Unit 3
Nationalism,
Realism and
Mass Politics
1850-1914
Europe in 1850

Revolutions of 1848 were
failures b/c people
couldn’t agree on goals.
There were growing rifts
between classes. Middle
classes were growing more
conservative now that they
had been included in
political systems. Idealism
discredited- revolutionaries
less optimistic- gov’ts
getting used to repressing.
Talks are less about what
OUGHT to be and more
about what IS (realism)


Movement towards mass
politics as suffrage
expanded Nationalism no
longer just one of the
ideologies- accepted as a
major force- even by
conservatives.
Idealism= impracticality.
Instead, focus on
REALPOLITIK- accomplish
practical goals through
practical means- work step
by step, don’t assume you
can rebuild the world
overnight.
France Under Napoleon III
Second Republic



December 1848 Louis
Napoleon elected
president. His “Magic
Name” (his uncle’s)
reassured voters in
times of turbulence.
Main act as president
seemed to be trying to
gain popularity with
the people.
1851- asked for a 2nd
term (against const)
and was denied



Louis Napoleon had lived
most of his life outside of
France- had few “enemies”
Time had made Napoleon
the hero of France. Louis
Napoleon manipulated
voting and blamed
legislature for corruption
Seen as a symbol of
stability- appeared liberal
enough, conservative in
areas, and against
radicalism in all forms.
Plebiscite

1851- Napoleon used
the military to seize
control of the gov’t.
Granted universal
manhood suffrage (1st
country to do so) and
used it for his uncle’s
old trick- a vote on his
actions.
Overwhelmingly (97%)
voted him emperorcrowned
December 1852
Second Empire

Nap III synthesized
economic liberalism
(popular with middle
class), nationalism, and
authoritarian rule
(popular with
conservatives).
Extravagant court- firm
control of legislature.
But allowed the vote,
and frequently asked
voters input.



New imperial
aristocracy created
from wealthy
businessmen.
Gave control of
Secondary
Education to gov’trather than church.
Gave unions right to
strike (popular with
radicals)
Economic Prosperity

Believed gov’t should
promote economy.
Cleared out slums, built
better houses, new
sewers, RR, Grand
pubic buildings- which
provided jobs,
improved commerce,
created a better
standard of living, and
prevented revolution


Moved towards free
trade, lowering
tariffs, doubling
exports. Signed trade
agreement with old
rival, England.
Credit Moblier- a
gov’t run corporate
bank for investing
Baron George von Haussmann


Redesigned Paris to
show beauty and
provide political
strength (streets too
wide for barricades,
lots of ways to get
places)
Paris 1st modern
Capital city- a
planned city
International Affairs
 Wanted
to
reinvigorate French
power, reclaim
French glory, and
show off too.
 Challenged Russia
and Austriaattempted to
make Mexico a
monarchy


Actually a weak area
for him. Lots of posturing,
but he didn’t have
Napoleon I’s brilliance
on or off the battlefield.
Many of his reforms
done to divert attention
from one of his foreign
policy blunders- like
sending his cousin
Maximillian to try to take
over Mexico.
Crimean War


1853-1856
The beginning of
a turning point in
European Historycracks begin to
appear in the
notion of balance
of power.
Causes


Ottomans restricting
Christian visitors to the
Holy Land (same issue as
1095 btw)- made treaty
to stop doing it for RC.
Russian Orthodox
demand same
treatment- and says it is
occupying territory in
Crimea (Black Sea) until
demands met
Really about expansion
of territory for Russia and
weakening of Ottomans
Crimean War (II)

Spark: Russian
expansion into Black
Sea area. French
and British feared
Ottoman would
collapse entirely and
Russia would expand
all the way through
Balkans to
Mediterranean.
 Big
shock that
Eng/France
support Muslims
Technology and War


Heading towards
modern weapons, this
war has a much higher
casualty rate than any
which have come
before. Begins shift
away from cavalry
(used to break lines- but
don’t often carry major
guns) towards artillery.
Repeating rifles
Sevastopol- largest
battle
 Russia
WAY behind
in tech- they get
spanked- very
embarrassing, and
a wake up call for
them- begin
attempts at
modernization
Florence Nightingale
A
major cause of
death from
wounds was
infection. Florence
was a British nurse
who pioneered
standards of
treatment to
prevent further
damage
Results of War
 Russia
was forced
to pull back- which
was a surprise, their
size had made
them so scaryturns out they
weren’t. Concert
of Europe dead- all
nations are out for
their own gains
Peace of Paris
 Russia
lost mouth
of Danube and
territory that
became
Romania. Black
Sea became
Neutral- Ottoman
Empire “saved”
Italian
Unification

