📚 Chapter 1
The Scientific Method
Inductive Reasoning:
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Builds theories by observing multiple instances of a phenomenon.
Develops hypotheses based on patterns seen in these observations.
Deductive Reasoning:
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Uses established theories to make specific, testable predictions.
Tests predictions to validate or refine the theory.
Steps of the Scientific Method
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Involves 7 essential steps to ensure theories are evidence-based and reliable.
Ask a Question: Decide what you want to find out.
Do Background Research: Look up what’s already known about the topic.
Form a Hypothesis: Make a prediction you can test.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ask a Question: Decide what you want to find out.
Do Background Research: Look up what’s already known about the topic.
Form a Hypothesis: Make a prediction you can test.
Test the Hypothesis: Set up an experiment to see if your prediction is right.
Collect and Analyze Data: Record what happens and study the results.
Draw a Conclusion: Decide if your hypothesis was correct or not.
Share the Results: Explain what you learned to others.
Test the Hypothesis: Set up an experiment to see if your prediction is right.
Collect and Analyze Data: Record what happens and study the results.
Draw a Conclusion: Decide if your hypothesis was correct or not.
Share the Results: Explain what you learned to others.
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Must be followed systematically to achieve accurate and repeatable results.
Hypothesis Testing
Reliability: Consistency of a test’s results when repeated with the same input.
Validity: Ensures the test accurately measures the intended variable.
Practice effect: An improvement in performance over the course of an experiment as a result of experience, separate
from the effect of the independent variable.
Confounding variable: A variable associated with an independent variable that obscures the effects of the
independent variable on the outcome. This variable makes it difficult to draw findings and conclusions from an
experiment.
○
Example: If one of the groups is fully vegetarian and the others are solely carnivores then results may be
attributed to diet instead of energy drink consumption.
Sampling: Results from very specific groups of participants cannot be generalized to other groups
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If using all blonde girls, hard to say if it applies to brunettes or even men.
○ Population example: All undergraduate students
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Sample example: Subset of undergraduate students selected from the population.
○ Erics population: All undergraduate students across the world
Random sample: A subset of people selected at random, so our sample is most representative of the larger
population. Random sampling ensures everyone has an equal chance of being selected.
Random assignment: Assigning participants to either the experimental or control group at random to avoid any
biases that may create differences between the groups of participants.
Ex: drawing names from a hat
Placebo effect: The situation where an individual exhibits a response to a treat that is not due to its real therapeutic
effects.
Participant bias: Participants may intentionally or unintentionally bias their performance to align with the specific
results expected of the experimental manipulation.
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Giving the control group a mock treatment or a placebo
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Ex: Eric can give ALL participants a drink with no label. What matters is what they are actually drinking
Blinding: When participants do not know whether they belong to the experimental or control group, or which
treatment they are receiving.
Experimenter bias: Experimenters know the hypothesis they are testing. They may promote the result that they hope
to achieve. Actions made by the experimenter, intentionally or not, that influence the outcome of the experiment.
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Ex: Eric may only encourage the students to take the drink to study for their test as he hopes to find a
strong effect of the energy drink.
Double-Blind Studies: Experiments in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which group each
participant belongs to.
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Erics experiment
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Between subjects double-blind experiment
Purpose:
Examines relationships between two variables (e.g., diet and life expectancy).
No manipulation; just observes and records data.
Types of Correlations:
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Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together (e.g., age and income could rise together).
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Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
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Zero Correlation: No relationship between the variables.
Correlation Coefficient: Measures the strength and direction of a relationship, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.
+1.00: Perfect positive correlation.
-1.00: Perfect negative correlation.
0.00: No correlation.
Interpreting Coefficients:
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The closer to ±1.00, the stronger the relationship.
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Sign (+ or -) shows the direction, while the number shows strength.
Predictive Power:
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Knowing one variable’s value can help predict the other’s if the correlation is strong.
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Note: Correlation does not imply causation.
Scatter Plots:
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Used to visualize correlation by plotting each variable on X and Y axes.
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Line of best fit shows the trend: positive, negative, or zero.
Basic Setup:
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Experimental Group: Receives some level of the Independent Variable (IV) manipulation.
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Control Group: Exposed to the “zero level” of the IV, meaning no manipulation occurs. This group
represents the “normal” state, allowing researchers to compare any changes in the experimental group.
Example Study: Area X and Speech Ability
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Research Question: Does damage to Area X in the brain cause an inability to speak?
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Correlation vs. Causation: While correlational data showed a relationship between Area X damage and
speech ability, it does not prove that Area X damage causes speech problems.
Experiment Design:
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Traditional Experimental Constraints: Permanently damaging Area X to test this theory is unethical.
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Alternative Method (TMS): Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) temporarily “turns off” brain
areas, allowing for non-permanent deactivation.
○
Study Procedure:
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Experimental Group: Healthy participants undergo TMS to temporarily deactivate
Area X, then perform a speaking task.
■
Control Group: Similar participants who receive the same procedures except the
TMS is not activated.
○
Dependent Variable (DV): Speech ability, measured by the number of words spoken per
minute.
Fundamental Variables in Experiments
Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated to test its effect.
Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV.
Extraneous or Confounding Variables (EVs): Uncontrolled variables that may influence results; these should be
minimized to improve accuracy.
Component Groups in Experiments
Control Group: Does not receive the IV manipulation; used as a baseline to compare with the
Experimental Group (which receives the IV).
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This comparison helps verify if changes in the DV are due to the IV alone.
Experimental Research
Advantages: Establishes cause-and-effect relationships by controlling variables.
Limitations: High control can make experiments less representative of real-world settings.
Complementary Research: Non-experimental methods (e.g., correlational studies, case studies) capture real-world
complexity that lab experiments may miss, supporting a fuller understanding of psychological phenomena.
This mix of methods helps provide both control and real-world relevance to research in psychology.
Variability in Statistics
- Definition: Variability is the extent to which data points in a dataset differ from each other and from the mean.
It is essential to understand if observed differences between groups reflect a true effect or are due to random
chance.
Example of Variability in a Room Temperature Experiment
Experiment Setup:
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Two groups take a test at different room temperatures: one at 20ºC and another at 10ºC.
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Observation: A 10-point difference in test score averages is found between groups.
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Question: Can this difference be generalized to the entire population?
Purpose of Variability Analysis:
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Determines if the group mean difference is due to:
1. The experimental manipulation (temperature).
2. Random chance (due to selection and assignment).
Role of Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics:
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Used to confirm that two sample groups differ in their mean scores.
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Does not address why the difference exists.
Inferential Statistics:
Evaluates whether differences in means result from the experimental manipulation (IV) or are due to chance in
random selection and assignment.
Variability Within Groups
Range and Standard Deviation:
Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores (e.g., 55% to 85% in our example).
Standard Deviation**: Average deviation of scores from the mean, summarizing variability.
- When data points are closer to the mean, standard deviation is low, indicating low variability.
Interpreting Low vs. High Variability
Low Variability:
Scores cluster tightly around the mean.
Minimal overlap between distributions of the two groups.
Clear difference between groups; less likely due to chance.
Example: If Room A (mean = 65%) and Room B (mean = 75%) have no overlap, one can likely predict the room
based on a score.
High Variability:
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Scores are more spread out with considerable overlap.
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Makes it difficult to differentiate groups; and increases the chance that differences are random.
Example: With overlap, one cannot confidently attribute the score difference to room
temperature alone.
Implication of Variability for Inferential Statistics
Conclusion Based on Variability:
Lower variability → greater confidence that the difference between groups is due to IV manipulation.
Higher variability → increased possibility that differences are due to random chance.
Purpose of Inferential Analysis: To assess the likelihood that observed group differences could arise by chance,
aiding in deciding if the IV (temperature) has a real effect.
Inferential Statistics
Uses methods to:
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Understand why data appear as they do.
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Test if differences between groups are due to significant causes rather than chance.
Vital Role of Variability
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Variability: the extent of deviation from the mean in a population.
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Key for determining: Whether differences between groups are statistically significant or merely due to
chance.
Measure of Standard Deviation
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Standard deviation: measures the spread of data around the mean.
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Less overlap between group distributions → smaller variability.
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Smaller variability → **stronger difference between groups.
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Stronger differences suggest that observed differences are likely not due to chance.
Keyterms 1
Anecdotal Evidence: Information or evidence gathered from others or from one’s own experiences.
Case Study: An in-depth investigation of an individual person or a small group of people, often over an
extended period of time.
Confounding Variable: See Extraneous Variable.
Constant: A feature or quality that always takes the same value across all situations.
Construct Validity: The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical
construct.
Control Group: A group of individuals designed to serve as an accurate comparison in an experiment.
Correlation: A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.
Correlation Coefficient: A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.
Dependent Variable: A variable that is measured in an experiment.
Descriptive Statistics: Statistics designed to describe the data collected. Includes mean, median, and
standard deviation.
Double-Blind Study: Experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which
group each participant belongs to.
Empiricism: The philosophical perspective that states that knowledge should be gained by direct
observation of the world as it is, as opposed to rational perspectives that used logic and reason to
determine how the world ought to be.
Experiment: Scientific tool used to measure the effect of one variable on another.
Experimental Group: The participants in a study who receive the manipulation in regard to the
independent variable.
Experimenter Bias: Actions made by the experimenter, unintentionally or deliberately, to promote the
result they hope to achieve.
