Quest for Empire
1865 - 1914
Study Guide Identification’s
• What are some examples of American foreign policy being
employed in the late 1800s and early 1900s?
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Bayonet Congress
Hawaiian and Queen Liliokalani Revolt
United States 1893 coup
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
Foraker Act
Butcher Valeriano Weyler
Treaty of Paris
The Maine
Aguinaldo and the Filipino Anti-colonial Movement
Platt Amendment
John Hay’s Open Door Notes
Boxer Rebellion
Study Guide: Intellectual Currents
18th & 19th C
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Technological progress
Nationalism
Imperialism
Racism
Anglo Superiority
Social Darwinism
Manifest Destiny & Frontier mentality
Nativism
Capitalism
Rudyard Kipling’s White Man’s Burden
Study Guide Questions
• What was the relationship between
America’s economic interests abroad and
the expansionist impulse of the late
nineteenth century?
• What were the intellectual currents that
encouraged Americans to believe that
their country should be an Imperial
Power?
Technology
• As an ideology in addition to economic
development
– Cultural changes observed by thinkers
• Self-renunciation in the pursuit of the accumulation of wealth
• Lack of enjoyment, theater and learning for capital
• Profound impact on culture and race in America
– Served as a metaphor and materialist basis for the
domination of
• Mind over body
• Capital over labor
• Whites over Indians, Blacks, Mexicans, Asians
1830 technological Celebration
• America entered into a celebration of technology
as an expression of its nationalism and progress
• President Jackson, 3 annual address
– Praised science for expanding man’s power over
nature
– Improving the mail system
– Moving cities closer to each other in travel time
– Opening lines of communication and trade to settlers
isolated by obstacles of nature
Celebration of Technology
• Technology would serve to destroy “The traces
of savage life”
– Like the Indians, the horse would disappear, they
would become traditional
• It would transform production and labor in
America
– Promise to free laborers from work…
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Instead it deprived work of interest & creativity
Maximized the amount of time worked
Degraded labor
Did not eliminate the body from laboring
It separated the intellectual power of production from manual
labor
Westward Expansion
• Manifest Destiny viewed in terms of
technological progress
• Southern Quarterly Review, 1828
– They could “perceive neither justice, nor
wisdom, nor humanity in arresting the
progress of order and science, that
unproductive and barren wastes may be
reserved for the roaming barbarian”
New Imperial Vision
• Integrated science with expansion
– “Science is steadily penetrating the
recesses of nature and disclosing her
secrets while the ingenuity of free minds is
subjecting the elements to the power of
man and making each new conquest
auxiliary to his comfort”
– American identity developed with the
movement westward, toward Asia
• Desire to open doors to Asia
Senator Thomas Hart Benton
• Personified West & its expansionist spirit
– While the “yellow” race was far above the “Black” and
the “red” races, it was still far below the “White” and
like all the rest “must receive an impression from the
superior race whenever they come into contact”
– Adams sons, the White race alone received the
“divine command, to subdue and replenish the earth”
– White developed religion, art, and science, destroying
“savagery” and “savages” in America as they
advanced civilization.
• Capital replaced the wigwam
• White matrons replaced red squaws
• Christian people replaced savages
Nationalism
• Political force at the turn of the century
19th C
– A learned emotional loyalty that individuals
direct toward a group with which they
perceive common bonds
• Provides members a sense of membership &
belonging
• Nurtured by common bonds: language, religion,
social & institutional traditions, territory, history
– History might be glorified or even a new one constructed
and imagined to perpetuate nationalism and unity
United States
• Heterogeneous population of the United States
• Nationalism complex & contradictory
– Traditional doctrine of an ethnic and religious “melting
pot” whose citizens gave primary allegiance to the
concepts of economic opportunity and political
democracy
– Cultural tradition reflected values and prejudices of
the politically & economically powerful persons
descended from ethnic groups in Northern Europe
• Predominately Anglo (Germanic tribes) Saxon Protestants
Imperialism
• The process by which a small number of
industrial nations extended their economic and
political control over much of the rest of the
world
– The main driving force in international relations at the
turn of the century
• Fueled by Nationalism
– Engendered in many countries a relentless urge to
compete with other nations to become the most
powerful in the world
– Special interest groups often encouraged national
governments to extend their influence abroad
Strategic Imperialism
• Concern for control of key Waterways,
ports, military outposts
– U.S. control of Hawaii for example
– U.S. creation of Panama to maintain control of
the Panama Canal
Cultural Imperialism
• Motive, rationalization, result
• Basis of alleged natural superiority of the
white race, westerners argued that it was
the “White Man’s Burden” to bring the
benefits of “Superior” western civilization
– technology,
– Religion
– Institutions
• To “inferior” non-whites of the world living in
“darkness and ignorance”
Christian Missionary zeal
• Another manifestation of cultural
imperialism
– The flag follows the cross
– Missionaries from America sought to impose
Christianity on non-Christian peoples around
the world
• Missionaries would come into conflict with local
peoples
• Imperial powers would send in military forces to
protect the missionaries
Herbert Spencer & Social
Darwinism
• Argued biological evolution, involving
competition, elimination of the weak, and
“survival of the fittest” should be applied
to competition among cultures, nations
and peoples
– It was right or “natural” for “strong, superior
cultures” to control or even to eliminate
“weaker, inferior cultures.”