Italy had not been
unified since classical
age. From Mid. Ages
had been collection
of “city states”.
Renaissance had
been a high pointbut had become a
battleground for
competing powers.
 Hapsburgs
in North,
Pope in Center,
Bourbons in South.
Only Sardinia really
“independent”
Early Attempts: Mazzini (the
Visionary)



Giuseppe Mazzini and
Vincenzo Gioberti led 1st
attempts by Carbonari to
unify Italy. (unsuccessful)
Mazzini wanted a Republic,
Gioberti wanted a state
led by the pope
Unable to pull people
together- both represented
ideas that were too radical
and idealistic- more
romantic that realistic
Sardinia


Victor Emmanuel II- a
constitutional
monarch, had
become the best
option for leading Italy
to unity.
A liberal state, with
Econ strength- strong
enough to lead
without making others
feel they are being
steamrolled
Camillo di Cavour
 Chief minister to king
(the
Statesman)
Victor Emmanuel of


Sardinia. Practicalwilling to work step by
step to achieve goalsbrought middle class
in.
Started with North to
“enlarge Sardinia”
rather than create
“Italy”
1859 Used war with
Austria (aided by Nap
iii) to bring people
together.


Used available Media
“Il Risorgimento”
Newspaper (named for
Mazzini’s idea, but
more practical) to
spread propaganda.
By 1860 Lombardy,
Tuscany, Parma and
Modena have
become part of
Sardinia
Plombiere
 Napoleon
iii had promised Sardinia help
with Austria – and they would split the
territories (Savoy and Nice would go to
France) Secret pact made at Plombieres
 But as conflict was ending- France
backed out of support to help Italy gain
Venice (decided it would be too
difficult) and made sep. peace
with Austria.
 Cavour felt betrayed
Giuseppe Garibaldi (the Revolutionary)


Charismatic- the last
of the Romantics. Had
fought in 1848.
Republican- but
practical enough to
compromise for unity.
Began in Sicily and
Naples- where he
defeated the
Bourbons and began
to head north.

RED SHIRTS: Garibaldi’s
revolutionaries.
Defeated 2
professional
armies in south
Unification



Cavour and Garibaldi
met in Naples in Feb
1861. Victor Emmanuel
declared King of Italy.
Venice joined 1866,
Rome 1870 (with
creation of Vatican for
pope)
Process not radical or
democratic, Cavour
steered nationalism in a
conservative direction


Pope was a sticky pointFrance was biggest
support in him keeping
the center of Italy- but
After Franco-Prussian
war they could not
longer support.
Biggest problem after
unification was
integration- the North
was semi-industrialized,
south stagnant and
agrarian.
Unification of Germany


Frankfurt Assembly of
1848 had failed. Who
will Germany? 2
choices, Austria or
Prussia- both of whom
wanted the job.
Austria in decline,
Prussia on the risethey get the job
Grossdeutsch

United Germany with
BOTH Austria and
Prussia as part of
country. Became
increasingly unrealistic
Kleindeustch

Germany with Prussiabut no Austria. This is
the practical plan,
and this is a practical
age
Rise of Bismarck
 Wilhelm
I took power in 1861- and was
inspired by Sardinia’s success with Italy.
 Made Otto Von Bismarck (Junker- a big
fan of strength) his Prime Minister Together
they plotted to create “Germany” with
strong military, economic, and political
power. (It’s not just about making a
country- making a world leader)
 Conservative Nationalism
Realpolitik



Unification will come not through idealism
and brotherhood, but by working with a
plan, moving in steps, and keeping the
ultimate goal in sight. Defines the politics of the
age
Gap Theory: Wilhelm worried about losing powerBismarck says no problem, since King grants
constitution, he is ultimate power, not legislature
Diplomatic- Bismarck only fought when he HAD toand only when he knew he would win
“Blood and Iron”

Bismarck’s most
famous manifestothat it is not speeches
and resolutions that
accomplish goals- but
sacrifice and actionand he is going to get
this DONE
War as a means to Unify

Borrowed the idea
from Italy- use a series
of small (easily won)
wars to bring people
together.
War with Denmark