Extraneous Variable: A variable that the researcher did not manipulate or measure, but that
nonetheless could still affect the outcome of the experiment
Frequency Distribution: A figure that plots values of a variable on the x (horizontal) axis and the
frequency with which those values were observed on the y (vertical) axis.
Hypothesis: Testable statements guided by theories that make specific predictions about the
relationship between variables.
Independent Variable: A variable that is controlled or manipulated in an experiment.
Inferential Statistics: Statistics that allow us to use results from samples to make inferences about
overall, underlying populations.
Interview: A research tool during which the investigator asks the participant questions, often these may
be structured or semi-structured in nature.
Levels of Analysis: Different perspectives that emphasize different aspects of a research question.
Mean: Average value of a set of data.
Measures of Central Tendency: Descriptive statistical techniques for summarizing a distribution of data
into a single value that represents the entire distribution.
Median: The centre value in a data set when the set is arranged numerically.
Mode: The value that appears most frequently in the set.
Naturalistic Observation: A descriptive research method in which the researcher engages observation
of behaviour in real-world settings.
Normal Distribution: A distribution with a characteristic smooth, bell and symmetrical-shaped curve
around a single peak.
Paradigm: A set of assumptions and ideas about what kind of research questions can be asked and how
they can be answered.
Ob-ob mouse: The particular term for a mouse that is the result of a genetic mutation associated with
extreme obesity in the mouse.
Operational Definition: This describes the actions or operations that will be made to objectively
measure or control a variable.
Outlier: A value that lies outside (much smaller or much bigger) than most of the other values in a data
set.
Participants: The persons whose behaviour is systematically studied or observed in a study or
experiment.
Placebo Effect: When an individual exhibits an effect to a perceive treatment when no treatment is
actually given.
Population: The full group of individuals you are seeking to understand.
Practice Effect: Improved performance over the course of an experiment due to becoming more
experienced.
Psychological Test: A standardized measure of a sample of a person’s behaviour e.g. IQ test.
Questionnaire: A research tool in which a participant responds to a written list of items or questions.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to either the experimental or control group at random to
avoid any biases that may cause differences between the groups of subjects.
Random Sample: Choosing a set of subjects at random from the population being studied.
Raw Data: Data collected from a study or experiment that has yet to be assessed using statistical
analyses.
Reliability: The measurement consistency of a test (or of other kinds of measurement techniques).
Replication: The repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results can be duplicated, often times by
independent researchers.
Response Set: A tendency of research participants to respond to questions in a particular way that is
unrelated to the content of the questions.
Sample: The subset of the population you’re interested in that you examine.
Sampling Bias: A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which
it is drawn.
Scientific Method: The formal methods, primarily the set of techniques and concepts, used to examine
and answer questions of a scientific nature.
Social Desirability Bias: A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
Standard Deviation: A measure of the variability of a set of data, specifically the expected difference
between any randomly selected datum and the mean of the set.
Statistically Significant: The condition that exists when the probability that the observed findings are
due to chance is very low.
Theory: A set of statements or principles that try to relate and explain a set of observations.
Variability: The extent to which the scores in a data set tend to vary from each other and from the mean.
Variable: A feature or characteristic that is free to take on (at least two) different values.
📚 Chapter 2
Classical Conditioning Notes
CS: Conditioned Stimulus
US: Unconditioned Stimulus
Something that originally doesn't cause a reaction but,
Something that naturally triggers a response without
after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus,
learning.
starts to trigger a learned response.
Example: Food, which naturally makes a dog salivate.
Example: A bell ringing before food is given to a dog.
CR: Conditioned Response
UR: Unconditioned Response
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
The natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivation when the dog hears the bell, even
Example: Salivation when food is present.
if food isn’t present.
Classical conditioning allows us to associate two related events, and instrumental conditioning allows us to
associate actions and consequences.
A steak labelled “food” with an arrow pointing to a dog labelled “salivation”. A metronome
appears labelled “sound of metronome”. An arrow appears leading from “sound of metronome” to “food”.
Salivation droplets appear from the dog’s mouth as the steak and arrows disappear, and an arrow leading directly
between the sound of the metronome and salivation appears. It is labelled “Conditioned response”
Bell (CS) means food (US), so the dog salivates (CR).
A metronome labelled “Signal” with an arrow leading to a steak labelled “Event”.
Definition of Classical Conditioning: “The learning of a contingency between a particular signal and a later event
that are paired in time and/or space.
Human example for classical conditioning:
Imagine a lemon wedge in your mouth and immediately your mouth starts to salivate.
Conditional Stimulus (CS):
When it occurs: The CS is consistently followed by the US.
Key feature: The CS reliably predicts the occurrence of the US.
Example: If every time a bell rings (CS), food (US) is given to a dog, the bell positively predicts food.
What to look for: The subject starts to show the conditioned response (CR) in anticipation of the US after the CS is
presented.
Unconditioned Response (UR): The response that occurs after the unconditioned stimulus. Occurs naturally, prior
to any learning.
The specific response that an unconditioned stimulus triggers, is called the unconditioned
response or UR. The response is often a biologically programmed reflex. In our example
with dogs, food elicits an unconditioned response of salivation in the dog's mouth. Lemon juice placed in your own
mouth elicits a similar UR.
Conditioned Stimulus: Paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a
learned contingency.”
The conditioned stimulus typically appears before the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Response (CR): initially the conditioned stimulus did not elicit a specific response. Often, this
response is very similar to the unconditioned response.
Acquisition: The process by which a contingency between a CS and US is learned.
Lasting Effect
Extinction: The loss of the CR when the CS no longer predicts the US.
The CR can be made to fade through a process called extinction involving only. At first, the CS will elicit a
conditioned response as expected. But over several trials, this
response will become weaker and weaker, as the CS is no longer a valid predictor of the US
Spontaneous Recovery: The sudden recovery of a conditional response (CR) following a rest period after
extinction.
Stimulus Generalization: The process by which stimuli like the CS will also elicit a CR.
Stimulus Discrimination: While stimulus generalization allows a variety of stimuli to elicit a response to some
degree, stimulus discrimination does the opposite; it restricts the range of conditioned stimuli that can elicit a
response.
The CS+ and the CS-
To test the ability of a participant to discriminate between two stimuli, researchers devised a rather unique
experiment involving mild electric shocks. The experiment tested the effects of two important variables – the
conditioned stimulus plus (referred to as CS+) and the conditioned stimulus minus (referred to as CS-). The CS+
was a 500 hertz tone, which reliably predicted the presence of the electric shock (US), whereas the CS- stimulus
was a 600 hertz tone, which reliably predicted the absence of the electric shock (US).
Conditioning and Fear:
A snake labelled “Snake bite” appears beside “US”. Jane looking scared and the label “Fear” appear beside “UR”.
Jane looking scared and the label “Fear” appear “CR”. A snake labelled “Snake” appears beside “CS”.
Phobias and Therapy:
In implosive therapy, an individual with a particular phobia is encouraged to confront the CS that evokes their
anxiety using their imagination. Someone with a germ phobia may be asked to imagine themselves sitting with their
hands covered in dirt and grime for as long as possible, while accepting that sickness or danger will not follow.
Although this therapy may lead to extinction of the CR, it can be a traumatic experience
Homeostasis:
Freezing responses to conditioned fear cues can keep a prey animal hidden from a predator.
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Classical conditioning can also help us to understand physiological
regulation within the body. Your body is actively working to keep core temperature, glucose and ion
levels, and numerous other processes within strict parameters through a process called homeostasis
After when a girl drinks chocolate milk at a diner:
When you drink a sugary beverage, there are several internal events that engage homeostatic mechanisms. Shortly
after you drink the beverage, internal blood glucose levels will surge.
Compensatory Responses: Is considering the activity of an experienced cola drinker. Let’s
consider the US to be the ingestion of sugar, which initially raises blood glucose levels. A rise in blood sugar
naturally elicits insulin release to counter – this is the unconditioned response.
Addiction (Drug-use):
Beside US appears the label “Drug effects”, the face of a man
with an expression of pleasure, and a graph with a line spiking to a moderate level at wide
intervals indicating slower respiration. Beside UR appears the label “Counter-adaptations”, the face of a man with
an expression of pain on his face, and graph with steeper and more frequent spikes indicating faster respiration.
Beside CS appears the label “Environmental cues” and an image of a syringe. Beside CR appears the label
“Counter-adaptations” and the same imagery as for the UR.
Keyterms 2
Conditional Response (CR): An automatic response established by training (learning) to a once-neutral
stimulus—the conditional stimulus (CS).
Conditional Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the
unconditional stimulus (US), now triggers a conditional response (CR).
Conditioning Trials: Trials on which the CS and US are presented together. These trials create an
association between the two stimuli. Also known as training trails.
Contiguity: The extent to which the CS and US occur together in time and space.
Contingency: A term used to describe the association between the CS and US, because the presence
of the CS reliably predicts the presence of the US.
Dishabituation: An increase in responding that follows a change in n a previously habituated stimulus.
Drug Tolerance: The decreased effectiveness of a drug over the course of repeated administration.
Excitatory Conditioning: When the presence of the CS predicts the presence of the US.
Extinction: When the CS no longer elicits the CR. Occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented alone.
Extinction Trial: The CS is repeatedly presented alone to extinguish the CS–US association. Not to be
confused with tests trials, where the CS is presented alone to test whether an association has been
learned.
Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus when it is repeatedly presented without
consequence.
Higher-Order Conditioning: A neutral stimulus is paired with a CS to produce the same CR as the CS.
