with a service road or a marginal access
road, the access to the station should be provided from the service or marginal
access road and not from the main road.
oIn case of a main road provided without a service road or a marginal access, its
minimum width must be 40’
oSiting of Stations on road curves or bends is a safety hazard and should be
avoided.
oThe minimum distance of the property line of the Filling Station from the Central
line of the road must not be less than 15.00 metres or half the proposed right-ofway of the road, whichever, is more. In case of national highways, state highways
and major roads in urban areas they should be set back so as to be outside the
ultimate right-of-way of the highway along which it is to be located. However,
variations can be approved in special cases if allowed by the competent authority
after complete investigations.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-375, 354
oFor easy flow of vehicles into and out of the Station a minimum frontage of
30.00 metres shall be provided with wide and easy entrance and exit curbs.
Vehicles entering and leaving the Station should be fully visible to the traffic on the
main road and there should not be any obstruction to view between the Filling
Station Pumps and the road.
oThe station area should have clear sign-boards (‘IN' & E X I T' boards) properly
indicating the approach and exit from the premises and these should be installed
within the site without interfering with the right of way of the highway. These
sign boards should be provided with proper lighting arrangements in the night. Any
other sign boards or bill boards should also be stated within the premises without
distracting the traffic along the highway.
oAs a general rule, the clear distance between two adjacent fuel filling stations (these
will also include fuel filling-cum-service stations) should not be less than 300 metres.
oThere should be sufficient standing space inside the fuel filling station for vehicles to
wait for their turn. In order to reduce the number of waiting vehicles, it is desirable
to have oil. air. toilets etc. installed at some distance from the fuel filling pump so that
vehicles which have been refuelled can immediately be drawn away from the fuel
pump. There should be adequate drainage arrangements in the fuel filling station
so that the surface water does not flow over the road but is collected in
suitable drains and led away to a natural course.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-355,353,360,362.
Set Backs
oFront set back of the canopy shall not be less than 6 metres However, front
set back in case of building shall not be less than 10 metres from the front
boundary of the site.
oSide set backs in case of Canopy/Building shall not be less than 6 metres
when measured from the side boundary of the plot.
oRear set back of the canopy and building shall not be less than 4 metres.
oAll the distances in case of set backs mentioned above shall be reckoned
from the boundary of the site
Height
oThe maximum height permitted for canopy/building shall be restricted to
20 feet inclusive of the parapet.
oNumber of storeys permitted within the built up area shall not exceed one
oNo mezzanine or basement within or under the built up area shall be
permitted.
Boundary Wall
oHeight of the side and Rear boundary walls shall be restricted to 4 feet.
oNo boundary wall shall be constructed on the front.
Storage Tanks
oUnderground fuel storage tanks within the site shall be permitted provided
the minimum distance from the boundary wall shall be 1.5 metres in case
of tanks being buried in earth without any masonry pit around them.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-376,377
Hotel
o It must have a minimum plot size of 5000 sq. mt.
o Frontage should be atleast 200 ft. minimum 80ft. wide road.
o It should have a management tie up or franchise arrangement with National / International
hotel chain of repute having at least five hotels consisting of minimum of 50 rooms each in
India /abroad.
o The land owner can have joint venture/Development agreement /revenue sharing
arrangement with the developer / Hotelier.
o F.A.R is allowed upto 3 ( 20-25% of this FAR can be used for commercial purposes)
o Ground coverage upto 50%.
o Parking -1 ECS per 100 sq. mt. of covered area.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-426,427
S.C.O./ S.C.F. bye laws
o 20’x 80” - includes a corridor of width 8’3” on front & rear side.
o’16’6”x 75 - includes a corridor of width 8’3” on front side only.
o16’6” x 66’ - includes a corridor of width 8’3” on front side only.
oNumber of stories allowed – 4.
oMaximum height of building-48’ 6”.
o1 basement is allowed.
oProvision for air light and ventilation to be made @ 10% of the basement area.
o Area of the basement not to be counted towards FAR.
o Basement shall have a clear height of 7’-6” from floor to sofit to the beam and height of
ceiling shall not exceed 8’-3”.
o 10% of the basement area shall be permitted for depression for installation of AC plants.
However, no generator shall be permitted to be installed in the basement.
Booths bye laws
o10’x 30’ - includes a corridor of width 7’ on front side only.
o8’3” x 24’9” - includes a corridor of width 7’ on front side only.
oNumber of stories allowed – 1.
oMaximum height of building-12’.
o1 basement is allowed.
oProvision for air light and ventilation to be made @ 5% of the basement area.
o Area of the basement not to be counted towards FAR.
o Basement shall have a clear height of 7’-6” from floor to sofit to the beam and height of
ceiling shall not exceed 8’-3”.
o 10% of the basement area shall be permitted for depression for installation of AC plants.
However, no generator shall be permitted to be installed in the basement.
oThe shop’s width: depth ratio must be greater than 1:2.
Source- Policies in Punjab, page no.-433
CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
The people surveyed seem show that the consumers value the availability
Of multiple services at a place rather the ambience or entertainment
associated with the place.
The people surveyed seem to fall in one of the 2 categories – those who shop for
products as and when the need arises and also those who visit a store
once/twice a month and stock up. The markets need to decide on a strategy to
target the buyers who shop as and when the need arises as such people greatly
value convenience and usually buy such products from the nearby local vendors.
This chart emphasizes the traditional value seeking behavior of the Indian
consumer. Any retail format aiming to target the masses must be seen as
providing the best value for the consumer’s money.
