CHAPTER 11: MOTIVATION
Complete Study Guide
Chapters 11-1 & 11-2 | All Content | Exam-Ready
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
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LO1: Define and explain what motivation is
LO2: Compare and contrast early theories of motivation
LO3: Compare and contrast contemporary theories of motivation
LO4: Discuss current issues in motivating employees
CHAPTER 11-1
LO1: WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
Definition
Motivation (мотивация) refers to the process by which a person's efforts are
energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal.
Key clarification: Motivation is NOT a personal trait that some people have and others
don't. It is a process, and individuals differ in motivational drive. Overall motivation also
varies from situation to situation.
Three Key Elements of Motivation
1. Energy
Energy (энергия/интенсивность) is a measure of intensity or drive. The quality of the
effort is considered along with its intensity. High levels of effort lead to favorable job
performance when the effort is directed toward and consistent with organizational goals.
2. Direction
Direction (направление) means that effort must be directed toward and consistent with
organizational goals. High levels of effort only lead to favorable job performance when
properly directed.
3. Persistence
Persistence (настойчивость/упорство) means that motivation includes a persistent
dimension — employees keep putting forth effort to achieve their goals over time.
Why Motivation Matters — Key Statistics
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60% of U.S. employees are not excited about their work (Gallup poll).
78% of managers say they do a fair job of motivating their employees.
Only 21% of employees feel that they are managed in a motivating way.
Bottom line: Motivating high levels of employee performance is a critical organizational
concern.
LO2: EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (1950s–1960s)
Four major theories were developed during the 1950s to 1960s:
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
• McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
• Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
• McClelland's Three Needs Theory
Theory 1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Proposed by Abraham Maslow, a psychologist. One of the most widely known theories
of motivation (Exhibit 11-1). Maslow proposed that within every person exists a
hierarchy of five needs.
The Five Levels (from lowest to highest):
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1. Physiological needs (физиологические потребности) — the lowest level.
Includes food, drink, shelter, sex, sleep, and other basic physical requirements.
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2. Safety needs (потребности в безопасности) — security and protection from
harm; assurance that physical needs will continue to be met.
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3. Social needs (социальные потребности) — affection, belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship.
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4. Esteem needs (потребности в уважении) — internal factors: self-respect,
autonomy, achievement; external factors: status, recognition, attention.
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5. Self-actualization (самоактуализация) — the highest level. Includes growth,
achieving one's potential, self-fulfillment. "Be all you can be."
Key Principles:
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Each level must be substantially satisfied before the next need becomes
dominant.
An individual moves up the hierarchy from one level to the next.
Lower-order needs (physiological & safety) are satisfied predominantly
externally.
Higher-order needs (social, esteem, self-actualization) are satisfied internally.
Once a need is substantially satisfied, it no longer motivates.
Evaluation:
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Strengths: Widely popular among managers because it is easy to understand
and intuitive.
Weaknesses: No empirical support — other studies could not validate this
theory.
Theory 2: McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
Proposed by Douglas McGregor. He proposed two contrasting assumptions about
human nature.
Theory X — Negative View of People:
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People have little ambition and dislike work.
Employees avoid responsibility.
Employees must be closely controlled.
Theory Y — Positive View of People:
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People enjoy work.
Employees seek and accept responsibility.
Employees exercise self-direction.
McGregor's Belief:
McGregor believed that Theory Y assumptions should guide management practice. He
proposed that participation in decision-making, responsible and challenging jobs, and
good group relations would maximize employee motivation.
Evaluation:
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Weakness: No evidence confirmed that either set of assumptions is valid, or that
being a Theory Y manager is the only way to motivate employees.
Theory 3: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
Proposed by Frederick Herzberg. Also called the Motivation-Hygiene Theory. It
proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are
associated with job dissatisfaction.
Motivators (intrinsic — lead to job SATISFACTION):
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Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Hygiene Factors (extrinsic — lead to job DISSATISFACTION when absent):
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Supervision
Company policy
Relationship with supervisor
Working conditions
Salary
Relationship with peers
Personal life
Status and security
Herzberg's Conclusion:
When people feel good about their work, they cite intrinsic factors (e.g., achievement,
recognition) arising from the job itself. When people feel bad about their work, they cite
extrinsic factors (e.g., salary, working conditions).
Evaluation:
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Popular: Widely used from the 1960s to early 1980s.
Criticism: Considered too simplistic.
Legacy: Did influence today's approach to job design.
