Chapter 21: The Muslim Empires
Chapter 21
Introduction

This chapter is
about 3 major
Muslim empires,
nicknamed “the
Gunpowder
Empires”

The Ottoman
Empire

The Safavid
Empire

The Mughal
Empire
Ottoman Empire

1300s-1919: a Sunni Muslim empire
that spread through Turkey, Eastern
Europe, Middle East, & N. Africa
◦ Also known as “Ottoman Turks” (people in
Turkey)
The Ottomans: From Nomads to
Empire

The Turkic Ottoman
peoples entered Anatolia
(modern-day Turkey)
under the leadership of
Osman Bey after the
Mongols had successfully
defeated the Seljuks in
the 13thC

Took name Ottoman
after sultan Osman

After a brief period of
turmoil, the Ottomans
under Mehmed II the
Conqueror captured
Constantinople in 1453,
ending the Byzantine
Empire
Ottoman Empire

Over the next 2
centuries the Ottomans
expanded their empire
and built a navy that
dominated the Eastern
Mediterranean and
claimed territory
throughout North
Africa, SE Europe and
much of the Middle
East (minus Persia)
and successfully (for a
time) controlled Indian
Ocean trade

Though unsuccessful in
further campaigns to
take portions of
Western European
kingdoms, the
Ottomans remained the
greatest threat to
Europe thru the 18th
century
Ottoman Society

There was a distinct social
hierarchy laid out in 4 classes:
◦ “men of the pen” – lawyers, judges,
smart people
◦ “men of the sword” - warriors
◦ “men of negotiation” – merchants,
tax collectors, traders and store
owners
◦ “men of husbandry” –
farmers/herders

Then there were the non-Muslims,
who were organized into millets
◦ Jews and Christians called the dhimmi:
people of the book
◦ In these religious communities,
usually divided quarters or ghettos
in a town/city, the people had their
own leaders and were responsible
for their own education and certain
legal matters

Like earlier Muslim societies, the
Ottomans “taxed” the non-Muslim
peoples they absorbed into their
empire as a source of revenue
Ottoman Warfare

The “men of the sword”
actually played the
dominant role in
Ottoman society since
sultans based their
empire on constant
warfare and expansion

Warriors represented an
aristocracy that
conquered lands,
enslaved people (w/the
Sultan’s blessing) and
began a Feudal system of
control

The warrior class was at
constant odds with the
“men of the pen”,
lawyers and religious
leaders whose power
grew at court
Ottoman Warfare

Militaries were large made up of
Janissaries, conscripted soldiers
from NON Muslim societies that
were conquered

Devshirme: the system of taking
young boys as a “tax” and forced
into servitude as soldiers for a
designated period of time,
forced to convert to Islam

It was not exactly slavery, as
many Janissaries found their
ways into higher positions in the
Ottoman bureaucracy over time

the Ottoman army’s might was
based on one thing, ARTILLERY
◦ A vast knowledge of gun and
cannon making gave the Ottoman
armies their strength
The Sultans and their Court

Sultan: title for an Ottoman
ruler

Ottoman sultans were
literally no different than
Abbasid caliphs
◦ they spent money lavishly, had
huge harems, became distant
from their people
◦ some sultans led their own
armies into battle

A vizier (wazir) also handled
day-to-day administration of
the bureaucracy
◦

Had more power than the Sultan himself
Like earlier Muslim dynasties, the
Ottomans suffered civil strife due
to their vague principles of
succession
◦
Caused constant warfare of a Sultan’s son
trying to claim the throne, especially after
he died
Ottoman Culture

Ottoman empire was very diverse

Constantinople became Istanbul, the
central capital of the empire…previously
constructed Byzantine cathedrals were
converted into mosques (Hagia Sophia)

Some sultans (Suleyman) added more
grand structures
◦ Aqueducts, markets, city’s defenses,
mansions, rest houses, religious schools,
hospitals

Istanbul maintained itself as the hub of
east/west trade over land…places called
Coffeehouses developed where merchant
and artisans class gathered to interact

The government regulated all aspects of
trade and manufacture
◦ Artisans organized into guilds

A transition from Persian/Arabic to
Turkish language occurred in literary
exploits…Turks artistically became well
renowned for their poetry and rug
making
Ottoman Empire

Suleyman the
Magnificent (ruled
1520-1566)
 Largely expanded
empire
 Created law code
 art & literature
flourished during
his rule
 Had 2 sons killed
when they fought
each other for
power
rt
Ottoman Decline

