Chapter 3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Results of the Study
Discussions
Results of the Study
• When everything has been computed and
processed, the data must be presented in a
way that it could easily be understood and
interpreted so that at a glance, the readers
may grasp the meaning of the study even
without reading the entire manuscript.
Presentation of Data
• Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical,
sequential, and meaningful categories and classifications to
make them amenable to study and interpretation
• Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and in
categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible and
interpretable so that the relationships between the research
specific questions and their intended answers can be
established.
• There are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular, and
graphical.
Textual Presentation of Data
• Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or
numbers to describe data.
• The main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention
to some important data and to supplement tabular
presentation.
• The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring
to read and the reader may not even be able to grasp the
quantitative relationships of the data presented.
• The reader may even skip some statements.
• Example: The following refers to the degrees earned
by 59 science teachers in the hypothetical study of
the teaching of science in the high schools of
Province A:
Of the 59 science teachers, 1 or 35.59 percent
have earned Bachelor of Arts degree with education
units, four or 6.78 percent have earned a Bachelor of
Science in Civil Engineering degrees with education units,
31 or 5.54 percent a Bachelor of Science in Education
degree, and three or 5.08 percent a Master of Arts
degree.
According to government regulations, all the
teachers are qualified to teach in the high school.
Tabular Presentation of Data
• Statistical table defined. A statistical table or
simply table is defined as a systematic
arrangement of related data in which classes
of numerical facts or data are given each a
row and their subclasses are given each
column in order to present the relationships
of the sets or numerical facts or data in a
definite, compact, and understandable form
or forms.
• Purpose of a table. The purpose is to facilitate
the study and interpretation, the making of
inferences and implications of the
relationships of statistical data.
• Table construction for data presentation is
part of analysis because the data are
separated and grouped according to class or
category.
Advantage of tabular over textual
presentation of data:
• Statistical tables are concise, and because data are
systematically grouped and arranged, explanatory matter is
minimal.
• Data are more easily read, understood and compared into
rows and columns. The reader can understand and interpret a
great bulk of data rapidly because he can see significant
relationships of data once.
• Tables give the whole information even without combining
numerals with textual matter. This is so because tables are so
constructed that the ideas they convey can be understood
even without reading their textual presentation.
The Major Functional Parts of a
Statistical Table:
Table Number
Title
(Head note)
Stub Head
Master Caption
Column
Caption
Column
Caption
Column
Caption
Column
Caption
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Entry
Row Label
Row Label
Row Label
Row Label
Total
Foot note:
Source note:
• The illustration of a table given is only a
simple one. There are tables that are very
complicated.
• For instance the column captions may further
be subdivided into sub-column captions which
in turn may be subdivided.
• This happens when the subject matter of the
table is classified, then the first classifictation
are further subclassified, and so on.
• Table number. Each table should have a
number, preferably in Arabic, for reference
purposes. This is because only the table
numbers are cited. The number is written
above the title of the table. Tables are
numbered consecutively throughout the
thesis report. If there is only one table the
number is necessary.
• Title. The title should tell about the following:
• The subject matter that said table deals with
• Where such subject matter is situated, or to what entity or
persons it belongs, or from whom the data about such subject
matter were gathered
• When data about such subject matter were gathered or the time
period when such data were existent
• Sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.
– Usually, however, only the first two elements are
mentioned in the title, and occasionally only the subject
matter. This is possible if the time period of the study as
well as the locale and the respondents are well discussed
in the scope and delimitation of the study. Only the
beginning letters of the important words in the title are
capitalized. If the title contains more than one line, it
should be written like an inverted pyramid.
• Head note or Prefatory Note. This is written
below the title and it is usually enclosed in
parentheses. It explains some things in the
table that are not clear.
– Suppose a table entitled “Monetary Values or
Properties of the High Schools in Province A” is to
be constructed and the entries in the table are in
rounded millions of pesos. If the amount to be
entered is six million pesos, the entry is only 6.
– The head note that should be written below the
title should be “Millions of Pesos.”
• Stub. The stud contains the stub head and the
row labels. The stub head tells what the stub
contains, the row labels. Each row label
describes the data contained in that row.
• Box Head. The box head contains the master
caption, the column captions and the column
sub-captions. The master caption described
the column captions and the column captions
in turn describe the sub-column captions.
• Main body, field, or text. The main body, field
or text of the table contains all the
quantitative and/or proportional information
presented in the table in rows and columns.
Each numerical datum is entered in the cell
which is the intersection of the row and the
column of the datum.
• Footnote. The footnote which appears
immediately below the bottom line of the
table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some
items in the table which are not readily
understandable or are missing. Proper
symbols are used to indicate the items that
are clarified or explained.
• Source note. The source note which is
generally written below the footnote indicates
the origin or source of the data presented in
the table.
– The purpose of placing the source note are:
• To give credit or recognition to the author of the table
or the source or source of the data
• To allow the user to secure additional data from the
same source
• To provide the user a basis for determining the
accuracy and reliability of the information provided by
the table
• To protect the maker of the table against any charge of
inaccuracy and unreliability.
