English 1C
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 15, 2012
MELISSA GUNBY
ARGUMENTS BASED ON EMOTION: PATHOS
Chapter 2
• What is being
parodied in this ad?
• What is the emotional
appeal that is being
used?
• Who is the target of
this “ad?”
Emotional Appeals
• “Secondly, persuasion is effected through the
audience, when they are brought by the speech into a
state of emotion; for we give very different decisions
under the sway of pain or joy, and liking or hatred.”

The Rhetoric of Aristotle, page 9
Understanding How Emotional
Appeals Work
• Words, images, and sounds can arouse emotions.
What does the word “fag” or “nigger” arouse?
What does the image of an American flag
arouse?
How about the sound of a
crying baby?
Understanding How Emotional
Arguments Work
Sometimes speakers have to
reach a larger audience made
up of more than one particular
group. For example, a stump
speech given today in Reno to
members of the Republican
party is different than Obama’s
State of the Union Address in
who the audience is.
This speech, given by Prime
Minister Winston Churchill
during WWII, had to address
the entire nation of Britain.
What in this speech would appeal
emotionally to an audience of a wartorn country?
• Arguments of emotion work best when persuading
rather than arguing.

When arguing, you’re trying to get someone to realize a truth;
when persuading, trying to get them to take action.
Think, for example, about the Sarah McLaughlin pet adoption
commercials we spoke about last week. What is the purpose of
those commercials? Why is the emotional appeal more effective
than a talking head asking you to contribute?
Freewrite on this image for
three minutes. What
emotions does this image
rouse in you? Do you
respond to the image then
the logos? What clashes of
emotional appeals do you
see, and how do you feel
about that. How would you
caption this image?
Using Emotion to Build Bridges
 Sometimes authors want to use emotions to connect
with the audience to assure them that he
understands their experiences, especially when the
topic is sensitive.
 Can someone read the excerpt from Steve Jobs’
speech on page 44?
 How does Jobs build bridges with what he says?
Group Work
• The right side of the class, take a look at the example
from Georgina Kleege on pg 45.
• The left side of the class, look at Michael Pollan’s
example.
• Discuss as a group, then report back to the class:
 How are these effective examples of using pathos, or
connecting emotionally with the audience.
 Are they effective? In what way?
Using Emotion to Sustain an Argument
 Emotional appeals can also be used to sustain an
argument, and to make logical claims stronger.
Using Humor
 Humor has always been used, something like Mary
Poppins used sugar to make the medicine go down
(and yep, that’s pretty much a quote from the
textbook).
 Humor can be used to put readers at ease before you
slip in a proposal.


Many public speakers open with a joke to lighten up the
atmosphere
It’s hard to say no to someone when you’re laughing at
something they said
 Makes people suspend their judgments and/or
prejudices
Being Careful with Humor
• Not all humor is good intentioned.
• Be careful of not being in bad taste
Using Emotional Appeals
• Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is
often a place for emotion as well. Emotional appeals can
use sources such as interviews and individual stories to
paint a more legitimate and moving picture of reality or
illuminate the truth. For example, telling the story of a
single child who has been abused may make for a more
persuasive argument than simply the number of children
abused each year because it would give a human face to
the numbers.
• Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the
claim you are making, not as a way to distract from the
real issues of debate. An argument should never use
emotion to misrepresent the topic or frighten people.
 “The character of the speaker is a cause of persuasion
when the speech is so uttered as to make him worthy of
belief; for as a rule we trust men of probity more, and
more quickly, about things in general, while on points
outside the realm of exact knowledge, where opinion is
divided, we trust them absolutely. This trust, however,
should be created by the speech itself, and not left to
depend upon an antecedent impression that the speaker
is this or that kind of man. It is not true , as some writers
on the art maintain, that the probity of the speaker
contributes nothing to his persuasiveness; on the
contrary, we might almost affirm that his character is the
most potent of all the means to persuasion.”

The Rhetoric of Aristotle, page 9
Which of the following…
 Would be the most credible?
 Sarah McLaughlin selling Pepsi?
 Bill Clinton selling McDonald’s
 Dr. Phil giving a seminar on how to live a frugal life?
 Brittany Spears lecturing on having a successful
marriage?
 What makes these speakers credible or not in these
given situations?
Creating Ethos
 Through the reputation of the speaker or product
 Through the langage, evidence and images used by
the speaker or in the text
Why ethos matters
 Before we can accept the authority of a speaker, we have
to first respect their authority (understand that they are a
“master” of what they’re speaking about), respect their
integrity and motives (if it’s someone making a sales
pitch, we should know that in advance), or at least
acknowledge what they stand for (though I don’t love the
recent politics of Komen, INC, I do still support the
organization for their cause in trying to get access for all
women to screening for breast cancer).
 However, character alone can’t carry an argument. It
can’t speak to everyone, therefore, ethos must be used
along with pathos or logos to create a complete
argument.
Understanding how arguments work based on
character work
 We look for shortcuts to help us make decisions over
time.