1863
Duchies of Schleswig
and Holstein claimed
by both Denmark and
Prussia. Bismarck
convinced Austria to
go to war with himthey would each take
a territory.
Won easily….and
Bismarck was already
planning to use the
result to provoke his
next war- with Austria.
War with Austria


Seven Weeks War
1866
Used Austrian
possession of Holstein
to provoke tension
and start war. Prussia
has most advanced
military in world at
that point- spanked
old fashioned Austria.
Makes Prussia decisive
leader of German
affairs



Prussia made alliances
with Fr, Rus, It before
war to keep them out.
1st time RR key for
troop movement
Create North German
Confederation- with a
2 house legislature
(Reichstag) for all Ger.
States- with universal
manhood suffrage
Franco Prussian War (Part 1)
 1870-71
 Southern
German states are still more
inclined to Austria (they are RC)- but
Bismarck knew that conflict with France
would draw them in. (and that Nap iii was
all talk, no action) Plus- they’d really like
Alsace and Lorraine (between France
and Germany
Ems Dispatch


Intentional snub to
provoke war.
Bismarck boasted
about kicking the
French ambassador
out of GermanyInfuriated the French
so they declared war
(which made them
the “aggressors”)
Franco Prussian War (Part 2)


South jumps on the German bandwagon- and we
have a whole country. Bismarck was right about
Nap iii- he is a poor commander, and won’t
appoint good ones (he’s afraid they will make him
look bad) Prussia doesn’t just beat France, the
humiliate them- esp. at Battle of Sedan- where
they capture Nap iii. Lay siege to Paris- and take
the capital.
Shocking to other countries how powerful this new
“Germany” is- they came out swinging.
German Empire


Wilhelm I declared
“Kaiser” of German
Empire in Hall of Mirrors
at Versailles. Harsh treaty
for France- Ger gets
Alsace/Lorraine, and
France has to pay
reparations for “Starting”
the war
Germany now most
powerful nation on
Continent



Victory of Conservative
Nationalism
Didn’t change gov’t
structure from 1866
(Reichstag etc…)
Now that he had his
country- Bismarck used
Liberal reform
(Kulterkampf: vote,
pensions, education) to
keep people happy and
prevent revolution
Nation Building 1850-1914

Changing the
Balance of Power in
Europe- starting to get
competitive again
Mass Politics



Ordinary people have
increasing nationalism- by
1914 universal manhood
suffrage was typical.
Welfare state will begin to
emerge- 1st in Germany,
than Britain and elsewhere.
Increasing education was
supported by the gov’t.
As more people got
involved in politics, became
the job of politicians to
“fool” them- manipulating
voters for their own ends
France After Napoleon III
 France
is once again chaotic and divided
on whether to be a Republic or a
Monarchy.
 Est. 3rd Republic at end of Franco-Prussian
War- Adolf Thiers (conservative) elected
President by National Assembly 1871
but….
 Radicals are gaining stronger voices
saying it was clear the usual ways are
ineffective
Paris Commune



Radicals created a
municipal gov’t
separate from the rest
of France before the
war even ended.
Socialist- and a threat
National Assembly
sent in the army to
bombard the city70,000 killed in 7 day
siege of Paris


Marxists loved the
idea of the
commune- the
people taking over.
But it drove the
National Assembly
and Thiers into
becoming more
conservative to
suppress radicals
Third Republic
 Est
1871- didn’t really take full power until
1875.
 Legislature: Chamber of Deputies (chosen
by UMS) Senate (chosen indirectly)
 Executive: Chosen by both houses of Leg.
 Stabilized France, but was inefficient and
seen as weak. (Failure to complete
Panama Canal)- Lots of coalition gov’ts
joining together and falling apart.
 Still- longest since 1789, lasted until 1940
Boulanger Crisis
 1887-1889.
George
Boulanger gained
confidence of
military and tried
to use it to
overthrow gov’t.
Failed (he fled)
but still indicative.
Dreyfus Affair



1894 Biggest crisis to hit Republic. Capt. Alfred
Dreyfus (a Jew) accused (falsely) of selling secrets
to the Germans.
Monarchists (and Church) used it to discredit
Republicans (who were on an anti-church kick at
the time)
Dreyfus sentenced to Devil’s Island- BUT in 1896
new evidence came to light that Dreyfus
innocent- real culprit Major Frederick Esterhazy,
and that army had forged documents to frame
Dreyfus b/c of anti- semitism
Emile Zola
 “J’Accuse”-
1898 newspaper article
outlining the events and cover up.
(including that gov’t knew all along who
was guilty) Zola arrest for Libel- left for
England
 Scandal split households, caused riots
 Radicals supported Republic (against
monarchists) led to an alliance between
Republicans and Socialists. Monarchists
discredited
 Dreyfus pardoned 1899.
Austria in Decline


