Please remind the oldest fact of your childhood.
When was happened it? How old were you?
Did anyone tell you about this fact, or you
remember without listen to the story?
Please remember number -56
Cognitive psychology-
The study of mental
activity, including memory, problem solving,
and decision-making.
Memory - The mental capacity to encode,
store, and retrieve information.
Explicit use of memory-
Conscious effort to
encode or recover information through
memory processes.
Implicit uses of memory - Availability of
information through memory processes
without conscious effort to encode or recover
information
the rabbit is implicit because your memory
processes brought past knowledge of
kitchens to bear on your interpretation of the
picture without any particular effort on your
part.
“What’s missing from the picture?” To answer
this second question, you probably have to
put explicit memory to work. What appears in
the typical kitchen? What’s missing?
Declarative memory -Memory for information
such as facts and events.
Procedural memory-
Memory for how things
get done; the way perceptual, cognitive, and
motor skills are acquired, retained, and used.
Memory is often viewed as a three-stage
process of:
encoding,
storage,
retrieval.
Encoding-
The process by which a mental
representation is formed in memory.
Storage - The retention of encoded material
over time.
Retrieval -The recovery of stored information
from memory.
1.
2.
3.
What is the difference between explicit and
implicit uses of memory?
Suppose you are a skilled juggler. Does your
skill rely more on declarative or procedural
memory?
You suddenly can’t remember the password
for your e-mail account. Which memory
process is most likely to be causing the
difficulty?
1. Explicit uses of memory involve conscious
effort, whereas implicit uses of memory do not.
2. Your skill relies more on procedural
memory.
3. Because you’ve previously encoded and
stored your password, it’s most likely your
problem is with retrieval.
The best-known model of memory is the
Atkinson-Shiffrin model. It has three main
storage areas: sensory memory, short-term
memory, and long-term memory.
Iconic Memory
Short-Term Memory
Working Memory
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is a man doing on the top of the
picture, between?
On the bottom of the picture, on the right,
Is a woman holding an umbrella?
Is the holding on the right or on the left?
Between a cat and a woman with an
umbrella, what is a boy holding?
Iconic memory - Memory system in the visual
domain that allows large amounts of information
to be stored for very brief durations.
at least for a moment
Echoic memory-
Sensory memory for auditory
information.
echoic memory lasts about two seconds
Iconic memory is an example of a sensory
memory : Researchers have speculated that
each sensory system has a memory store that
preserves representations of physical features
of environmental stimuli for, at most, a few
seconds
Group A-
recall as many of the items in the
display as you can.
Group B- recall only last horizontal row.
7
X
B
1
L
4
V
5
W
F
3
7
Write down as many symbols as you can.
Write down only one row. (right, left)
Short-term memory (STM) - Memory processes
associated with preservation of recent
experiences and with retrieval of information
from long-term memory;
short-term memory is of limited capacity and
stores information for only a short length of
time without rehearsal.
In a classic article, Miller (1956) suggested
that short-term memory holds about seven,
plus or minus two, chunks of information.
The results suggested that information is
lost from short-term memory in less than 20
seconds.
Read the numbers only ones and write in
such order as they were written.
8 1 7 3 4 9 4 2 8 5
Read the letters only ones and write in such
order as they were written.
I M R S O F L P T Z B
Research suggest that short-term memory
holds about seven, plus or minus two, chunks
of information.
You probably know that a good way to keep your
movie time in mind is to keep repeating the
digits in a cycle in your head. This memorization
technique is called maintenance rehearsal.
Party- Name of a new acquaintance
chunking The process of taking single items of
information and recoding them on the basis of
similarity or some other organizing principle.
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Like short-term memory, working memory
holds what you are currently thinking about,
that is, what you are working with.
So short-term memory and working memory
are similar. However, we might say that the
working memory model suggests that shortterm memory is composed of several
different components.
Working memory can hold about 2 seconds
of information.
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Central Executive
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop - A component of Baddeley’s model
that stores auditory information and also includes a
rehearsal (or articulatory) process.
For example - When you rehearse a telephone number
by “listening” to it as you run it through your head, you
are making use of the phonological loop.
Visuospatial sketchpad - A component of Baddeley’s
model that stores visual images and spatial information.
For example, someone asked you how many desks there
are in your psychology classroom, you might use the
resources of the visuospatial sketchpad to form a mental
picture of the classroom and then estimate the number
of desks from that picture.
Central Executive- A component of Baddeley’s model
that supervises the phonological loop and the
visuospatial sketchpad and makes decisions about what
to attend to.
for example, you are asked to describe a picture from
memory—you rely on the central executive function to
apportion your mental resources to different aspects of
the task.
Episodic buffer -A component of Baddeley’s model that
integrates information from different systems, such as
verbal and spatial information.
1. It was getting dark and lightning flashed out then
Mary heard a loud crash.
2. Mom was in the kitchen and she stopped fixing
dinner.
3. At last, when he opened his eyes, dim light and
irritation have been disappeared.
4.Linda was a blonde with sky-blue eyes and a
model's figure.
5. In Dubai, is the largest shopping centre in the
world and has got the world’s biggest sweet shop.
The person who can remember four or more
items has a good memory.
The person who can remember 2,5 items or
less, has the bad memory.
long-term memory (LTM) - Memory processes
associated with the preservation of information
for retrieval at any later time.