Homeostasis: Maintaining the body’s internal equilibrium.
Inhibitory Conditioning: The presence of the CS predicts the absence of the US.
Learning: Mechanisms of behaviour that undergo relatively enduring change based on experience.
Orienting Response: An automatic shift of attention toward a stimulus.
Reacquisition: The reintroduction of conditioning trials after extinction has occurred. Reacquisition is
faster than acquisition, indicating that some of the original learning is retained following extinction.
Sensitization: An increase in response to a stimulus as it is repeatedly presented. Often adaptive,
because it prompts you to engage in behaviours appropriate to escaping a potentially harmful stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of a previously extinguished CS after a temporal delay.
Stimulus Discrimination: An organism’s ability to fine-tune its responding such that a CR occurs in
response to one CS, but not to other similar stimuli. Typically occurs through discrimination training.
Stimulus Generalization: The CR is elicited by a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS. The
more similar the new stimulus is to the original CS, the greater the response. The strength of the CR
follows a generalization gradient.
Test Trial: A trial where the CS is presented without the US. Used to test whether a CS–US association
has been learned. Not to be confused with extinction trials, where the CS is repeatedly presented alone.
Unconditional Response (UR): A biologically determined response that is evoked before any learning.
Unconditional Stimulus (US): Any stimulus that evokes a UR.
📚 Chapter 3
Chapter 3: Instrumental Conditioning
Reinforcement: Increases behaviour frequency.
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Positive Reinforcement: Adding a rewarding stimulus (e.g., receiving a gold star for
completing a task).
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Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g.,
not having to do chores as a reward for finishing homework).
Punishment: Decreases behaviour frequency.
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Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence (e.g., a shock for pressing the
wrong lever).
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Negative Punishment (Omission Training): Removing a rewarding stimulus (e.g., taking
away a toy to discourage bad behaviour).
Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement (Reward Training)
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It involves presenting a positive reinforcer to increase the likelihood of a
behaviour.
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Examples: A rat presses a lever and receives food, or a child finishes homework
and receives a treat
Negative Reinforcement (Escape/Avoidance Training)
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Increases a behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus.
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Examples: A rat presses a lever to avoid a shock, or a person opens an umbrella to
prevent rain.
Types of Punishment
Positive Punishment
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Decreases behaviour by adding an aversive stimulus.
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Examples: A rat pressing a lever receives a shock, or a person is given an extra
task for inappropriate behaviour.
Negative Punishment (Omission Training)
•
Decreases behaviour by taking away a positive stimulus.
•
Examples: Taking away a child’s favorite toy after they misbehave, or losing
driving privileges for speeding.
Continuous Reinforcement (CRF):
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Definition: The reinforcer follows every correct response.
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Example: Every time a rat presses a lever, it gets a food pellet.
Advantages: Produces quick learning because each behaviour is immediately followed by a
reinforcement.
Disadvantages: Low resistance to extinction, meaning if reinforcement stops, behavior quickly
fades.
Partial Reinforcement (PRF):
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Definition: Reinforcement is only given after some responses rather than after every
response.
Advantages: Creates behaviors that are more resistant to extinction since the subject doesn’t
always expect reinforcement.
Types of PRF: Partial reinforcement can be ratio-based (based on the number of responses)
orinterval-based (based on time elapsed). Additionally, schedules can be fixed (consistent)
or variable (unpredictable).
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
In partial reinforcement, the four main schedules are combinations of ratio vs. interval and
fixed vs. variable schedules. Each schedule produces a different pattern of responding
and impacts the strength and persistence of behavior.
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule
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Definition: Reinforcement follows a fixed number of responses.
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Example: On an FR-5 schedule, reinforcement follows every 5th response (e.g., a rat is
reinforced after every 5 lever presses).
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Pattern of Behavior: Produces high response rates with post-reinforcement pauses, where
the subject takes a short break after reinforcement. The length of the pause can increase
with the number of responses required (ratio strain).
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Challenges: As the required responses increase, subjects may reach a break point and
stop responding altogether.
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Real-World Application: Factory workers paid for every item produced work quickly with
short breaks after each reinforced task.
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule
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Definition: Reinforcement follows a varying number of responses, based on an average.
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Example: On a VR-5 schedule, a rat is reinforced after an average of 5 responses, but the
number of responses required can differ from trial to trial.
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Pattern of Behavior: Produces high, steady response rates without post-reinforcement
pauses due to the unpredictability of reinforcement.
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Advantages: High resistance to extinction because the subject doesn’t know when
reinforcement will come, so they keep responding at a steady rate.
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Real-World Application: Gambling games (like slot machines) use VR schedules to keep
players engaged, as each action could potentially lead to reinforcement.
Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule
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Definition: The first correct response after a fixed interval of time is reinforced.
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Example: On an FI-1 minute schedule, the first lever press that occurs 1 minute after the
last reinforcement is rewarded.
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Pattern of Behavior: Produces a scalloped response pattern, where the response rate is
low immediately after reinforcement, then gradually increases as the time for reinforcement
approaches.
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Challenges: If the intervals are too long, the subject might lose interest.
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Real-World Application: Studying behavior often follows an FI pattern when students have
scheduled exams. Students tend to study little right after a test but increase their studying
as the next test approaches.
Variable Interval (VI) Schedule
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Definition: The first correct response after a varying interval of time is reinforced, based on
an average.
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Example: On a VI-5 minute schedule, the first response after an average of 5 minutes is
reinforced, though the interval might differ each time.
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Pattern of Behavior: Produces a moderate, steady rate of responding because
reinforcement is unpredictable.
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Advantages: High resistance to extinction, as the subject cannot predict when
reinforcement will be available.
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Real-World Application: Random pop quizzes in a class encourage steady studying habits,
as students are unsure when a quiz will occur.
Comparison of Reinforcement Schedules
Schedule
Reinforcement
Pattern of Behavior
Type
CRF
Continuous
Resistance to
Extinction
Fast learning, but
Low
quick extinction
FR
Fixed Ratio
Real-World Example
High response rate
Rat gets food every lever
press
Moderate
Factory workers paid
with pauses
VR
Variable Ratio
High, steady response
per item
High
Slot machines, gambling
Moderate
Scheduled exams or paydays
High
Random pop quizzes, drug
rate
FI
Fixed Interval
Scalloped response
pattern
VI
Variable Interval
Moderate, steady
response rate
testing
Keyterms 3
Chaining: Used to develop a sequence of desired behaviours. Each correct response is reinforced with
the chance to perform the next step in the sequence. Step by step, a chain of responses is built leading
to the final sequence of behaviours.
Continuous Reinforcement (CRF): A reinforcer follows every correct response made by the individual.
Contrast Effects: Changes in the value of a reward lead to shifts in response rate. Negative contrast
occurs when a response originally receiving a high reward is shifted to a lower reward; this results in
reduced responding. Positive contrast occurs when a response originally receiving a low reward is
shifted to a higher reward; this results in increased responding.
Cumulative Recorder: Records the cumulative response rate during an instrumental conditioning
experiment.
Discriminative Stimuli: A signal to the organism when a given response-reinforcer relationship is valid.
Can indicate either the presence (S+) or absence (S-) of the relationship.
Escape Training: A negative reinforcer is removed after a response. Will increase response rate.
Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: The first correct response that occurs after a fixed interval of time is
reinforced.
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: Reinforcement follows after a fixed number of responses.
Law of Effect: A response followed by a satisfying effect is strengthened and likely to occur again in that
situation, while a response followed by an unsatisfying effect is weakened and less likely to occur again
in that situation.
Mirror Neuron: A cell that responds in the same way when performing an action as it does when the
organism possessing that cell observes someone else perform the action or even imagines performing
the action. Believed to play a key role in observational learning.
Omission Training: A positive reinforcer is removed after a response. Will decrease response rate.
Operant Chamber: Also referred to as a Skinner Box. A special chamber with a lever or other
mechanism by which an animal could respond to produce a reinforcer.
Overjustification Effect: A newly introduced reward for a previously unrewarded task can alter an
individual’s perception of that task. A task that was previously regarded as having intrinsic value (an
activity pursued because it is, in and of itself, rewarding) now becomes viewed as work with extrinsic
value (an activity undertaken only because it leads to reward coming from other sources).
Partial Reinforcement (PRF): The reinforcer follows only some of the responses.
Post-Reinforcement Pause: A period during which the organism momentarily stops responding before
starting up again. Occurs after reinforcement on a fixed ratio schedule.
Primary Reinforcer: A reinforcer with intrinsic value such a food, water or a mate.
Punishment Training: A negative reinforcer is presented after a response. Will decrease response rate.
Ratio Strain: As the number of responses required for reward increases the post-reinforcement pause
tends to get longer. If the required responses continue to increase the organism will eventually reach
break point and stop responding completely.
Reward Training: A positive reinforcer is presented after a response. Will increase response rate.
Secondary Reinforcer: A reinforcer that can be exchanged for a primary reinforcer. Money is the most
commonly used for humans.
Shaping: Used when a desired behaviour is too complex for a subject to discover on their own in a
single step. The behaviour is broken down into smaller, easier steps, eventually leading to the more
complex behaviour.
Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: Reinforcement follows the first correct response to occur after a
variable interval of time has passed. The average time required characterizes a particular VI schedule.
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: Reinforcement follows after a variable number of responses have been
completed. The average number of responses required characterizes a particular VR schedule.
📚 Chapter 4
Chapter 4: Problem-Solving and Intelligence
Why Define Intelligence?