They have been slipping
for 200 years. Not
industrialized, not unified,
constantly on the brink of
chaos (weakened by
nationalism where others
are strengthened by it).
Suffrage limited until 1907,
legalized discrimination
*esp anti- semitism.
Language a particularly
divisive issue- schools/gov’t
required use of German,
which annoyed other
ethnicities
Hapsburg Empire


After 1848 Austria is trying to
pull themselves together under
Fran Joseph I. He stressed
uniform laws/taxes for empire,
modest industrialization (too
little too late)
1860- proposed a new
constitution which allowed
regional assemblies (pacify
nationalists) But that created
even more tension- so
abandoned in favor of….
Dual Monarchy


1867
After loss to Prussia (in 7 weeks
war) Austria was particularly
weak. Hungarians gave an
ultimatum, revolution or
Augsleich: home rule for
Hungary. (still IN empire, but
Autonomous) Emp accepted,
fatal blow- now they can
never centralize
Pan Slavism


Hungarian success only
made other nationalistic
demands stronger.
Many of the nationalities of
empire were Slavic (as
opposed to Germanic)
began to discuss how to
work together for mutual
success. Supported by
Russia, who wanted to
weaken Austria (and step in
to gap)
Russia: The Reform Era



Alexander II- Tsar after
Crimean War- most liberal
since Catherine the Greatdecides Russia HAS to
modernize
Provided education for
soldiers to increase literacy,
Relaxed censorship.
Emancipation of Serfs
1861(Russia last here, Even
Austria had done it in 1848
Emancipation Act 1861


90% of Russia peasants serfs- and
not happy about it. Could be
sold by nobles into army, or as
factory workers.
Act “freed” serfs, but had to buy
land in order to stay where they
were (free to leave, but not
many places to go) No political
rights. Most end up on Mirs- land
grants owned by the gov’t, and
run by nobles- and generally
even worse off than they were
before
Zemstvos


Alex’s reforms created
local political councils to
replace noble control over
population- 1st opportunity
for ANY pol. Participation.
Only had influence in local
issues- generally run by tiny
middle class.
Had no ability to limit Tsar
or central gov’t
Industrialization



No capitalist middle class- industry came from
gov’t (like westernization had from Peter)
Russia has massive resources- but they are in the
middle of nowhere (Literally) Trans Siberian RR
key for making resources available- and for
exporting them. (RR begun 1860, TS RR 5000 mi
completed 1880)
Factories built in St. Petersburg and Moscow
with $$ from western investment (encouraged,
in 1900 ½ of Russia’s factories are foreign
owned) Industrialization will bring Marxism to
Russia
Count S Y Witte

Oversaw
industrialization in the
1890s. Aggressively
courted foreign
investment. Built 35,000
mi of RR by 1900, made
Russia 4th largest steel
producer, and
exported ½ of world
petroleum- but they
didn’t OWN the econ.
Political Unrest


Russia is becoming
increasingly unstableeven with reform (in fact,
perhaps because of
reform) Reform
encouraged demandsbringing up new
nationalist, liberal ideas.


Still had HUGE econ problems1/3 of farmland not used,
tremendous unemploymentand no gov’t help.
Humiliated AGAIN in RussoJapanese war of 1905
Russia was FAR more radical
than other places- there was
no other option. Radical
movements gained ground all
through late 1800s
Intelligentsia

The (small) group of
educated- attached
to universities. Felt
alienated, advocated
terrorism to achieve
change. Considered
the rest of Europe
MORALLY inferior to
Russia- but the Tsar
was stuck in the pastcreating a stumbling
block to Russian
greatness.