United States Imperialism
• Not a significant military or diplomatic
force in the 1889
– Army: 25,000 men
– Navy: sails and wooden vessels
• Census Bureau announced the official
closing of the “frontier” in 1890
– Business people & farmers were concerned
with ability of domestic markets to absorb
output and increase revenues
Foreign Policy Elite
• Argued
– US prosperity & security required expansion
overseas & global activity
– Asserted foreign trade & investments = profit
• Relieved farm/factory overproduction
(1890s depression)
Interventionists
• The most important groups who became
interested in extending America’s
influence abroad
• Protestant missionaries
• Businessmen/Capitalists
• Imperialists
Imperialistic Designs
• Imperialists desire to control ports, and
territories beyond their own borders.
– to catch up with other nations
• Europe’s division of Africa complete by 1912
– build a strong navy
– Solidify a sphere of influenceExternal markets
into Asia
Foreign Trade Expansion
• Economic Growth:
– Exports & investments abroad surged
• USA achieved favorable balance of trade (1874)
• Most US exports to England, Europe, Canada
• Trade w/ Latin America & Asia also increased
– Farmers & some manufacturers (Singer)
depended on exports
• 1913: factory exports surpassed farm
exports for first time
Race Thinking & Male Ethos
• Many intertwined
ideas encouraged
empire
– Nationalism,
Capitalism, Social
Darwinism, &
prejudice
• Imperialists asserted
racial hierarchy w/
Anglo-Saxons on top
• “Might Makes it Right”
New Frontiers
• Protestant clergyman, Josiah Strong’s Our
Country: It’s Possible Future and its present
Crisis (1885)
– celebrated divine Anglo-Saxon mission to lead world
– “God, with infinite wisdom and skill, is training the
Anglo-Saxon race for an hour sure to come in the
world’s future”
• Author, John Fiske – lecture circuit on Manifest Destiny
– Predicted “every land on the earth’s surface” that was not
already civilized would become “English in its language, in its
religion, in political habits and traditions, and to a predominant
extent in the blood of its people”
Race Thinking & Male Ethos
• National Geographic (1888)
stereotyped foreign peoples as
uncivilized; same w/ fairs
• Ethnocentrism/ paternalism shaped
imperialism
• US culture superior; dark skinned
foreigners = “children”
• Such ideas rationalized domination of
others
Mahan and Navalism
• Major factor of Imperialism
• “blue water” navy to protect
foreign trade
• foreign bases to protect trade
• Power derived from control of the
seas
• Mahan’s Influence of Sea Power
Upon History, 1890, influences
other countries
• 1880s: USA build new steel &
steam navy
– 4 steel ships
– 1890 congress appropriated funds for
3 battleships
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)
• Secretary of State James G. Blaine, under the Garfield
Administration
– Promoted American expansion throughout the western
hemisphere
• Wanted to renegotiate the treaty to give the U.S. control over any
canal across Central America
• Originally with Britain, prohibited both nations from exercising
exclusive control over any future waterway
– 1552, King Charles of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire First
suggested it be built
– exploring expedition of 1788-1793 Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans
for its construction
– Construction begun by France in 1880
– Completed and opened by the United States in 1912
– He wanted to create Pan-American system that would promote
stability & security in Caribbean & South America
Pan-Americanism
• International Bureau of the American Republics
became the Pan-American Union in 1910
– Laid the foundation for sharing of ideas and
information throughout the western hemisphere
– it offered technical and informational services to all
the American republics, served as the repository for
international documents, and was responsible
through subsidiary councils for the furtherance of
economic, social, juridical, and cultural relations.