●
●
Intelligence seems intuitive, yet defining it is complex
Scholars disagree on how to capture its full meaning
Definition of Intelligence
●
Alfred Binet: Intelligence involves setting goals, adapting to reach them,
and self-assessment.
●
J.P Das: Intelligence is planning and structuring actions toward a goal.
●
Robert Sternberg (Class Definition): Intelligence is the cognitive ability to:
Learn from experience
-
Reason well
Retain important information
Handle daily life demands
Analytic Intelligence
-
Involves analyzing, evaluating, judging, and comparing
Linked to academic problem-solving and logical thinking
Examples: Solving math problems, writing essay
Creative Intelligence
-
Ability to handle novelty and think outside the box
Associated with storytelling, innovation, and the arts
Can be taught and developed with practice
Example: Using existing knowledge to find unique solutions
Practical Intelligence
-
Known as “street smart” or common sense
Helping in coping with everyday challenges and demands
Example: Navigating social situations or problem-solving in daily life
Deductive Reasoning
Uses a general theory to reach a specific conclusion
Example: Starting with “icy roads are dangerous”, and concluding “it would be dangerous
to drive to drive due to icy conditions.”
Inductive Reasoning
• Uses specific observations to form a general theory
• Example: You see several dogs wag their tails when happy, so you conclude that all dogs
wag their tails are happy.
Arch of Knowledge
Heuristic
What is it: Mental shortcuts for quick, efficient decisions
• Usually helpful but can sometimes cause mistakes
Types of Heuristics
Availability Heuristics
• How it works: We judge how common something is based on how easily examples come to
mind
-
Example: If we remember lots of stories lots of stories about kidnappings, we may think
kidnappings are common, even if they’re rare.
Representativeness Heuristics
How does it work: We judge something by comparing it to what we think is typical for that
category
Example: If “Tom” seems organized and logical, we might guess he’s a computer major,
even if there are more humanities students
Benefit: Saves time and energy in everyday decisions
A schema (plural: schemas or schemata) is a mental framework or structure that helps
individuals organize and interpret information in the world around them. It represents a set of
beliefs or expectations about a particular concept, object, or situation, allowing us to process
new information efficiently.
Key Points about Schemas:
Cognitive Structure: Schemas help in categorizing and understanding new experiences by
linking them to existing knowledge.
Assimilation: Integrating new information into an existing schema without changing it. For
example, if a child knows what a “dog” is, they might call a new dog breed (like a Great
Dane) a dog because it fits their existing schema of dogs.
Accommodation: Modifying an existing schema or creating a new one when new
information cannot fit into existing schemas. For example, if the same child encounters a
horse for the first time, they might need to create a new schema for “horse” since it doesn’t
fit their schema for dogs.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
-
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): develops object permanence.
-
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): egocentrism, struggles with conservation, seriation, and
reversible relationships.
-
Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years): logical thinking about concrete events but
struggles with abstract concepts.
-
Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): ability to think abstractly and understand
hypothetical situations.
Factors Influencing Intelligence
-
Intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
-
The Flynn Effect: observed rise in IQ scores over time
Qualities of a Test
-
Reliability: consistent results across multiple tests.
-
Validity: accurately measures what it claims to measure.
-
An ideal test is both reliable and valid.
Reliability
-
Definition: Reliability is about consistency. A test is reliable if it produces the same results
every time it’s used in similar conditions.
-
Example: If you step on a scale multiple times and get the same weight each time, the
scale is reliable.
Validity
-
Definition: Validity is about accuracy. A test is valid if it measures what it claims to
measure.
-
Example: If a scale says it measures weight, it’s valid if it shows your actual weight,
not your height or another metric.
Key Differences
Reliability = Consistency (Same results each time).
Validity = Accuracy (Measures what it’s supposed to).
Ill-defined Problem: A problem in which the starting position, allowable rules, and end goal
are not clearly stated. Most problems encountered in daily life need to be defined
Important Note:
A test can be reliable but not valid (e.g., a broken scale that gives the same wrong weight
every time) but not valid without being reliable—you need consistency to measure
something accurately.
Keyterms 4
Adoption Studies: A research method in which an adopted child is compared to their biological parents
and adopted parents to assess genetic and the environmental influences on a particular trait
Arch of Knowledge: A model which illustrates how deductive and inducive reasoning work together to
guide the scientific method.
Availability Heuristic: The tendency to make decisions about the frequency of an event based on
information most easily available.
Deductive Reasoning: Using a general theory to arrive at a specific conclusion.
Flynn Effect: The observation that raw IQ scores have increased by approximately three points since IQ
was first measured, in 1932.
Functional Fixedness: A cognitive bias that makes it difficult to seeing alternative uses for common
objects.
g: A measure of general intelligence that underlies specific types of intelligence. This measure was
coined by Spearman.
Ill-defined Problem: A problem in which the starting position, allowable rules, and end goal are not
clearly stated. Most problems encountered in daily life are ill-defined.
Inductive Reasoning: Using a specific fact to arrive at a general conclusion.
Interrater Reliability: The degree of agreement between multiples observers witnessing the same
event. If there is a high degree of agreement, the measure is considered reliable.
Operational Definition: A clearly defined description of a construct (such as intelligence) so that the
construct can be observed and measured.
Predictive Validity: The extent to which a score on a test can be used to predict future behaviour.
Reliability: The degree to which a test produces consistent results.
Representativeness Heuristic: The tendency to make decisions about the probability of an event based
on information most easily available.
Test-retest Method: A measure of reliability that examines the consistency of scores on the same test
taken at multiple different points in time. If scores are consistent, the test is said to have high reliability.
Twin Studies: A research method in which the similarities between monozygotic and dizygotic twins are
compared to assess the degree of genetic influences on a particular trait.
Validity: The degree to which a test measures the construct it intends to measure.
Well-defined Problem: A problem in which the starting position, allowable rules, and end goal are
clearly stated.
📚 Chapter 5
Chapter 5: Language
Morpheme:
●
●
The smallest unit of sound that contains information
Often a word, but some words contain multiple morphemes
Phoneme
●
The smallest unit of sound in speech
Example: Dog —> /d/ /o/ /g/
Syntax - Knows as grammar
●
●
The rules that govern how words in a sentence are put together
Masculine and feminine
Babbling:
●
●
Drawn sounds made up of a variety of combinations of vowels and consonants
It may sound like a real sentence or question because of the rhythm
Language explodes between 1.5 to 6 years
Universal Phoneme Sensitivity
●
The ability of infants to recognize and differentiate between the sounds (phonemes) used
in all human languages.
The ability of infants to discriminate between any sounds they’re tested on
Includes sounds from non-native languages
●
●
Language Acquisition Device
●
An innate mechanism, present only in humans, that helps language develop rapidly
according to universal rules
Animal communication: Example: Honey bees (waggle dance)
●
Semantics
Understanding how words mean and how they work together to create meaning in language
●
The meaning is produced by using and combining certain words and morphemes.
●
Can understand different meanings for a word depending on the context.
Example: The word “dog” refers to a specific type of animal
Receptive & Expressive Vocabulary
●
Expressive vocab refers to spoken words used to express languages.
●
Receptive vocab refers to the understanding of more complex words and expressions by
children that they are not yet able to use; language comprehension is just as important as
production for language development.
Early Language Skills
●
Language-related skills are present quite early in development.
●
The still-face procedure demonstrates an understanding of expectations of face-to-face
social interaction.
●
Pragmatics, the understanding and use of appropriate communication, develops through
conversational cooing and vocalizing with parents.
●
Cooing and babbling represent precursors for the holophrastic and word spurt phases, as
well as rapid vocabulary growth.
Early Language
●
Early language development, 10-18 months of age, is characterized by certain errors
such as overextensions, where specific words are used to refer to a more general group
of related items, and underextensions, where terms that are too general are used to refer
to more specific items.
●
This phase is also characterized by telegraphic speech.
●
Overregulation errors, where grammatical rules are used too broadly, begin to occur with
increased complexity in language development.
Whorfian Hypothesis: The idea that the language you speak can affect how you think and see the
world
●
The Whorfian hypothesis suggests our perceptions and experiences are shaped by
language, specifically the particular language(s) we use.
●
Evidence in support comes from the Piraha of Brazil and their difficulty in discriminating
numbers over 2.
●
The study of the Arapaho has brought counterevidence though: although they had one
word for some family members, they could still discriminate their relations to each
member.
Social Learning Theory: The idea that we learn by watching and imitating others
●
Social learning theory suggests that language abilities are acquired through imitation and
operant conditioning, with support from case studies of language deprivation during
development (e.g. Genie).
●
Criticism includes the suggestion that language is too complex and acquired too rapidly to
be learned, errors early in development are not performed by adults so they cannot be
imitated, and patterns of reinforcement used are insufficient.
Innate Mechanism Theory: the built-in ability to learn the language. In simple terms, it means that
our brains are “wired” from birth to pick up language naturally. (Speech vs. Music)
●
Chomsky has suggested the existence of a Language Acquisition Device and basic
universal rules for all languages; support comes from the spontaneous development of
sign language in deaf children, preference for speech sounds, and neurophysiological
responses to native languages.
●
Criticism includes evidence that infant monkeys and chinchillas show the same
neurophysiological responses to language.
Interactionist Theories: These theories suggest that children learn language through their
experiences and interactions with others.
●
Nature or nurture is insufficient, both are needed to explain language.
●
Children's experiences and experimentation with language and individuals who already
use language, combined with brain maturation, produce language abilities.