Ottoman dynasty was a great success,
survived and fought off powerful
conquerors for 600 years, but…
◦ The Ottoman Empire became known as
the “sick man of Europe” by the 18th and
19th centuries

Problems:
◦ expansion and conquest, too big
◦ increased problems of succession,
primogeniture, fratricide
◦ corruption in the bureaucracy amongst
governors who sought to control their
territory independently led to an
ineffective administration
◦ Landowners constantly overtaxed
peasants, caused many uprisings and
peasant abandonment
◦ Surrounding neighbors expanding their
lands, like Russia, Austria-Hungary and
the Safavid Empire, to begin slowly
picking away at Ottoman territory
Ottoman Decline

Problems:
◦ Ottomans fell behind Europe who had
transformed with new scientific,
technological and military developments
 Didn’t take Europe seriously, groups
blocked Western innovations from coming
in
◦ One of greatest naval battles, Battle of
Lepanto in 1571: Ottoman’s were defeated
by a Spanish and Venetian fleet and they
lost control of eastern Mediterranean
◦ Ottoman’s controlled/relied on Indian
Ocean trade that became dominated by
Portuguese mariners who transmitted
goods throughout Europe
 Caused Ottoman merchants to lose
revenue
 Large amounts of silver flowed in from
Americas, causing inflation

Still, the Ottomans were able to hang
on until WWI (thanks mainly to the
decline of the Safavid, their greatest
rivals and periods of invigoration by
competing European nations)
The Safavid Empire

1501-1736: Safavid Empire:
Persia, today Iran

Unlike the Sunni Ottomans, the
Safavid were Shiites…which was
the basis of the rivalry with
their neighbors
◦ Sunnis – accepted legitimacy of 1st 3
successors of Mohammed (Abu
Bakr, Umar, Uthman)
◦ Shi’a – accepted only 4th successor
as legitimate – Ali (Mohammed’s
cousin and son-in-law)

The Safavid rose in the early
1300s under the leadership of
Sail (Safi) al-Din, who sought to
purify Islam and spread Islam
amongst the Turkic peoples
with his followers, the Red
Heads
Safavid Empire

Shah: Persian king

After years of struggle,
Ismail (a Sufi) was
proclaimed shah and
conquered all of Persia
and most of Iraq only to be
stopped by the Ottomans
at the Battle of Chaldiran
(a battle which
demonstrated the powers
of artillery and firearms)

This defeat weakened
Ismail’s position and also
determined that Shi’ism
would be confined to
mainly Persia and parts of
Iraq
Safavid Politics, State and
Religion

After a brief period of succession
issues, a dynasty was established
by Tahmasp I

Turkish warriors that had once
attempted to take power in Persia
were brought under control and
assigned villages/peasants to
control (quasi-feudal)
◦ some of these warriors continued to be
a constant threat to the shah’s power

Persians were recruited into the
bureaucracy to balance the Turkish
warrior presence…and like the
Ottomans, youths were enslaved
for military and bureaucratic
service
◦ Persian became the predominant
language
◦ shahs also became hedonistic (like
Ottomans and Abbasids)
Safavid Politics, State and
Religion

The Safavid reached their peak
under Shah Abbas the Great (ruled
1588-1629)
◦ Abbas hated the Ottomans, so he
allied himself w/Europeans to
improve his armies and defend
his borders
◦ Abbas reduced taxes, even
decided not to tax non-Muslims
◦ Built a magnificent capital at
Isfahan and turned it into the
center of Persian arts, trade and
culture
 he even liked to roam around his city in
disguise to spy on his people!
Kardashians, ugh
◦ Was tolerant of non-Muslims
(Armenians), even built them
their own homes on the edge of
his new capital mainly cause
they ran his economy/trade
Safavid Culture

Abbas the Great had a network of
roads built, rest houses, colleges,
public baths, stunning mosques with
massive domes, ceramic tiles,
minarets, and gardens with
reflecting pools around the mosques

Strove to make merchants and
travelers safe within his domains

Set up workshops for silk and
Persian carpets

Some shahs took the title padishah
instead, meaning “king of all kings”

Elaborate palaces with elegant court
life and rituals with etiquette

Shahs claimed descent from imams:
descendants of Ali
Safavid vs. Ottoman

Both had similar social systems dominated by warrior
aristocrats who shared power with the absolute rulers

Both had warrior aristocrats who relied on peasants
through difficult labor
◦ led to banditry, peasant uprisings, flight from land

Both established imperial workshops for miniature
paintings, rugs, ceramics.
◦ Both lavishly patronized public works projects