Annexation of Hawai‘i
• US missionaries, businessmen, & navy see
Hawai‘i as base for profit & expansion
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1820’s Boston Missionaries – sugar planters
1875 (Sugar) duty free entry into American Market
1887 U.S. Naval rights in Pearl Harbor
1887 “Bayonet Congress” and “Bayonet Constitution”
of King Kalakaua
• While attempting to create a Polynesian confederation
• Business men or the “missionary party” forced Kalakaua into
signing a provisional government that allowed for foreign
control of the government and economy
Queen Liliokalani Revolt
• 1892, the Hawaiian Legislature and Queen
argued over the presence and role of
foreigners in the country
• She dismissed the legislature
• Established a constitution that stripped
white settlers of the powers enjoyed under
the previous institutions
United States Coup, 1893
• White planters & businessmen favored
annexation of Hawaii
• Stage coup of Queen (’93) w/ help of US
diplomats/navy
– McKinley Tariff 1890 canceled Hawaii’s
favored access to American Markets
• Queen Liliokalani took over
and strove to establish
independence.
– 5-6 princes of various royal
families mysteriously died
• Princess Kaiulani died at age
24
• Kauananakoa - Today
LilioKalani
• "I yield to the superior force of the United
States of America, whose minister, his
Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused
United States troops to be landed at
Honolulu. ... Now, to avoid any collision of
armed forces and perhaps the loss of life, I
do, under this protest, and impelled by said
force, yield my authority until such time as
the government of the United States shall
undo the action of its representative and
reinstate me."
President Grover Cleveland
• Dec. 18, 1893, he briefed Congress on his
findings:
• "By an act of war, committed with the
participation of a diplomatic representative
of the United States and without authority of
Congress, the government of a feeble but
friendly and confiding people has been
overthrown," Cleveland said. "A substantial
wrong has thus been done, which a due
regard for our national character, as well as
the rights of the injured people, requires we
should endeavor to repair."
Puck & Judge, 1897
“Another Shotgun Wedding”
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A woman (Hawai'i) and Uncle Sam
are getting married, kneeling before
the minister (McKinley) who is
reading from a book entitled
"Annexation Policy". The bride seems
ready to bolt. Behind the couple
stands Morgan (jingo) with a shotgun.
Annexed in 1898 – President
McKinley
Jingoism
• Describes
chauvinistic
patriotism, usually
with a hawkish
political stance. In
plain language it
means bullying
other countries, or,
using whatever
means necessary to
safeguard a
country's national
interests.
• Xenophobia
“10,000 miles from tip to tip” political
Cartoon from 1898
Revolution in Cuba (1895)
• 1868 Cubans launch guerrilla war; many
die & much destruction of US property, but
weaken Spain
• “Butcher” Valeriano Weyler
– 200,000 - concentration camps
– 1/8 of population died of starvation and
disease
• Americans sympathize w/ rebels
Resistance Movement
29 years
• Liberation Movement continued through
1897
– Cuba demanded full independence
• Riots broke out in Havana
– McKinley ordered the Battleship Maine into
Havana Harbor to protect US citizens and
their property.
United States Intervention
• Excuse
– Explosion of Maine
– (Feb., 1898)
• Motives
– “humanitarian”
– secure US property /trade
– opportunity for US expansion/ empire
Conditions to Avoid War
• United States conditions to Spain to avoid war
– Abandoning the concentration camps
– End fighting of resistance
– Commit Cuba to independence.
• American superior navy
– Took Cuba, Philippines, Puerto Rico
Changing American Opinion
• Cuban revolutionaries
• initially intelligent, civilized, and democratic while
possessing an Anglo-Saxon tenacity of purpose.
• Opinion changed
• Primitive, Savage and incapable of self control or
self government.
• White Man’s Burden
Treaty of Paris (1898)
o Cede Puerto Rico and Guam to the US
o & Philippines in exchange for 20 million
Anti-Imperialist Arguments
• Imperialism and empire building, whether
through formal or informal methods
violates principles of the United States
– formal (annexation)
– informal (economic control)
• racist arguments (fear nonwhite
immigration); labor unions fear competition
Imperialist Arguments
• Taking Philippines
– boost US trade w/ China
• Competition with
other Empires
• “White Man’s Burden”
• Take up the White
Man's burden-Send forth the best ye
breed-Go, bind your sons to
exile
To serve your captives'
need;
To wait, in heavy
harness,
On fluttered folk and
wild-Your new-caught sullen
peoples,
Half devil and half
child..."