CHAPTER 11-2
LO3: CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Goal-Setting Theory
Feedback
Goal feedback (обратная связь по целям) is equally effective whether it is external or
self-generated. Self-generated feedback — in which an employee monitors his or her
own progress — has been shown to be a more powerful motivator than feedback
coming from others.
Contingency Factors (Moderating Factors) on Goal Performance
In addition to feedback, three other contingency factors influence the goal-performance
relationship:
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1. Goal Commitment (приверженность цели) — Goal-setting theory assumes
that the individual is committed to the goal. Commitment is most likely when:
◦ Goals are made public.
◦ The individual has an internal locus of control.
◦ Goals are self-set rather than assigned.
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2. Self-Efficacy (самоэффективность) — an individual's belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task.
◦ Low self-efficacy: in difficult situations, likely to reduce effort or give up
altogether. Also likely to reduce effort when receiving negative feedback.
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High self-efficacy: tries harder to master challenges. Responds to negative
feedback with increased effort and motivation.
3. National Culture (национальная культура) — the value of goal-setting
theory depends on national culture. It was adapted to North American countries
because its main ideas align well with those cultures, which assume:
◦ Subordinates will be reasonably independent.
◦ People will seek challenging goals.
◦ Performance is considered important by both managers and subordinates.
◦ Managers cannot expect goal-setting to increase employee performance in
countries with different cultural characteristics.
Job Design Theory — The Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
Job design (проектирование работы) refers to the way tasks are arranged and
designed to reflect the demands of the changing environment, organizational
technology, and employee skill, ability, and preferences. When jobs are designed well,
employees are motivated to work hard.
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) was developed by Richard Hackman and
Greg R. Oldham. It can help managers design jobs that motivate employees.
Five Core Job Dimensions:
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1. Skill Variety (разнообразие навыков) — the degree to which the job requires
a variety of activities, allowing the worker to use a number of different skills and
talents.
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2. Task Identity (идентичность задачи) — the degree to which the job requires
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
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3. Task Significance (значимость задачи) — the degree to which the job
affects the lives or work of other people.
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4. Autonomy (автономия) — the freedom, independence, and discretion given
to the individual for scheduling work and for determining the procedures to be
used in carrying it out.
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5. Feedback (обратная связь) — the degree to which carrying out the work
activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear
information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.
How Core Dimensions Link to Outcomes:
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Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance → Workers experience
meaningfulness of the work.
Autonomy → Workers experience responsibility for outcomes of the work.
Feedback → Workers gain knowledge of the actual results of their work
activities.
Work Outcomes When All Three Psychological States Are Present:
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High internal work motivation.
High quality work performance.
High satisfaction with the work.
Low absenteeism and turnover.
Individual Growth Need Strength:
The link between job dimensions and outcomes is moderated by individual growth
need strength — a person's desire for self-esteem and self-actualization.
• High growth needs: more likely to experience critical psychological states and
respond positively to core job dimensions.
• Low growth needs: do not tend to achieve high performance or satisfaction
from job enrichment.
Job Enrichment:
Job enrichment (обогащение работы) is the vertical expansion of a job by adding
planning and evaluation responsibilities.
Suggested Actions to Improve Core Dimensions (from JCM):
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Skill variety: Combine tasks; establish client relationships.
Task identity: Combine tasks; form natural work units.
Task significance: Form natural work units.
Autonomy: Expand jobs vertically.
Feedback: Establish client relationships; open feedback channels.
Equity Theory
Equity theory (теория справедливости), developed by Stacy Adams, proposes that
employees compare what they get from a job (outcomes) to what they put into it
(inputs), and then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of
relevant others.
When Inequity Exists:
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Under-rewarded: the employee feels they are getting less than others for the
same input.
• Over-rewarded: the employee feels they are getting more than others for the
same input.
When inequity is perceived, employees will tend to do something about it. Possible
reactions include: lower or higher productivity, improved or reduced quality of output,
increased absenteeism, or voluntary resignation.
Reference Categories (who employees compare themselves to):
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Person: others with similar jobs, friends, neighbors.
System: organizational pay policies, procedures, and allocation systems.
Self: past personal experiences and personal context.
Two Types of Justice:
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Distributive justice (распределительная справедливость) — the perceived
fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Has a
greater influence on employee satisfaction. (Original focus of equity theory.)
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Procedural justice (процессуальная справедливость) — the perceived fairness
of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Tends to affect
organizational commitment, trust in management, and intention to quit.
(More recent research focus.)
Manager's Action: Openly share information on how allocation decisions are made;
use unbiased procedures to increase the perception of procedural justice.
Expectancy Theory
The most comprehensive explanation of how employees are motivated. Proposed by
Victor Vroom. It states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the
expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of
that outcome.