What kind of jeans should I buy? Who should I
vote for? What movie should I see?
 We usually turn to experts for these answers.
Fashionistas, political pundits, movie reviews in
magazines and websites. But how can we trust these
people?
Claiming Authority
 All authors must expect to face the question “What does
he know about the subject? What experiences does she
have that make her an expert?”
 Bold and Personal claim to authority: “I belong to the
Clan of One-Breasted Women.”
 False Modesty: “having spent five years at Harvard
striving for a Ph.D….and…living either as a student…or a
journalst…in China and southeast Asia.”
 Self-assured Prose: interweaving phrases that assure
your audience of your credibility: see the example from
Mike Rose’s blog on page 59.
Establishing Credibility
 Crediblity speaks to a writer’s honest, respect for the




audience and its values, and likeability.
Humor
Make reasonable claims and back them up with
evidence
Presentation
Connecting beliefs to core principles
More group work!
 Left side of the room, tackle Andrew Sullivan’s
excerpt on page 61-62
 Right side, look at Oprah’s on page 63-64
 Be prepared to discuss these with the class.
 How do these two authors establish their authority
and credibility in the small samples we have?
 Do you believe them?
Cultural contexts for argument
 Please look at the grey/green box on page 64
Coming clean about motives
 It’s important to question the motivation of an
author.
 Can someone read the excerpt from Swift’s A Modest
Proposal on page 65?
 How does this present Swift’s reasons and
motivations for writing?
Establishing your own credibility
 Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite





those sources properly.
Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately.
Establish common ground with your audience. Most of the time,
this can be done by acknowledging values and beliefs shared by
those on both sides of the argument.
If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in
this topic or what personal experiences you have had with the topic.
Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can
use the Toulmin method of logic or a simple pattern such as
chronological order, most general to most detailed example, earliest
to most recent example, etc.
Proofread the argument. Too many careless grammar mistakes cast
doubt on your character as a writer.
With a Partner or with a small group…
 Please look at the “Not Just Words” activity on pages
54-55. Complete each of the three bullet points, and
turn in 1 per group (make sure everyone’s name is on
it).
Quick Review
 What is ethos?
 What is pathos?
 What examples
of ethos and
pathos can you
identify in the
ad shown here?
ARGUMENTS BASED ON FACTS AND REASON:
LOGOS
Chapter 4
Spock: Logic and practical information do not seem to
apply here.
McCoy: You admit that?
Spock: To deny the facts would be illogical, Doctor.
-from Star Trek “A Piece of the Action”
Logos
 “Thirdly, persuasion is effected by the arguments,
when we demonstrate the truth, real or apparent, by
such means as inhere in particular cases.”

The Rhetoric of Aristotle, page 9
Logos
 Appeals to logos: arguments based on facts,
evidence, and reason.
 Aristotle divided logical proofs into two categories:
 Inartistic appeals: hard evidence (facts, clues, statistics,
testimonies, and witnesses)
 Artistic appeals: reason and common sense (things commonly
accepted by the general population as being generally true).
Example
 In 1962, the US ambassador to the UN confronted his
Soviet counterpart to deny the existence of missiles
placed in Cuba; he had hard evidence of spy photos to
support his claim.
 In February of 2003, US Secretary of State argued to the
UN Security Council that Iraq harboured weapons of
mass destruction without having hard proof. He had only
“an accumulation of facts and disturbing patterns of
behavior” from which to build his case.
 Who had the stronger case and why?
Argumentation
 Arguing from logos, or using logical reasoning, also relies
on the use of either inductive or deductive logic.
 Inductive logic: generalization from multiple examples:

Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee
producers, so fair trade agreements could be used to help other
farmers as well.
 Deductive logic: conclude from assumptions that
something will follow

Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a
decline in bio-diversity everywhere they have been introduced, so
there is no reason the same thing will not occur when genetically
modified corn seeds are introduced in Mexico.
Not Just Words
Take a look at this
image (also on page 71).
What do you think is
the overall point of this
poster? How do words
and image work
together to make the
point? Who is the
audience?
With the people at your
table, discuss whether
this poster appeals to
logic and reason, and
why or why not.
Providing Hard Evidence
 People mostly want arguments based on facts and
testimony to those grounded only in reasoning (see
previous example we discussed).
 In shows like CSI, they’re always looking for the
“smoking gun,” or DNA evidence which is hard to
discredit/disprove.
 This is backed up by our discussion of the Casey
Anthony case from last week, where we talked about
how the prosecution failed to gather the right
evidence and put together the right argument for the
jury to convict her of murdering her daughter.
Factual Evidence
 Statement + Proof or Claim + Supporting Evidence
 Look at the example on page 75
Facts
 “Facts are stubborn things.” –John Adams
 This makes them good at making strong arguments
 Faithful transmission of facts helps us make
distinctions between professional journalism and
scholarship.