• Rudyard Kipling McClure's Magazine
12 (Feb. 1899).
Philippine Insurrection and
Pacification
• Emilio Aguinaldo, Leader of the
Filipino Anti-colonial Movement
– The Filipino people rose in revolt
against the US army of occupation
February 6, 1899
• USA crushed most resistance by
1902
– war continued in south
– 5,000 Americans die
– 200,000 Filipinos die
• Controlled Philippines via
education (create pro-US elite),
censorship, economic links
America’s Philippines
• concentration camps
• houses, farms and livestock
destroyed
• economy destroyed –
starvation
• 16,000 rebels
• 200,000 civilians deals
• New York infantry killed 1,000
men, women, and children in
retaliation for the death of one
soldier.
Colony to “Protectorate”
In 1900 General Arthur Macarthur
– amnesty to those who agreed to surrender and he
cultivate ties with the wealthy elites
– Wm Howard Taft to establish civilian government
became the colonies first governor-general.
• By 1913 the revolt was crushed
• US held the Philippines as a colony until 1946
Cuba
• 1901 Platt Amendment
• Conditions for Cuban independence
– could not make treaties with foreign powers
– US would maintain broad authority to intervene in
economic and political affairs
– had to sell or lease lands to US for Naval Stations
• US invested heavily there and intervened in
political and economic affairs to protect those
investments and reap the wealth (5x 19061921)
Puerto Rico
 Annexed under the Foraker Act 1900
– “unincorporated territory”
• no citizenship
• congress would dictate the government and
specify the rights of inhabitants throughout the
20th century
• Large scale sugar production by U.S. business
• Theodore Roosevelt Jr.
– Under domination of US capital “poverty was wide
spread and hunger, almost to the verge of starvation ,
common”
Open Door in China
• Imperialist powers (Europe/ Japan) carved
weak China into “spheres of influence”
• Secretary of State, John Hay “Open Door
notes”
– “Open Door” US policy goals in China
• Equal trade opportunities
• Open spheres of influence to U.S. Merchants
• Grant reasonable harbor fees and Rail Road Rates
China’s Resistance
• Boxer Rebellion – 1900
– Righteous and Harmonious
Fists
• Goal to expel all foreign
influences
• Imperial coalition of
expeditionary forces
crushed rebellion
– included 5,000 Americans
Obstacles in Keeping the Peace
• Roosevelt encouraged Japan to build a
secure sphere of influence in East Asia
and to maintain peace with the US.
• Obstacles
– Racism and fear of Asian immigrants.
– Chinese Exclusion Act 1882
– Segregation of Japanese school children
• 1907 anti-Asian riots (San Francisco &
L.A)
– The “Yellow Peril.”
Speak Softly, Carry a Big Stick
• Roosevelt - skilled diplomat in foreign
policy
– When to make concessions and when to
stand firm
– Lessened the prospect of war
– Preserved strong American presence in the
east
• A Show of strength - “Great white fleet”
Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy”
• “Substitute dollars for Bullets” promote private
American investments abroad
– Increase American power and influence in the
Caribbean and tied underdeveloped countries to the
US economically and strategically
– Failed to improve conditions for Latin Americans
• Military intervention and imposition of United
States Interests
– Nicaragua
– Caribbean
Nicaragua
• Progressive Nicaragua President, Jose
Zelaya
– President 1893 – 1909
• Public education, RR and steam ship lines
– began negotiating with a European country
to build a second trans isthmus canal
• In Response, U.S. Marines toppled his regime.
• United States maintained military presence for
at least 20 years
Wilson’s Foreign Policy
• Democrat Woodrow Wilson took office in 1913
• “Would never again seek one additional foot of
territory by conquest” but would instead promote
“human rights, national integrity and opportunity in
Latin America”
• Wilson intervened militarily in the Caribbean on behalf
of economic interests more than any other president
before him
– Haiti
– Dominican Republic
– Cuba
1. Compared to Rivals
Between 1870-1900
foreign policy judged against 2 standards
• 1. Compared to the actions of other rival powers
• 2. American Ideals
Unites States added 125,000 miles to its empire (not including the
nearly 4 million taken from Native peoples)
United States
4.2+ million
Great Britain
4.7 million
France
3.5 million
Germany
1 million
2. American Ideals
• Imperialism and Colonialism
– Violated democratic ideals of America
– By demeaning people of it’s colonies it
mocked the Declaration of Independence
• “all men are created equal…with unalienable
rights”
• Abandoned claim of being a nation that valued
liberty more than power