Another aspect that emerged was the strong preference of the buyer for
tried and tested brands and also his penchant for variety at the point of
purchase. Traditionally, kirana stores are known to keep an inventory of
brands that their regular customers usually buy (e.g. Parachute Hair Oil)
while malls stock up on a wide range of brands in the same category. While
the customers do appreciate a large variety to choose from, the more
popular brands should be displayed prominently to attract them.
Problems and Issues
Traffic Congestion
The problem of traffic congestion is particularly peculiar in the mornings and in the
evenings when the people go and come back from their work respectively. These are
known as the peak traffic hours. Today due to ever icreasing vehicles on our roads, it
has become a major problem to tackle especially in a commercial centre like a CBD,
where the major working class commutes in the peak hours. The main issues related
to this problem are:
• Narrow streets
• Unauthorized roadside parking.
• Ever increasing number of car ownership.
• Grid Lock- The inability to move on a
transport network in a grid plan.
Suggested Solutions could be:
• Ring Roads and Bye-passes
• Flyovers and Urban motorways
• Multistory car parks
• Pedestrianization of streets
• Congestion Charge Zone Concept: in this motorists are charged a fee for driving in
the congestion charge zone to avoid traffic jams in such heavily loaded areas.
• Park and Ride: are car parks with connections to public transport that allow
commuters and others wishing to travel into city centres to leave their personal
vehicles in a car park and transfer to a bus, rail system (rapid transit, light rail or
commuter rail), or carpool for the rest of their trip.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HNurton/the-central-business-district-a-basic-outline
Microclimate and Climate Responsive Architecture
A microclimate is a local atmospheric zone where the climate differs from the surrounding area.
Microclimates exist, for example, near bodies of water which may cool the local atmosphere, or in
heavily urban areas where brick, concrete, and asphalt absorb the sun's energy, heat up, and
reradiate that heat to the ambient air.
Urban Heat Island
An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area which
is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas.
The main causes of this modification are:
•Modification of the land surface by urban development.
•Waste heat generated by energy usage.
•Due to increased population levels.
Climate Responsive Architecture
Architecture that effectively responds to the climate provides substantially improved natural comfort
and energy efficiency. Responding to the daily and seasonal changes in the sun and breeze patterns
of the site is an integral part of sustainable architecture. The way each of these climatic features is
handled depends on the climatic region in which the building is located. Each climatic region requires
a different design response. Climate responsive design is achieved through careful
consideration of five factors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Orientation
Solar Access and Shading
Ventilation
Insulation
Building Materials
Source: http://www.skyringarchitects.com.au/climate.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microclimate
Pollution
Central Business districts are the significant areas to face the problem of pollution of all
sorts (Air, water, soil, noise etc.). It is very important to deal with the problem wisely so
as to make such high density urban areas more healthy and livable. The main effects of
an excessively polluted environment are:
• Unhealthy working class
• Unhygenic surroundings and the working conditions
• Unpleasant site of the urban district as a whole
• Finally loss of the commercial activity for which the centre is designed.
Suggested Solutions could be:
• Laws against the dumping of litter and sewage
in the surroundings
• Provision of litter bins and road sweeping
(include a relatively recent addition of different
types of bins to encourage recycling)
• Clean Air Acts
• Vehicles which run on cleaner fuels.
• Encouraging public and mass transport.
• Enhanced solid-waste management programs
• Increased planting of trees and plants i.e.
provision of widespread green areas in the
urban areas
• Strict implementation of bye-laws with special
emphasis on ground coverage and F.A.R.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HNurton/the-central-business-district-a-basic-outline
Lack of Space and High Cost of Land
As the central business district forms the hub for all the commercial activities in the city,
hence the land prices are expected to be high in this case. And with the bid rent theory
governing the cost of ownership and tenancy, occupation of a space becomes an
expensive affair. The related issues are:
• Small retailers are forced away.
• High cost of ownership compared to the rental revenue.
• Business losses to the small sector occupants.
• Quick occupation and vacancy of holdings due to lower margin of profits.
• Clone town is a term (esp. used in the U.K.) for a town where the High Street or other
major shopping areas are significantly dominated by Chain stores, which can bear the
high cost of ownership and can ensure the guaranty required for such high cost
tenancy. This phenomenon is particularly damaging to the society because of the
removal of the diversity.
Some of the suggested solutions could
be:
• Providing space to tenants at competitive
rates after studying the feasibility of the
retail businesses and the offices.
• There should be a check on the promoters
by the authorities so that making money is
not their sole aim.
• The concept of Clone Town should be
discouraged in order to provide variety to
the people at competitive prices.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HNurton/the-central-business-district-a-basic-outline
Urban Decline
As CBDs compete with out of town centres they experience decline especially in terms of:
• Vacant properties
• Vandalism
• Lack of maintenance in the common areas.
• No interest shown by the authorities after the commissioning of the project.
• Growth of internet etc means CBD may no longer be the attractive location it once was,
especially for those such as offices who do not need to attract passing trade.
So care should be taken that such projects
which are turned into reality by the huge
monetary investments should not face
decline as discussed above. Some of the
attempted solutions are:
• Planning mixed use of land to the farthest
extent possible. This facilitates the whole
complex to be lively at all times.
• Providing properties at reasonable prices
with appropriate maintenance so that the
problem of vacant properties can be
addressed.
• Provision of enough entertainment and
recreational facilities so as to attract more
number of people, thus promoting business
opportunities.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HNurton/the-central-business-district-a-basic-outline
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