All the experiences, events, information,
emotions, skills, words, categories, rules, and
judgments that have been acquired from
sensory and short-term memories.
When psychologists speak of long-term
memory, it is with the knowledge that memories
often last a lifetime.
Semantic Memory- is memory for general
information, including facts (e.g., a carrot is a
vegetable) and language.
Episodic memory- Memory for experiences.
Episodic memory isn’t just information that we
know, but experiences that we remember.
Apple – boat
Hat – bone
Bike– watch
mouse – tree
ball – house
ear–blanket
Count from 1 to 50.
Tell us the words couples.
Mnemonic -Memory techniques.
Strategy or device that uses familiar information
during the encoding of new information to enhance
subsequent access to the information in memory.
Questions like this one—about how your memory
works or how you know what information you
possess—are questions of Metamemory. One major
question on metamemory has been when and why
feelings-of-knowing—the subjective sensations that
you do have information stored in memory—are
accurate.
You probably make another type of metamemory
judgment, called a judgment-of-learning (JOL), each
time you prepare for an exam. JOLs are your
estimates of how well you have learned something.
1.
2.
3.
Do circumstances of recall or recognition
generally provide more retrieval cues?
At a party, why might you have the best
recall of the first person to whom you
spoke?
What does the perspective known as
transfer appropriate processing suggest?
4. For your English class, you memorize “The
Raven.” When you’re done, you can no longer
recite last week’s assignment. Is this an
example of proactive or retroactive
interference?
5. How could you use the method of loci to
remember the order of elements in the periodic
table?
6. What is a judgment of learning?
1.Recognition generally provides more retrieval cues.
2. This would be an example of the primacy effect in
serial recall.
3. Transfer-appropriate processing suggests that
memory is best when the type of processing carried out
at encoding matches the type of processing carried out at
retrieval.
4. These circumstances provide an example of retroactive
interference because new information has made it harder
to remember older information.
5. Beginning with hydrogen, you would associate each
element with a position along a familiar route.
6. Judgments of learning are people’s estimates of how
well they have learned information.
The way in which the information you acquire
over time becomes represented in large
bodies of organized knowledge.
Categories and Concepts.
Schemas
Prototype
Concepts - Mental representation of a kind or
category of items and ideas.
Concepts do not exist in isolation. Concepts
are also linked to other types of information
A broad category like animal has several
subcategories, such as bird and fish, which in
turn contain exemplars such as canary,
ostrich, shark, and salmon.
Prototype -An ideal example
Schemas-Knowledge frameworks that organize
what we know.
Script - A type of schema that has a sequence.
Networks - Memory structures composed of
interconnected concepts (called nodes).
Networks are arranged hierarchically such that
lower level concepts are arranged under
higher-level concepts.
Researchers have provided two theories of how
people use concepts in memory to categorize the
objects they encounter in the world.
One theory suggests that, for each concept in
memory, you encode a prototype .
An alternative theory suggests that people retain
memories of the many different exemplars they
experience for each category.
prototype - The most representative example of a
category.
exemplar - Member of a category that people have
encountered.
For example, what’s a prototypical example of a
fish? What’s a prototypical example of a sport?
Perhaps basketball or baseball, but probably not
curling.
When we hear that someone is named
Alexandra, for example, an image of what a
person named Alexandra should look like might
come to mind; moreover, if Alexandra does not
look like our prototype for a person named
Alexandra, we might have more difficulty
remembering her name.
Retroactive interference - A problem in recalling
older information because newer information
interferes.
Proactive interference - A problem in recalling
newer information because older information
interferes.
Flashbulb memory-
Said to be a special kind
of particularly vivid and detailed memory that
is formed when we hear something very
surprising and important.
People do claim that flashbulb memories are
more vivid and more accurate than typical
memories, and some research is consistent with
this view.
For example, there is evidence for more accurate
memories with regard to the 9/11 attacks.
However, other research suggests that, although
flashbulb memories are different, the main
difference is in how people feel about them
(confidence, vividness) rather than in how
accurate they are.
eyewitnesses’ memories for what they had seen
were quite vulnerable to distortion from post
event information.
For example, participants in one study were
shown a film of an automobile accident and were
asked to estimate the speeds of the cars involved
However, some participants were asked,
“How fast were the cars going when they
smashed into each other?”
“How fast were the cars going when they
contacted each other?”
Smash - cars’ speed - over 40 miles per hour;
contact - at 30 miles per hour.
The cerebellum- essential for
procedural memory, memories
acquired by repetition, and classically
conditioned responses.
The striatum, a complex of structures
in the forebrain; the likely basis for
habit formation and for stimulus
response connections
The cerebral cortex, responsible for
sensory memories and associations
between sensations
The hippocampus, largely responsible
for declarative memory of facts, dates,
and names, and the consolidation of
spatial memories
The amygdala, which plays a critical
role in the formation and retrieval of
memories with emotional significance
Organic amnesia - Amnesia caused by brain
damage.
Anterograde amnesia (AA) -Difficulty in
remembering new things.
Retrograde amnesia (RA)- Difficulty in
remembering things that were learned before the
damage occurred.
RA without AA is very rare . However, many
people with amnesia seem to have both AA and
RA, and AA is often worse, suggesting both a
learning problem and a retrieval problem.
Can you remind the number which I asked to
remember the beginning of the lecture?
What was the number?
b
c
a
a
b
d
b
a
b
d
a
a
b
c
d
0