Segmentation: in language involves breaking down speech into recognizable units like words or
sounds.
●
Language involves breaking down speech into recognizable units like words or sounds.
Productive: refers to the ability to generate and comprehend an unlimited number of sentences or
words using linguistic rules.
●
Productivity is enabled by the rules of syntax and grammar, which allow people to combine
words in novel ways to express new ideas.
●
Limitless ways to combine words to describe objects, situations, and actions
Keyterms 5
Arbitrary Association: The word used to represent an object is not constrained by any characteristics of
the thing itself, allowing the word chosen to be completely arbitrary.
Cooing: Infants begin cooing at around 12 weeks, making sounds that combine consonants with ‘oo’
and ‘ah’ sounds.
Expressive Vocabulary: Words that children can actually speak.
Fast Mapping: When children learn the meaning of a word after only 1 or 2 encounters with it.
Grammar: Refers to the rules that govern how we put words together to form a sentence. Differences in
grammatical rules between languages are common.
Holophrastic Phase: When a child uses a single word to indicate the meaning of an entire sentence.
Infant-Directed Speech: When people talk to infants, they tend to speak in a higher pitch and
exaggerate changes in pitch and use of rhythm. The exaggerated changes in pitch used in infantdirected speech help 6-7-month-olds discriminate between different vowel sounds, possibly helping them
learn the categories of vowel sounds that are present in their native language.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD): An innate mechanism of language acquisition proposed by Noam
Chomsky.
Morphemes: In oral languages, morphemes are the smallest units of sound that contain information. In a
sign language, morphemes are units of signs rather than units of sound.
Naming Explosion: Also called Word Spurts. A rapid expansion of vocabulary seen between the ages
of 18-24 months.
Onomatopoeia: An exception to the arbitrary nature of language where the sound of the word is
associated with its meaning. The sounds of the words are not set arbitrarily but attempt to imitate natural
sounds to reflect their meaning.
Overextensions: Errors that involve using a fairly specific word for a broader set of related items.
Overregularizations: Syntactic errors that involve using a grammatical rule too broadly.
Perceptual Narrowing: The process where one loses the ability to distinguish between contrasts in
sounds not used in one’s native language.
Phonemes: The smallest unit of sound in a language.
Pragmatics: The skills that allow children to communicate appropriately and effectively in a social
situation, such as taking turns during a conversation.
Productive: Language is designed to use a small number of components to produce and understand a
wide range of symbols. Language has a limited set of rules that can be used to combine a limited set of
symbols in infinite ways.
Receptive Vocabulary: Words that children can understand but may not yet speak. Receptive
vocabulary develops well before expressive vocabulary.
Rule-Governed: The infinite combinations of symbols are constrained by the rules of each language.
For example, each oral language has its own set of rules about which phonemes can occur in
succession.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The idea that language may influence how we perceive and experience the
world.
Semantics: Refers to the meaning of a word. Semantics can also refer to the fact that we are able to
understand different meanings for a word depending on the context in which it is presented.
Telegraphic Speech: Begins between 18-24 months. Infants use short phrases that contain only the
most crucial information they are trying to communicate, much like those that would be used if you were
sending someone a telegram
Transparent Orthographies: Consistent letter-to-sound correspondence, so that a given letter will
always make the same sound.
Underextension: Where a general term is used for only a very particular instance of an item. Less
common than overextensions.
Universal Phonemic Sensitivity: The ability to discriminate between virtually all phonemes of all
languages. This is an ability that is lost into adulthood (see: perceptual narrowing).
📚 Chapter 6
Chapter 6: Categories and Concept
Classification: The ability to classify dissimilar objects together in the same group
●
Example: Many apples have all different colours but they would still be classified as apples
○
allows us to group dissimilar objects in the same group.
○
When we classify dissimilar things as being the same, we can treat these things in the
same way, and generalize our knowledge of one to the other.
Understanding: The ability to evaluate a situation and act appropriately based on prior experiences
●
Example: When a scene of two people shouting is occurring, this means they don’t want our
opinion (based on prior experiences)
○
describes our ability to evaluate a situation and act accordingly.
Communication: The ability to describe complex ideas or objects using a single label
●
Many of our English words refer to some type of category or concept (this allows for efficient
communication)
○
allows us to easily communicate. We can express complex ideas and objects using a
single word.
Illusion of the Expert: The feeling that a task must be simple for everyone because it is simple for oneself
●
Tying shoes is easier for Adults but not for Kids
●
String theory is easier for physicists but not for the average person
Prototype Theory: We categorize objects by comparing them to an internal “best” representation of a
given category
Example; Typically the best or average member of the category
-
Everybody has a different prototype for each category (it depends on your memories and
experiences)
-
There are limitations within the theory:
-
Difficulty with Ambiguous Cases: Struggles to categorize items that don’t fit neatly into
a prototype (e.g., penguins as birds).
-
Prototype theory suggests that when categorizing new information, frequent category
members are categorized more quickly than atypical ones.
New categories are typically compared to your prototypes
-
When you are taking a walk and you encounter an object that “looks” new you will compare it to
your previous classification of the object
It is more likely that a new prototype won't shift your old approach
Exemplars theory: We categorize objects by comparing them to every previously stored experience
(exemplar) in a given category
-
This theory suggests that instead of remembering 1 type of object we will typically remember
lots of the type
Diagnoses influenced by more recent experiences are evidence for exemplar theory
-
Any increase in the number of relevant exemplars would improve categorization performance
Prototype Theory
Exemplar Theory
Internal Average
Past, similar, objects
Can explain why we respond faster to more
representative objects
yes
yes
Can explain why a single encounter changes
categorization patterns?
no
yes
Explains simple
categorization better
N/A
Categories by comparing objects to:
Other
The Development of Categorization
Example: When teaching a child a new fact about any species, they will tend to associate that fact with
every similar species they will encounter
-
Hypothetical questions: Some things are possible while others are not
Baboos are smart at categorizing items
Stereotypes: Often assume that an entire group of people shares the same characteristics which forms
an impression of the group
Classical View:
●
Categories had strict rules for what belongs and what doesn’t.
●
Example: A bird is defined as an animal with feathers and wings. Anything without these
features isn’t a bird.
●
Problem: Some members don’t fit perfectly (e.g., penguins are birds but can’t fly), so this view
was rejected.
Family Resemblance:
●
Categories are based on shared similarities, not strict rules.
●
Example: In the category of "furniture," items like chairs, tables, and beds don’t have one
common feature but share some similarities (used in homes, for comfort, or utility).
●
Used in modern theories because it accounts for more flexibility.
A hybrid theory
Similarity: Both prototype and exemplar theory involve comparing an uncategorized stimulus to instances
in memory.
Difference:
●
Prototype Theory: The stimulus is compared to one "ideal" member.
●
Exemplar Theory: The stimulus is compared to every instance in memory.
Usage of Both Theories:
●
Prototype Theory: More likely used when we have limited knowledge of a category.
●
Exemplar Theory: Used by experts who have many examples (exemplars) to draw upon.
Factors Influencing Theory Usage:
●
Category Size: Larger categories might lean more towards exemplar theory.
●
Member Distinctiveness: If individual members are unique, exemplar theory is preferred since a
prototype might not capture nuances.
Typicality often helps with categorization, but there are some instances with natural kinds where
essentialism allows us to categorize without typicality
Typicality: Quick, automatic categorization based on resemblance to a prototype or common example.
●
Refers to how representative something is of its category.
●
Example: A robin is a more typical bird than a penguin.
●
Typicality Ratings: Show which members are considered "better" examples of a category.
●
Exceptions:
○
Some items belong to a category despite low typicality (e.g., penguin as a bird).
○
Some items are excluded from a category despite high typicality (e.g., a whale is not a
fish, even though it resembles one).
●
Useful: Fast identification in most scenarios.
●
Limitation: Can mislead when objects resemble other categories (e.g., sea fan looks like a
plant but is an animal).
Essentialism: Belief that deep, unchanging properties define categories.
●
Explains categorization without relying on typicality.
●
We believe natural kinds have deep, unseen qualities that define their category membership.
●
Example:
○
A dog is still a dog even if it looks very different from others due to its unseen
"essence."
○
Even if an apple is painted blue, flavoured, or blended, it’s still categorized as an apple
based on its essential properties.
●
Natural kind categories are fixed, unlike man-made categories, which can be altered.
Typicality helps us categorize by looks.
Essentialism helps us categorize by deeper properties, especially when looks are deceiving.
Development of Categorization:
●
Before Age 3: Children struggle to understand general categories.
●
After Age 3: Children begin to categorize in ways similar to adults.
Essentialism in Natural Kinds:
●
Children (age 3+) believe animals have a fixed identity.
●
Example: Painting stripes on a cow and teaching it zebra-like behaviour doesn’t make it a
zebra; it’s still a cow.
●
Shows children understand that natural kinds (animals, plants) have an unchanging essence
beyond appearance.
Flexibility with Man-Made Objects:
●
Children think man-made objects can change categories with enough modifications.
●
Example: A toaster can become a coffee pot with changes.
●
Shows that children don’t see man-made objects as having a fixed identity.
Main Insight
Early understanding of essentialism: Natural kinds have fixed identities, while man-made objects can be
changed.
Categories in the Brain
Anomia:
●
A brain disorder where individuals cannot name objects but can recognize them and
understand their functions.
●
Example: Someone may see a banana and know what it is and how to use it but cannot
say the word "banana."