But…Safavid economy and markets were constricted
and more technically backward than that of the
Ottomans

Both had normal gender roles for women throughout
the Middle East
◦ Veils, little rights, confinements, especially harder on the elite
women
◦ BUT recent evidence found has suggested that some women
actually fought back against these restrictions, wore bright,
colorful robes, making no effort to hide their faces, were active
in trade and money-lending, and that wives or concubines of
shahs had big influences behind the throne
Safavid Decline

Its collapse was very rapid

Abbas the Great killed many of
his sons as he was convinced they
were plotting against him…his
weak grandson, Abbas II took the
throne

Neighboring Ottomans and
Mughals nipped at Safavid
territory…eventually, Afghani
tribes captured Isfahan
◦ Over 80,00 in Isfahan died of
starvation and disease

Afghani leader Nafid Khan
Ahshar made himself shah, but
no dynasty emerged from his rule

the empire would continually be
plagued by raiding nomads and
neighboring empires, eventually
finding leadership under the
Qajar Dynasty in 1725
The Mughal Empire

1526-1857: Muslim descendants of
Mongols who settled in India
◦ Mughal rulers in order for this time period:
Babur, Humayan, Akbar, Janhangir, Shah Jahan,
Aurangzeb

Founder was Babur the Great (ruled 15261530) (claimed descent from Genghis
Khan and Timurlane)
◦ his armies invaded India in the early 1500s from
Afghanistan
◦ great military strategist, fought alongside troops
in battle
◦ wrote histories, was a musician, but was better at
conquering and did little to reform
◦ a great partier and a terrible administrator
◦ died in 1530 putting the empire in peril

His son, Humayan, lost territory in India
immediately and was forced to exile in
Persia but he gained it back by
1556…unfortunately, he died tragically,
falling down the stairs in his library!
Akbar the Great

Son of Humayan, Akbar the Great (ruled
1556-1605) was forced upon the throne at
13 and immediately faced threats from
Mughal enemies…he defeated them
easily!

Akbar was not a drunkard like his
grandfather (Babur) nor clumsy like his
father (Humayan)

he became a wise and strong
administrator, preaching tolerance

he encouraged intermarriage between
Hindus and Muslims

abolished the jizya: tax on non-Muslims

promoted Hindus into high ranking
positions in government

created a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, a
combination of Islam and Hinduism (but
rejected by both  )
Akbar the Great
Improved the calendar,
discouraged child marriage
and alcoholism, created
living quarters for the
homeless

improved the status of
women…he prohibited sati,
encouraged a widow to
remarry, and setup special
market days for women
secluded by purdah

Unfortunately, when
Akbar died in 1605, most of
his reforms and his
religion, died with him

Other Rulers/European Contacts

Mughal Empire reached its highest peak
under Jahangir (ruled 1605-1627) and Shah
Jahan (ruled 1628-1658)

India specialized in fabric and making
clothing (the word pajamas comes from India
)

Both continued Akbar’s tolerance
policies…both left a lot of daily
administration to subordinates, preferring to
patronize the arts, to drink and to party

Both took pleasure in female dancers, animal
fights, polo matches, lavish wardrobes with
jewels

Both patrons of the arts – miniature
paintings, and many mosques
◦ Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal (1632-53) in honor
of his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal who died at
childbirth (it’s a tomb that holds both of them)

Shah Jahan’s successor, Aurangzeb (ruled
1658-1707), promoted the trade of Indian
textiles, leading to European influences in
India, something that had been resisted for
centuries
Mughal Decline

Almost everything Akbar had reformed for
women was ignored and made worse after
his death, despite other rulers’ attempts to
reform it as well

Empire grew weak from external threats
and backward in technology

Aurangzeb attempted to rid India of
Hinduism and strengthening Islam
weakened the social systems and caused
conflicts
◦ Sikhism rose in this era, threatening
Islam

And …the same old story occurs as the
bureaucracy becomes corrupt and
peasants and urban workers
revolt/protest their living conditions

Aurangzeb focused too much time on
trying to conquer ALL of India and to
purify Islam of all Hindu influences
Mughal Decline

Aurangzeb’s warfare for
expansion drained the
treasury, weakened the
bureaucracy and military
◦ he was forced to renew the
jizya to the dismay of the
people
◦ Marattas and Sikhs rebelled
even becoming anti-Islamic

The constant state of civil
dissention in India opened
the door for the British and
French to come into to India,
use their military might to
calm tensions, but also
establish a colonial/imperial
presence on the subcontinent
that would last into the 20th
century