Chapter 3
Results and Discussion
RESULTS

The results of the study are
presented using the data in the form
of statistical tables called TABULAR
PRESENTATION, in the form of
graphs called GRAPHICAL
PRESENTATION, and in the form of
sentences or statements called
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION. It includes
plain presentation of figures in tables
and graphs.


It summarizes the data and the
statistical treatment of them. First,
briefly state the main results of the
findings. Then report the data in
sufficient detail to justify the
conclusions.
Discussing the implications of the
results is not appropriate here.
Mention all relevant results, including
those that run counter to the
hypothesis.

Do not include individual scores or
raw data, with the exception, for
example of single-case designs or
illustrative samples.
• Present only relevant data.
• In reporting data, choose the medium
that will present them effectively. It will
be helpful to summarize the results and
analyses through tables and figures
• Do not repeat the same data in several
places, and do not include tables with
data that can be presented as well in a
few sentences in the text.
• The textual presentation should
supplement or expand the contents of
tables and charts, rather than duplicate
them.
• The analyses of data should be
objective and logical. Make a careful
distinction between fact and opinion.
• In reporting results of the tests of
hypotheses, include the value of the test
statistic, degree of freedom and the
level of significance.
• Figures are more expensive than table
to reproduce, and both formats are
more expensive than text to compose
so reserve them for oyur most
important data
• Summarizing the results and the
analyses in tables or figures instead of
text may be helpful

Statistical Presentation
• When reporting inferential statistics,
include information about the obtained
magnitude or value of the test, the
degrees of freedom, the probability
level, and the direction of the effect.

Statistical Significance
• Before you begin to report specific
results, you should routinely state the
particular alpha level (.05 or .01) you
selected for the statistical tests you
conducted.
Tabular Presentation



A method of presenting data using
statistical table derived from a
tabulation diagram or “talligram,”
which is a contraption of “tally” and
“diagram.”
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/12626
677/Sample-APA-TABLE-1
http://www.web.psych.washington.e
du/writingcenter/writingguides/pdf/t
ables.pdf
Guidelines for Tables

Table Identification
• Three lines below the page header
(flush with the left margin), type the
word Table and the table’s arabic
numeral (Table 3), not italicized.

Title of the Table
• Two spaces below the table heading,
also flush left, type the title of the table
with headline-style capitalization. The
title should also be italicized.

Column headings
• Capitalize only the first word of column
headings, and center the column
heading over the information in each
column. One line below the headings,
insert a horizontal rule.

Parallel information and style
• Headings should appear in parallel
grammatical forms (all nouns, gerunds,
etc.) and numbers should appear in
similar style (with decimals, rounded to
whole numbers, etc.)

Spacing
• Tables are double-spaced, no matter
how long they are. Columns must be
separated by at least three spaces for
visual clarity.

Repeated Information
• If information from a table extends
beyond one page, repeat the column
headings.

Paging
• Each table must begin on a new page.
Presentation of Tables

Tables are presented in narrative
form. The following phrases may
help:
• Table
• Table
• Table
• From
• Table
___ shows…
___... List the…
___ presents the …
table ___ it could be seen that…
___ reveals ___
• A look at the Table shows that ranked…
with a frequency of … were…
• Coming in as close…
• The … ranked…
• Topping the list is …with the rank of___
and frequency of …
Graphical Presentation

It is a diagram consisting of a line or
lines showing the variations, changes
or relationship of data in a most
attractive, effective and convincing
way. It is presented according to
their qualitative, geographical,
chronological attributes and as
classified as follows: Bar graphs,
Linear graph, and Pictogram
Guidelines for Graphs

Figure Captions
• Placed on a separate manuscript page,
a list of figure captions corresponds to
the separate figures that appear on
subsequent manuscript.

Heading – three lines below the page
header, type the words Figure Captions,
centered but not italicized.




Figure Identification – two lines below the
heading, flush left, type the word figure, the
number of the figure, and a period. All of
these elements are italicized.
Figure caption – one space after the figure
identification, type the caption, using
sentence-style capitalization. Place a period
at the end of the caption, even if it is not a
complete sentence. The caption is not
italicized.
Spacing and indentation – figure captions
are double-spaced. If a caption extends
beyond one line, it continues flush left
Paging – multiple figure captions appear on
the same page, one below another.
Guidelines for Figures


Heading – three lines below the page
header, type the word Figure with an
arabic numeral, not italicized
Figure – present the highest-quality
figure possible, with sharp contrast
in photographs, distinct shading in
bar graphs, and clear lettering in line
graphs. Figures must be scaled to fit
appropriately on the page.


Fonts – printed text that is part of a
figure – labels, for example- should
use sans serif font. The minimum
acceptable font size is 8 points, with
14 points being the maximum.
Paging – each figure must be
presented on a new page.
http://www.google.com.ph/search?clie
nt=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla%3AenUS%3Aofficial&channel=s&hl=tl&sou
rce=hp&q=example+of+tabular+pre
sentations+following+APA+format&
meta=&btnG=Hanapin+sa+Google
Textual Presentation

Uses statements or sentences with
numerals in order to describe the
data purposely to invite attention to
some significant data. This
presentation usually precedes that
table or the graph with the mixture
of words and numbers in statements.
DISCUSSION

The section on discussion of findings
includes the explanation, implications and
applications of findings. After presenting
the results, you are in a position to
evaluate and interpret their implications,
especially with respect to your original
hypothesis. You are free to examine,
interpret, and qualify the results, as well
as to draw inference from them.
Emphasize any theoretical consequences
of the results and the validity of your
conclusions.


Open the discussion with a clear
statement of the support or nonsupport for your original hypothesis.
Similarities and differences between
your results and the work of others
should clarify and confirm your
conclusions.
Do not simplify, reformulate and
repeat points already made, each
new statement should contribute to
your position and to the reader’s
understanding of the problem.

You may remark on certain
shortcomings of the study, bt do not
dwell on every flaw. Negative results
should be accepted as such without
an undue attempt to explain them
away.

Phrases to help and analyze the
results:
• It appears therefore that the…
• One reason could be that…
• Undoubtedly, many of the respondents
claimed that…
• According to…
• It is understandable that only…
• During informal interview with the
respondents, it was learned that…







Three of the respondents stated
that…
When the respondents were asked…
The composite of the respondents
focused on…
The emphasis made by ___ on…
It was noteworthy that…
It should be remembered that…
Interestingly, only…







According to…it is but appropriate
that…
In the interview with ___they
pointed out that…
The respondents exhibited a…
The ___ indicated that…
It should be noted from the
responses that…
It should be mentioned that…
It was indicated that…







The finding of ___ echoed that of
___in that…
This could be due to the ___viewed…
Another author, ___pointed out
that…
It was also disclosed that…
This finding was in line with…
It was reported that…
From this answer, it can be gleaned
that…







This explains why…
It also suggest that…
It should be mentioned that…
This finding is reflective of…
It appears that the …is also ___that…
To sum up…
Consequently, this implies…