●
Category-Specific: Different brain areas are responsible for categorizing different types of
objects (e.g., living things vs. inanimate objects).
Object Agnosia: (ag-NOH-zhuh)
●
A brain disorder where individuals cannot recognize objects.
●
Example: Someone may see a banana and not recognize it at all, even though they can
describe its features.
●
Category-Specific: Like anomia, this disorder is also specific to certain categories of
objects.
Keyterms 6
Anomia: A disorder in which an individual loses their ability to name common objects. These individuals
are still able to understand the object’s function.
Borderline Members: Category members that do not belong inside or outside of a particular category.
Categorization: The act of assigning an item to a particular category. It involves grouping objects,
events, and ideas.
Category: A set of objects or events in the real world that are grouped, often based on similarity.
Classification: One of the functions of categorization. It is the ability to classify dissimilar objects
together in the same group.
Communication: One of the functions of categorization. It is the ability to describe complex ideas or
objects using a single label.
Concepts: A mental representation of a category.
Essentialism: The belief that members of a category have deep underlying properties that cause them
to be in that category. Essentialism is more relevant for natural kinds.
Exemplar Theory: A theory of categorization that states we hold every item we encounter in memory as
an “exemplar”. When we encounter a new stimulus, we compare it to all exemplars to find a sufficient
match.
Family Resemblance: The idea that members of a category share overlapping features, even though
each individual feature may not be shared amongst all members. Family resemblance suggests that all
members of a category resemble one another.
Graded Membership: The idea that some category members are more representative of a category
than others and are closer in degree to the category prototype.
Ill-defined Category: A category that cannot be defined using rules. Most categories are ill-defined.
Man-Made Artifacts: Objects that are not naturally occurring.
Natural Kinds: Objects that exist in the natural world. This includes plants, animals, and non-living
things such as rocks and water.
Object Agnosia: A disorder in which individuals cannot recognize objects despite having perfect vision.
Old Item Advantage Effect: The phenomenon whereby it is easier to categorize already known items
compared to new items with the same typicality.
Prototype Theory: A theory of categorization that suggests we have one ‘ideal’ member for each
category that represents the average or ‘best’ of all category members. When we encounter a new
stimulus, we compare it to all our prototypes to find the closest match.
Sentence Verification Task: An experimental procedure in which participants are presented with a
sentence and must determine whether that sentence is true or false as quickly as possible.
Typicality: How representative a category member is of that particular category.
Understanding: One of the functions of categorization. We can evaluate a situation and act accordingly.
Well-defined Category: A category that can be defined using rules
📚 Midterm Notes
Science of Learning
Multi-tasking: Refers to the simultaneous completion of two or more tasks. Although many people think
that it pretty good to multi-task
-
Psychologists suggest that our brains are not wired to do two tasks at once it is mentally taxing,
like studying.
-
Instead of processing in parallel, we seem to quickly switch between task. But switching
between tasks can cause a decrease in performance.
The Pomodoro Technique
-
When you set a timer for 25 minutes, your goal for these 25 minutes is to completely zone in to
block out all distractions and focus deeply on the task at hand. Hrn after when the 25 minutes
are done, it is likely you will treat yourself to a 5 to 10-minute break. Scrolling on social media,
texting a friend, or even meditating. Then the cycle continues and you will repeat about three or
four times.
Suppress Distraction → Always find a space where you are unlikely to be distracted, has to be well and has
an ambience for you not to be drowsy.
-
Setting your phone into DND or silent mode can always reduce the total distraction you will get
Spacing Effect: When you have a major test coming up it is smart to space out your studying so you be
cramming in the last minute.
-
When he crammed his studying into one day, it took 68 restudy, but when spaced it out he only
took 38 restudy attempts in total
-
By distributing learning across time, he was learning the same amount in less total study time
Repeated exposure can lead to rapid learning in the short-term, and may even result in a good grade if
an assessment is primarily testing recall and recognition.
After when a study studies they believe that continually expose ourselves to save information in a rote
manner. We are subjected to think “ All these materials seem so familiar when I read over. Surely I will
remember it”.
📚 Chapter 7
Chapter 7: Attention
Phenomenon → Model → Hypothesis
Selection: Focusing on relevant information while filtering out irrelevant details. It helps prioritize
attention and manage vast amounts of information.
Automatic vs. Controlled Processes
-
Automatic: Fast, involuntary, like reflexively noticing loud sounds.
-
Controlled: Conscious, slow, effortful, like focusing on a task.
Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, emotional memories that may be inaccurate due to the interaction of
attention and memory.
Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Processing:
-
Bottom-Up: Sensory-driven, where attention is captured by stimuli (e.g., identifying an unknown
animal).
-
Top-Down: Memory-driven, shaped by prior knowledge and expectations (e.g., searching for
keys in familiar spots).
Both processing types can be automatic or controlled, depending on the task.
Attention Models:
-
Spotlight Model: Attention focuses like a spotlight on certain stimuli, enhancing perception.
-
Filter Models: Attention acts as a filter, allowing only certain information based on physical or
semantic properties.
-
Broadbent's Single Model: Early selection based on physical features.
-
Treisman’s Attenuation Dual Model: Information is weakened, not blocked, allowing relevant
unattended information to break through.
-
Late-Selection Model: All information is processed before selection.
Orienting refers to the act of shifting attention to a new location, either visibly (overtly) by moving eyes or
invisibly (covertly) without physical movement.
-
Overt Orienting: Attention is directed through visible movements, like eye shifts.
-
Covert Orienting: Attention is directed without moving the eyes, measured in experiments like
spatial cueing.
Spatial Cueing is a task that studies how attention can be directed to a specific location based on cues. A
cue indicates where a target will appear, and people can respond more quickly when the target appears
at the cued location. This is used to assess shifts in attention across a visual scene.
-
Posner’s Spatial Cueing Paradigm: In this experiment, participants detect a target faster when it
appears in the same location as a preceding cue.
-
Inhibition of Return (IOR): If the cue-target interval is too long, response times slow down. This
phenomenon prevents attention from repeatedly focusing on the same area, enhancing
efficiency in searching.
Visual Search:
-
Pop-Out Search: Target stands out automatically due to a unique feature.
-
Conjunction Search: Target defined by multiple features, requiring more attention as set size
increases.
-
Contextual Cueing: Prior knowledge aids in locating targets faster.
Inattention and Change Blindness: Limits in attention can lead to missing obvious stimuli or
changes in the environment.
-
Selective Attention: Focusing on one thing while ignoring others, like hearing your name in a
noisy room (the Cocktail Party Effect).
-
-
Cocktails Party: Based on its physical characteristics
Dichotic Listening: Semantics When listening to different sounds in each ear, we notice basic
features (like pitch) of the ignored sound, but not its meaning—unless it’s something important,
like your name.
-
Inattentional Blindness: Missing something unexpected (like a gorilla) because you’re focused
on another task.
-
Change Blindness: Not noticing changes between two similar images, especially when there’s a
blank screen in between. Familiar environments help us spot changes faster.
Stroop Task: Demonstrates automatic processing by showing how reading interferes with tasks like
naming ink colours.
High % Congruent
Low % Incongruent
Increased
Stroop Task
In a Stroop task, you are asked to name the colour
of the ink that a word is written in, but the word itself
Low % Congruent
High % Incongruent
Decreased
Stroop Task
can either match or not match the colour.
Congruent Trials: Fast
-
The word matches the colour.
-
Example: The word RED is written in red ink.
-
It's easy to say the colour because the word and colour match.
Incongruent Trials: Slow
-
The word does not match the colour.
-
Example: The word RED is written in blue ink.
It's harder to say the colour because your brain wants to read the word ("RED") instead of saying the
actual ink colour (which is blue).
The Stroop effect occurs when it's harder and takes more time to say the colour in **incongruent trials**
because the word and colour don't match.
The Stroop effect is making the mistake of reading the word instead of saying the colour.
Having more congruent trials can make it more difficult to avoid the Stroop effect when an
incongruent trial
-
A higher ratio of congruent to incongruent trials typically leads to a greater Stroop effect.
Treisman’s Dual Filter Model:
1.
2.
Physical Filter:
○
First, information is filtered based on physical traits (e.g., loudness, pitch).
○
Unimportant info is weakened, while important info passes through.
Semantic Filter: (meaning)
○
The remaining info is then filtered for meaning (e.g., relevance or importance).
○
Important information (like hearing your name) can still get through even if you're not
focusing on it.
Example:
-
Attended Info: You focus on a conversation.
-
Unattended Info: You hear your name in the background even if you’re not paying attention.
Attention as a Spotlight
●
Spotlight Metaphor: Attention is like a spotlight that highlights specific stimuli, making them
more noticeable and clearer.
●
Posner’s Spatial Cueing Task: Supports this by showing faster and more accurate responses
when attention is focused on a cued location.
●
Limitations: This model works well for location-based attention but doesn't explain more
complex scenarios.
Question 1: When an object is fixed in our "attentional spotlight", tasks related to that object will have:
A) increased accuracy and decreased reaction time
B) decreased accuracy and increased reaction time
C) increased reaction time and increased accuracy
D) decreased reaction time and decreased accuracy
A) increased accuracy and decreased reaction time
Explanation: When an object is within our "attentional spotlight," we can process it more efficiently. This
heightened focus improves our ability to respond accurately (increased accuracy) and allows us to react
more quickly (decreased reaction time).