Three Relationships / Variables in the Expectancy Model:
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A — Effort → Performance (Expectancy) (ожидание): the probability
perceived by the individual that a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level
of performance.
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B — Performance → Reward (Instrumentality) (инструментальность): the
degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level is
instrumental to attaining the desired outcome/reward.
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C — Reward → Personal Goal (Valence) (валентность): the importance
(attractiveness) that the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that
can be achieved on the job. Valence considers both the goal and the needs of
the individual.
Key Principle:
An employee will exert a high level of effort if he or she perceives a strong relationship
between: effort and performance, performance and reward, and reward and the
satisfaction of personal goals.
Moderating Variables:
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Individual effort → Individual performance: moderated by the individual's
ability to perform and whether the organization has a fair and objective
performance evaluation system or job design.
Individual performance → Organizational reward: moderated by performance
evaluation criteria, equity comparisons, and reinforcement.
Organizational reward → Individual goal: the rewards must satisfy the
dominant needs that are consistent with the individual's personal goals.
Key Question Expectancy Theory Asks:
"How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level of performance? Can I actually
achieve this level? What reward will I get? How attractive is the reward to me, and does
it help me achieve my own personal goals?"
Career Advice from Expectancy Theory: Always go above and beyond — your
managers will have no choice but to reward you.
LO4: CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES
1. Motivating in Tough Economic Circumstances
Managers have come to realize that in an uncertain economy, they must be creative in
keeping employees' efforts energized, directed, and sustained toward achieving goals.
Relatively inexpensive ways to motivate employees:
• Hold meetings with employees to keep the lines of communication open.
• Get employee input on issues and establish a common goal (e.g., maintaining
excellent customer service) to keep everyone focused.
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Create a community where employees can see that managers care about them
and their work.
Give employees continuing opportunities to learn and grow.
2. Cross-Cultural Challenges in Motivation
In today's global business environment, managers cannot assume that motivation
programs that work in one geographic location will work in others. Most current
motivation theories were developed in the United States by Americans and about
Americans.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Needs:
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Japan, Greece, Mexico (high uncertainty avoidance (избегание
неопределённости)): security needs would be at the top of the need hierarchy.
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Netherlands (low uncertainty avoidance): social
needs would be at the top.
Achievement Need and Cultural Bias:
The achievement need (потребность в достижении) as an internal motivator
presupposes two cultural characteristics: a willingness to accept a moderate degree of
risk, and a concern with performance. This combination is found in the United States,
Canada, and Great Britain, but is rare in countries such as Chile and Portugal.
3. Low-Cost Reward Programs
A recent study by Corporate Executive Board found that declining employee
engagement has decreased overall productivity by 3 to 5 percent. However, managers
can take actions to maintain or even increase motivation:
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Clarify each person's role: show employees how their efforts contribute to
improving the company's overall situation.
Keep communication lines open: use two-way exchanges between top-level
managers and employees to alleviate fears and concerns.
Show workers that the company cares: give employees a reason to want to
come to work.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Key Definitions to Know:
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Motivation (мотивация) — the process by which a person's efforts are
energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal.
Self-efficacy (самоэффективность) — an individual's belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task.
Job design (проектирование работы) — the way tasks are arranged to reflect
demands of the environment, technology, and employee preferences.
Job enrichment (обогащение работы) — the vertical expansion of a job by
adding planning and evaluation responsibilities.
Distributive justice (распределительная справедливость) — perceived fairness
of the amount and allocation of rewards.
Procedural justice (процессуальная справедливость) — perceived fairness of
the process used to determine reward distribution.
Expectancy (ожидание) — the perceived probability that effort will lead to a
certain level of performance.
Instrumentality (инструментальность) — the belief that performance at a
certain level leads to the desired outcome.
Valence (валентность) — the importance or attractiveness of the reward to the
individual.
Theories at a Glance:
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Maslow: 5-level hierarchy of needs; lower must be met before higher.
McGregor: Theory X (negative view) vs. Theory Y (positive view) of employees.
Herzberg: Motivators (intrinsic) cause satisfaction; Hygiene factors (extrinsic)
cause dissatisfaction.
Goal-Setting: Goals motivate; moderated by feedback, commitment, selfefficacy, and national culture.
JCM (Hackman & Oldham): 5 core job dimensions → 3 psychological states →
positive work outcomes.
Equity Theory (Adams): Employees compare their input-outcome ratio with
others; inequity drives behavior change.
Expectancy Theory (Vroom): Effort → Performance → Reward → Personal
Goal; all three links must be strong for high motivation.