If someone we don’t normally agree with can overwhelm us
with facts, we are willing to give them the benefit of the doubt
in most cases.
See the example on page 76.
Logos’ link to Ethos
 This is where we see how ethos, credibility of the
speaker, also plays into logos or the presentation of
facts.


If an author who is well regarded cites Wikipedia as a source,
what is our general response/reaction to his overall credibility?
How does this differ from sources like MSNBC or Wall Street
Journal, or Sacramento Bee or KCRA 3 news?
What we have to consider here is bias.
Statistics
Look at the sample on page
78-79. Pay particular attention
to the italicized words. What
does this tell us about the use
of statistics?
 Facts and figures can be manipulated just as much as
other information to provide the desired result.
 “The crime rate in this city has been cut in half
during our time in office.” – A mayor and police chief
running for re-election.
 “One in twenty citizens are going to be the victim of a
crime this year” – the opponent.
 The same statistic can be cited for cause of
celebration or alarm.
Surveys and Polls
Right now, we’re hearing a lot of poll data on the news because of
the Republican Nominee election.
How much faith do you put in the following two polls?
Considering Polls and Surveys
 Like other sources of statistics and facts, remember
to consider the credibility of the source.
 Remember to look at the date of a poll, since there
are factors that can influence those taking the poll or
survey.
Testimonies and Narratives
 Anyone who has ever watched a crime drama knows
how unreliable witness testimony can be.
 However, these are still important sources to be
considered.
 Look at the two examples on pages 83-84. With
those on your side of the room, discuss which, if
either, of these two examples are good uses of
testimony and narratives for a logical or factual
appeal. Why or why not?
Using Reason and Common Sense
Other Rhetorical Terms
 Syllogism: chain of argument which leads to a
definite conclusion from universal truths = if, then,
therefore



Men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
 Enthymeme: something that, at best, is only
probably true; certainty is not possible in the realm
of contingent human affairs
 Endoxa: common knowledge/accepted positions
Syllogisms
 In a valid syllogism, the conclusion follows logically
(unlike the cartoon example with the penguin).
Enthymeme
 Relies on the audience to agree with the assumption.
 We’d better cancel the picnic because it’s going to rain
 Flat taxes are fair because they treat everyone the same
 I’ll buy a PC laptop instead of a Mac because it’s cheaper.
 NCAA football needs a real play-off to crown a real national
champion.
 Looking at the above statements, what are the
implied assumptions?
Endoxa: Cultural Assumptions and Values
 Endoxa is Aristotle’s term
 Please look at the example on page 87.
Providing Logical Structure
 Degree
 More of a good thing or less of a bad thing is good.
 Analogy
 Explaining one idea or concept by comparing to something
else.

He is as slow as molasses; war is hell.
 Precedent
 Also uses comparison, but on a larger scale than analogy

If motorists in most other states can pump their own gas safely,
surely the state of Oregon can trust its own drivers to be as
capable. It’s time for Oregon to permit self-service gas stations.
ACADEMIC ARGUMENTS
Chapter 6
What is Academic Argument
 In general terms, academic discourse or academic
argument is addressed to an audience that is well
informed about the topic, that attempts to convey a
clear and compelling point in a somewhat formal
style, and follows agreed-upon conventions of usage,
punctuation, formats, etc.
Examples
 Browse through the examples in the book (134-137)
on migraines. Which of these seems to be the most
academic of the arguments provided. Why or why
not?
Academic Argument…
 Is authoritative (written by experts who are addressing an
audience of their peers and therefore need to establish a
strong ethos)
 Review what is known about a topic and creates new
knowledge about it
 Focuses on issues (facts, definitions, evaluations or causes
and effects) that are important to the writer’s academic peers
 Includes logical appeals based on careful research (such as
field, lab, and library research)
 Cites every source carefully and provides full bibliographical
references so that others can find the sources
 Is written in a clear and formal style
 Has an evenhanded tone, deals fairly with any opposing
points of view, and avoids appeals to emotion.
Developing an Academic Argument
 Choose a topic you want to explore in depth
 Get to know the conversation surrounding your topic
 Assess what you know and what you need to know
 Begin formulating a claim about your topic
 Consider your rhetorical stance and purpose
 Think about your audience(s)
 Concentrate on the material you are gathering
 Take special care with documentation
 Think about organization
 Consider style and tone
 Consider design and visuals
 Reflect on your draft and get responses
 Edit and proofread your text