Treisman's Dual Filter Model: (Sequence Process)
Keyterms 7
Key Terms
Attenuation Theory: Unattended information is not completely filtered out, as proposed in the single
filter model, but rather ‘turned down’ or attenuated. The attenuator replaces the filter in Broadbent’s
model, allowing all information to pass but with differently assigned weightings depending on whether the
information is physically similar to the target or not.
Bottleneck: Only a limited amount of attentional information can be passed on for further processing.
Bottom-Up Processing: The raw data gathered by our senses.
Breakthrough: When relevant information from an unattended channel is heard, such as someone
calling your name at a busy party.
Change Blindness: A perceptual phenomenon where a change has occurred in a visual scene, but the
observer does not notice or cannot identify it.
Cocktail Party Effect: Despite competing background noises, a listener can focus on a single channel of
information (e.g., having a conversation amidst many other people talking in the background).
Conjunctive Search: When at item does not pop-out during a visual search task, you must examine
each item individually to determine if it is the target. As set size increases, so does search time.
Covert Orienting: Attending to something without looking at it.
Dichotic Listening Paradigm: Participants wear headphones where one message is presented to one
ear (that is attended to) and a different message is presented to the other ear (that is not attended to).
The participant is typically instructed to shadow (immediately repeat the message) in the attended ear.
Early Selection Theory: Our attentional filter is located early in the process. Information is filtered out
early before any semantic processing has occurred. This theory was proposed by Broadbent.
Flashbulb Memories: A highly detailed and vivid ‘snapshot’ of a moment. Typically occurs during a time
when an important piece of news is heard. Not always as accurate as they may seem.
Inattentional Blindness: Our limited attentional resources can result in missing out (not noticing) some
very important or salient things.
Inhibition of Return: IOR tends to prevent your gaze (and attention) from revisiting a previously
attended location. In turn, this promotes orienting towards new and previously unsearched locations,
which should result in a more efficient search.
Late Filter Model: Suggests filtering occurs after physical and semantic analysis and only selected
information goes on for further processing due to limitations in processing capacity.
Pop-Out Effect: The bottom-up capture of attention driven by a salient physical property of the target
during a visual search task. If a target “pops out”, search time is unaffected by the set size.
Proportion Congruent Manipulation: Change the ratio of congruent to incongruent trials
Orienting: The act by which attention moves across a scene.
Overt Attending: The obvious process of looking to where you are attending.
Schema: In the context of visual search, it is a representation depicting the range of plausible objects
and likely configurations of those objects within particular scenes. It can help guide your search for a
target.
Selective Attention: This leads to attended items being better remembered when compared to
unattended items.
Set Size: The total number of items during a visual search task. This can vary from trial to trial.
Spotlight Model: The idea that attention is like a spotlight, enhancing things that fall within its focus.
Stroop Paradigm: A task in which a participant is required to identify the colour of ink a colour word is
written in while ignoring the word itself. For example, the word red is written in blue ink. The participant
must say “blue”. This task proves difficult due to the automatic nature of word reading.
Top-Down Processing: Using a combination of our memories, biases, and heuristics to interpret
information.
Visual Search Paradigm: A task where the participant is required to locate a target among a set of
distractor items.
📚 Chapter 8
Chapter 8: Memory
3 Major Processes:
Encoding (input): When described when information is first being learned.
-
Focuses on how sensory input becomes a memory
-
Relies on attention to selectively capture information
-
Example: By focusing on someone’s face to discern whether they are a friend or for, you
encoded whatever it was you paid attention to.
-
Noticing details about your friend’s voice to remember it later
Storage: describes what information is being stored in the brain and how
-
Refers to the process of maintaining memory over time
-
Memory cant be fixed but can be changed, such as through reconsolidation
-
Example: After telling the same story many times, you may adopt and maintain inaccuracies or
fabrications without being aware of it.
-
Repeatedly recounting a story might alter some details
Retrieval (output): How we process prior experience to make use of them in the present
-
Accesses stored information using retrieval cues
-
Strong sensory cues (like smells or sounds) can trigger specific memories
-
Example: The mere smell of lilacs, a strong cue, might make you think of picking flowers at your
grandmother's farm.
-
A song might remind you of a high school event
Retrieval Cue: Any piece of information that can be used to access other information that is stored in
memory
-
One piece of information can trigger another, shaping the flow of the conversation.
Free Recall Test: A list where the items are generated by yourself (whatever you remember)
Recognition Test: They are shown several items that may or may not been new or old (you have cues)
Multi-Store Model:
Patient H.M. had to undergo surgery due to the frequent chronic seizures during the procedure the
surgeon took a large portion of both hippocampi.
-
After the surgery, everything he felt was new to him, all the conversations and what he ate that
day.
Things that were not affected were: His IQ was unaffected, Short-term memory was still intact, and he
could learn new complex motor skills.
Stimulus/input —> Short Term Memory—> Long Term Memory
Memory AND encoding are interconnected with each other.
Short-term memory can create long-term memory if you keep practicing.
Short-term Memory Capacity: People can remember 7+ / 2- items (chunks), but not all numbers will be
remembered as it will become strained so all the information can be rehearsed, leading to it quickly
fading.
-
it is better to group them for better memorization
Chucking: When information is organized into chunks, this can help expand short-term memory. (Help us
store info in the short term)
-
Letter grouping can form word pack even more information into a single chunk (e.g. are you
able to remember 7 random letters of the alphabet, but also remember 7 different names of
animals that add up to 30 letters)
In a graph, there's a curve that faces “U”, during the first part of the top section of U where short-term
memory is most likely to be retained and can be rehearsed.
-
This is called the Primacy Effect
At the end of the graph, it goes up U but this is where rehearsal will have less opportunity
-
This is called the Recency Effect
-
As you input new memory “words” it shuffle in your mind and the oldest item in your list will
become long-term.
-
As you reach the end of the list, no new information will be processed and it will stay in your
short-term.
The encoded information is first held in the short-term memory buffer that can hold around 7 times.
-
At the end of the list, the last 7 or so items are not replaced by new items because they’re still
active in short-term memory just before the memory test
Shallow Processing: Physical, this requires little effort and it has a poor performance
Moderate Processing: Phonemic/Acoustic. Requires some effort, moderate memory performance
Deeper Level Processing: Semantics, requires significant energy, and has better memory performance
Levels of processing manipulation during encoding (e.g. DOG)
Physical/Shallow: is the word written in capital letters?
Acoustic/Moderate: Does this word rhyme with fog?
Semantic/Deep: Does this word fit in this sentence? “I walked my ______.”
-
As it gets from Shallow to Deep the Memory Performance gets better
Level of Processing Principle: The more we try to organize and understand the material, the better we
remember it
Environmental cues are incorporated into the memory along with the studied items.
In a physical environment or one's internal state, a strong encoding of a stimulus can also act as a strong
form of context.
Memory researchers will often forget basic information stored but will gradually fade away as a function
of time. This process is called decay and it is especially relevant when loss of information occurs in shortterm memory.
During any study session, you would study a topic but then later you would study a related subject. You
will write a test a few days later, especially about the first study content before the later related topic.
-
If cramming the study session of the first topic, followed by cramming of the second topic then,
you are setting the stage for interference. However, you can overcome possible interference
with memory recall by creating a study plan.
Memory Illusion and Fluency
Fluency: The ease with which an experience is possessed, some experiences are easier (more fluent)
than others.
Attribution: Judgement tying together causes with effects
Fluency → Attribution → Conclusion
Sensory Memory
-
Briefly maintains perceptual information, giving the illusion of continuity in perception
-
Example: Iconic memory (visual): lasts ~0.5 seconds
Echoic memory (auditory): lasts ~4 seconds
Haptic memory (touch): lasts ~2 seconds
Short-Term Memory (STM)
-
Temporary storage of information selected from sensory memory
-
Duration: ~15-30 seconds without rehearsal
-
Capacity: “7 +/-”
-
Chunking: Organizing information meaningful groups improves capacity
Working Memory:
-
Involves active manipulation of STM
-
Components:
-
Phonological loop: Stores and rehearses verbal information.
-
Visuospatial sketchpad: Temporarily holds visual or spatial information.
-
Episodic buffer: Integrates information from STM and long-term memory into
coherent events.
-
Central executive: Coordinates the components and allocates attention.
Flexible and supports complex tasks like problem-solving and planning.
Episodic Buffer:
Combines info from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory.
Briefly maintains and integrates events to create a unified memory.
Central Executive:
Directs attention and coordinates information between components.
Manages tasks like problem-solving and decision-making.
Long-Term Memory
-
Nature of Long-Term Memory:
-
Relatively permanent storage.
-
Only some memories transfer from short-term to long-term memory.
-
Rehearsal increases the chances of transfer (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971).
Organization of Long-Term Memory
●
Semantic Networks:
○
Information is organized by meaning.
○
Concepts are linked; activation spreads to related concepts (Collins & Loftus, 1975).
○
Example: Thinking of "pizza" might trigger thoughts of "dinner," "pineapple," or
"hungry."
●
Schemas:
○
Frameworks based on prior experiences.
○
Shape memory recall and interpretation.
○
Example: Brewer & Treyens (1981) – Participants falsely recalled seeing books in an
office, influenced by schema expectations.
Retrieval from Long-Term Memory
●
Based on schemas and prior knowledge.
●
Memory is reconstructive, not exact.
○
Example: Change blindness occurs when expectations guide attention.
Evidence for Multi-Store Model
●
●
Primacy Effect:
○
Better recall of early list items (long-term memory).