Graphical Presentation of Data
• A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or
changes of a variable itself, or quantitative changes of a
variable in comparison with those of another variable or
variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form.
• The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to
their qualitative, geographical, or chronological attributes.
• The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes,
and relationships of data in a most attractive, appealing,
effective and convincing way.
• Advantage of the graphing method:
– It attracts more effectively than do tables, and,
therefore, is less likely to be overlooked. Readers
may skip tables but pause to look at charts.
– The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a
list of figures in business and thesis reports more
meaningful.
– It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative
data. The wandering of a line experts a more
powerful effect in the reader’s mind than
tabulated data. It shows what is happening and
what is likely to take place.
• Graphs enable the busy executive of a business
concern to grasp the essential facts quickly and
without much trouble. Any relation not seen from
the figures themselves is easily discovered from the
graph. Illustrations, including attractive charts and
graphs are now considered by most businessmen as
indispensable accompaniment to good business
reports.
• Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they
add to the presentation of numerical data.
• Limitation of graphs:
– Graphs do not show as much information at a
time as do tables.
– Graphs do not show data as accurately as the
tables do.
– Charts require more skill, more time, and more
expense to prepare than tables.
– Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as
tabulated data.
– Graphs can be made only after the data have been
tabulated.
• Types of graphs or charts:
– Bar graph
– Line graph
– Pie chart
– Pictograms
– Statistical maps
– Ratio charts
Bar (Vertical) Graph
Enrolment of University of Perpetual Help College of Rizal
1985-1986 to 1998-1999
Source: School Director’s Office
Figure 1
Bar (Horizontal) Graph
Enrolment of University of Perpetual Help College of Rizal
1985-1986 to 1998-1999
Source: School Director’s Office
Figure 1
Line Graph
Enrolment of University of Perpetual Help College of Rizal
1985-1986 to 1998-1999
Source: School Director’s Office
Figure 1
Pie Chart
Source: CIHM Dean’s Office
Figure 2
Guidelines in Writing Results of the Study
1. The presentation should be made one by one
with the sub-problems. The arrangement
must be based on the order of the subproblems. If the first sub-problem is on
profile variables, a table or graph should be
the first data to be presented
2. There should be textual and tabular
presentation of data.
3. Make a label or title of the table or figure.
Label for tables are written above the table
presentation, for figures, labels are written
below the figure presentation.
4. Don’t break the data in separate pages. The
readers may not easily understand the
overall findings of the study when data is
broken and distributed in different pages.
5. Textual presentation comes before the title.
Right after the initial discussions, the table or
graph follows.
6. There should be a tabular presentation of
sub-problems for significant relationships or
differences of variables considered for clarity
and understanding.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
(Discussions)
• Analysis is the process of analyzing statements
while interpretation is an act or instance of
interpreting an explanation.
• As applied in research, this is done to give
meaning to data generated from the
instrument to answer the problems raised in
the study.
Three types of Research Analysis
1. Univariate. Means one variable analysis.
2. Bivariate. Two variable analysis.
3. Multivariate. When analysis is made up of
three or more variables.
Univariate Problem
• Example:
– What is the extent of productivity of SUC faculty
members in Region 1 in terms of research
instruction, extension and production?
– The extent of productivity on research,
instruction, extension and productivity is a oneway problem, thus it requires univariate analysis.
Bivariate Problem
• Example:
– To what extent are the following productivity
variables related?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Research and instruction
Research and extension
Research and production
Production and instruction
Production and extension
– The analysis is done one by one with all the
variables included in the problem. Thus
regardless of how many parts are to be analyzed,
they are classified as bivariate data.
Multivariate Problem
• Example:
– Is there a significant difference between the
extent of productivity of HEI faculty members
along instruction, research, and production.
– Illustration:
HEI
Private Universities
and Colleges
State Universities
and Colleges
CHED-supervised
Areas of Productivity
Comparative
Analysis
(Multivariate
Analysis)
•Instruction
•Research
•Extension
•Production
– In the example, the productivity of faculty
members of the three category of higher
educational institutions are to be compared along
the four areas of productivity – instruction,
research, extension and production.
– Since there are three input variables
(independent) to be compared, it is classified as a
multivariate problem, which requires multivariate
analysis.
– This problem is treated by a statistical toolAnalysis of Variance (ANOVA).
Interpretation of Data
• There are three levels in the interpretation of data.
– Level one is table reading. The contents of the table are to
be presented numerically and descriptively.
– Level two is on the implications or meanings of data. What
the result means is the focus.
– Level three is on the cross-referencing or corroboration.
The results are to be compared with the existing
knowledge or finished studies. Usually presented theories
and concepts in theses or dissertations are reviewed and
reflected in review of literature and studies are to be
considered.
• Another guide in interpreting data is to study
the table carefully.
• Watch your grammar and avoid using highsounding words.
• The language of research is specific and
requires basic terms only.
• Avoid expressions that are unnecessary and
too long.
• Be careful of spelling, punctuation, etc.
• Always use the third person when writing.