Nihilists: intellectuals
who believed in
nothing but science.
That the social order
should be wiped out
Anarchists

Opposed to ANY
formal gov’t. Used
terrorism and
assassination to
create change. Killed
Alex II in 1881 (felt he
moved too slowly)
Bombed his carriage.
Mikail Bakunin
influential
Alexander III



Tsar 1881-1894
Reactionary. Saw
assassination as
fault/result of reform.
Called for “Autocracy,
Orthodoxy &
Russification”
Encouraged Pogroms
(Jews blamed for
radical groups)
Only fired radicals up
further.
Marxism/Leninism


Marxism popular with Intelligensia- but
a Marxist revolution was supposed to
be led by a proletariat class- and
Russia didn’t have one.
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin) has
solution- “Democratic Centralism”. A
small “vanguard” can led a proletariat
revolution in the name of the people
(Bolsheviks) and hold power until the
people are ready to lead themselves
Nicholas II

The last Tsar 18941917. Alex III also
killed. Nicholas was
much like Louis XVI, a
gentle, family man,
who was completely
unsuited for his times.
Foolish, not firm,
easily led into bad
choices (Rasputin)
Revolution of 1905


Sparked by humiliation
of defeat in R-J war.
Bloody Sunday: Jan
1905 200,000 workers
marched peacefully
on the Winter Palace
to present a petition
to the Tsar requesting
reform (he wasn’t
there) Army
slaughtered marchers
in cold blood. But rev.
failed b/c army
backed Tsar


Created a general
strike which lasted
from Jan to Oct and
paralyzed econ.
Tsar forced to cede a
constitution w/an
elected legislature:
DUMA. (only advisory,
no lawmaking power)
Reforms were too little
too late to satisfy
radicals.
Russo Japanese War



1904-1905
Russia had a sphere of
influence in
Manchuria- planned
to invade and
imperialize Korea- but
so did Japan.
Jap/Russia fought
over territory- and
Japan SPANKED Russia
(1st time a non Euro
won since Crusades)
Humiliating- they turn
from Asian expansion
and focus on Balkans
instead
Britain: Towards
Democracy
Women’s suffrage a




Of all the countries of
Europe- the 2nd half of
the 19th cen was
smoothest for England
Reforms comegenerally peacefully
through popular will,
not revolution.
Economic prosperity
encouraged
Parliament towards
liberal refomr
significant movement
for the 1st time in US
and Eng- suffragettes
largely from middle
class
Evolution of Monarchy


Queen Victoria ruled
from 1837-1901
(England’s longest
ruling monarch)
She and her German
husband Albert were
models of propriety
and family living.
Queen built an image
above politics and a
symbol of national
unity.

Less political power
than other monarchs,
but more influence
Victorian Age

This entire era in British
history is named for
the Queen. The
middle classes loved
her as a symbol of
their values: rather
strict and buttoned up
(which hid a seamy
side)
Parliamentary Reform


Voting rights
expanded. Tory/Whig
Parties realigned.
Two major Prime
ministers swapped
back and forth- and
to remain popular,
passed reforms

Fabian Society:
founded 1883.
Marxism in Englandsought to abolish
monarchy, establish
pure democracy and
create econ socialism
Conservative: Benjamin
Disraeli


Leader of Tories (who
became known as
conservatives)
Favored strengthened
representative gov’t.
Second Reform Bill
1867- created a
million new voters
(lower middle classes,
even craftsman)




Known for aggressive
foreign policy and exp
Expansion of Empire.
Reform bill doubled
the # who could voteand made it no longer
land based, but $$
based qualification.
(still not universal)
Redistributed seats in
Parliament (again)
Liberals:
William Gladstone


Promoted Econ and Pol
liberalism. Passed reforms
to provide universal
elementary ed, created
competitive exams for
civil service. Other social
reforms like health
insurance,
unemployment and
pensions
3rd Reform Bill 1884nearly universal
manhood suffrage.




Most important
liberal of 19th cen
England. Abolished
compulsive tithes to
Anglican church,
legalized right to strike.
Reform Act of 1911:
made House of Lords
merely symbolic, said
elections must be held at
least every 5 years (had
been 7)
Australian Ballot: secret
ballot instituted 1872
(chartist demand)
Irish Home Rule



Biggest challenge
England faced in this
time period. Irish
nationalist sought pol.
Rights and
independence (had
MPs, but couldn’t vote)
Gladstone did some
reform (elim tax to Ang
church, compensation
for evicted)
Charles Stewart Parnell:
Vocal champion of Irish
rights in Parliament
(brought down by
manufactured scandal
of affair with married
woman)
When conservatives in
power- Ireland ignored



Young Ireland
Movement: 1848- a
mirror of the secret
societies of the
continent.
Northern Ireland (Ulster)
opposed to home rule)
Easter Rising 1916crushed by the British