○
Enhanced by more rehearsal time.
Recency Effect:
○
Better recall of recent items (short-term memory).
○
Eliminated by distractor tasks between study and test phases.
Brain and Long-Term Memory
●
Hippocampus:
○
Essential for forming new long-term memories.
○
Memories are distributed across the cortex.
○
Example: Patient H.M. – Unable to form new memories after hippocampal damage but
retained old, well-consolidated memories.
Subdivisions of Long-Term Memory
●
●
Declarative Memory (Explicit):
○
Semantic Memory: General facts (e.g., "roses are red").
○
Episodic Memory: Specific events tied to time/place (e.g., "sunny day at the park").
Nondeclarative Memory (Implicit):
○
Skills, habits, and conditioned responses (e.g., "riding a bike").
Long-Term Memory & Its Proposed Subdivisions
●
●
Schemas:
○
Knowledge structures are based on past experiences.
○
Guide encoding and retrieval of information.
Declarative Memory:
○
Explicit recall of facts or episodes.
○
●
Example: Remembering a birthday party or historical fact.
Nondeclarative Memory:
○
Implicit, procedural memories.
○
Not consciously recalled but influenced actions (e.g., riding a bike).
Amnesiacs with Hippocampal Damage
●
Studies of amnesiacs have revealed critical insights about long-term memory.
●
Hippocampus:
○
Essential for forming new long-term memories.
○
Long-lasting memories are distributed throughout the cortex.
Primacy & Recency Effects
●
●
Provide evidence for distinctions between short-term and long-term memory.
○
Primacy Effect: Better recall of early words (driven by long-term memory).
○
Recency Effect: Better recall of recent words (driven by short-term memory).
Selective Manipulations:
○
Extended rehearsal enhances the primacy effect.
○
Distractor tasks eliminate the recency effect.
Levels of Processing
●
Proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972).
●
Memory is not divided into stores but exists on a continuum of depth:
○
Deeper encoding (e.g., focusing on meaning) → Longer-lasting memory traces.
○
Shallower encoding (e.g., focusing on physical characteristics) → Shorter-lasting
memory traces.
●
Encoding depth hierarchy:
○
Meaning > Phonological > Physical features.
Levels of Processing
●
Stimuli processed semantically (meaning-based) are typically better remembered than those
processed through superficial features.
●
Criticisms:
○
Vague definitions of "deep" processing.
○
Circular reasoning—better recall defines deeper processing without clarifying the
underlying mental mechanisms.
Encoding Specificity
●
Information is encoded alongside contextual elements from the learning event (e.g., physical
surroundings, internal states).
●
These contextual cues can serve as effective aids for retrieval.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
●
Memory is optimized when the mental processes during encoding align closely with those
during retrieval.
Evidence
●
Craik & Tulving (1975): Words encoded semantically were better remembered than those
encoded phonologically or physically.
Criticism
●
The definition of ‘deeper processing’ is vague and potentially circular.
●
Despite this, the framework remains influential in memory research.
Self-Referent Effect
●
Information related to oneself is better remembered than other types of encoding.
○
Hierarchy: Self > Meaning > Phonological > Physical.
Encoding Specificity
●
Memory retrieval is enhanced when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.
○
Physical context:
■
Godden & Baddeley (1975): Scuba divers remembered more in the
environment (underwater or land) where they studied.
○
Internal state:
■
Eich et al. (1975): Information encoded under the influence of marijuana was
better recalled in the same state, though best recall occurred in the sober
condition.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
●
Memory is better when encoding and retrieval processes align.
○
Morris et al. (1977):
■
Semantic encoding outperformed rhyme encoding in standard recognition
tasks.
■
Rhyme encoding outperformed semantic encoding in rhyme recognition
tasks.
●
Highlights the importance of matching cognitive processes across encoding and retrieval.
Box 8.1: Harnessing Principles of Memory for Effective Studying
●
Contextual Matching:
○
Utilize encoding specificity by aligning your study environment with the testing
environment:
●
■
Arrange your desk like an exam table.
■
Eliminate distractions (e.g., put away notes, turn off your phone).
■
Practice under timed conditions to mimic exam pressure.
Relating Information:
○
Use mnemonic strategies that link study material to personal experiences for deeper
encoding.
●
Diverse Contexts:
○
Study in multiple environments to create multiple retrieval pathways in memory.
○
This enhances recall by associating the information with varied contexts.
Forgetting
Rate of Forgetting
●
Ebbinghaus (1885) conducted pioneering research on forgetting using nonsense syllables.
○
To minimize interference, he used pronounceable nonsense syllables (e.g., PEW, ZIB,
MEH).
○
Forgetting occurs rapidly at first and then slows over time, forming a forgetting curve.
○
Example: Recall drops from 100% immediately after learning to ~40% in the first hour,
with a gradual decline over days and weeks.
Mechanisms of Forgetting
1.
Decay
○
Memories fade over time due to disuse.
○
Effective for explaining short-term memory loss but insufficient for long-term forgetting.
○
Key evidence: Forgotten events can often be recalled later when appropriate retrieval
cues are provided.
2.
Interference
-
Proposes that forgetting occurs because other learned information interferes with retrieving
the target memory.
○
Forgetting arises when competing memories interfere with one another, disrupting
retrieval.
○
Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer ones.
■
Example: Knowledge of French vocabulary disrupts learning or recall of
Spanish words.
■
Experimental Evidence:
■
Participants studying word list A followed by word list B recall fewer
words from list B compared to those who only study list B.
Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the recall of newer
information.
●
Example: Previous knowledge of French vocabulary can make it difficult to recall Spanish
words.
○
Retroactive Interference: Newer memories hinder the recall of older ones.
■
Example: Difficulty recalling what you ate for dinner two weeks ago due to
recent dining experiences.
■
New experiences, like recent meals, can prevent recall of what you ate two
weeks ago.
■
Experimental Evidence:
■
Participants studying word list A followed by word list B recall fewer
words from list A compared to those who only study list A.
3.
Repression
○
Freud proposed repression as a defence mechanism to block traumatic memories.
○
Evidence: Williams (1994) found that 38% of individuals treated for childhood sexual
abuse failed to recall the documented events.
○
Controversy: Forgetting traumatic events might reflect ordinary forgetting rather than
repression.
■
Bias toward remembering positive over negative events (e.g., giving birth is
not well-remembered).
○
We intentionally block negative memories (e.g., traumatic events) from conscious
awareness.
○
However, this remains controversial.
■
Some argue that forgetting negative memories might just be a tendency to
remember positive experiences over negative ones.
■
Example: Painful events like childbirth might be forgotten or less vividly
remembered, suggesting a general bias toward pleasant memories.
Why Do We Forget?
●
Forgetting reflects the nervous system's limitations in storing and retrieving information.
●
Adaptive functions of forgetting:
○
Avoiding overload: Prevents the accumulation of irrelevant or outdated information.
○
Reducing interference: Enhances access to relevant and up-to-date memories.
Misinformation Effects
●
False Memories and Eyewitness Testimony
○
Example: Washington Sniper case: Eyewitnesses falsely reported seeing a white van
near crime scenes, even though the actual vehicle was dark green.
○
Cause: False memory spread due to media interviews and subsequent eyewitness
accounts. Shows how memory can be shaped by misleading information.
●
Loftus' Research on False Memories
○
Study: Loftus & Pickrell (1995) – Participants read 4 childhood stories, one of which
was fabricated (lost in mall).
○
Findings: 30% of participants falsely "remembered" the event, highlighting how
memories can be reconstructed and influenced by external information.
●
Misinformation Effect
○
Study: Braun, Ellis, & Loftus (2002) – Participants shown an ad with Bugs Bunny (not
associated with Disneyland), and later falsely remembered meeting him at Disneyland.
○
Implication: New, erroneous information can merge with old memories, creating
false recollections.
●
Legal Questioning and Language
○
Study: Loftus & Palmer (1973) – Phrasing of questions influenced memory recall.
“Smashed” led to higher speed estimates and false memory of broken glass.
○
Implication: Language in questioning can implant false memories, impacting legal
procedures.
Source Confusion
●
Source Monitoring
○
The process of recalling where a memory originated. Difficulty tracing the origin can
lead to source errors.
○
Example: Forgetting whether information came from a doctor, a magazine, or another
source.
●
Misattributing Fluency
○
Study: Jacoby, Kelley, Brown & Jasechko (1989) – Participants misjudged "Steve
Smithers" as famous after seeing it on a list, even though it wasn’t.
○
Cause: Familiarity from seeing the name led to the false belief of fame. Demonstrates
how fluency (ease of processing) can cause memory errors.
●
Reality Monitoring
○
The process of distinguishing between real memories and imagined ones.
○
Study: Seamon, Philbin & Harrison (2006) – Participants imagined performing actions
(e.g., checking for change) and later falsely remembered doing them.
○
Implication: Imagined events can be misremembered as real, underlining the
importance of accurate source monitoring.
Keyterms 8
Central Executive: Coordinates and manipulates the information stored in the working memory buffers.
Chunking: The process by which information is organized into sets of familiar groups or categories of
items. This can help increase the total number of items held in memory.
Decay Theory: The idea that forgetting occurs because memories naturally fade over time.
Declarative Memory: Also known as explicit memory. Memories for factual information (semantic
memory) or memories that are tied to a particular place and time (episodic memory).
Echoic Memory: Sensory memory for our auditory system.
Encoding: How information initially enters into memory. A selective process that is highly dependent on
attention.
Encoding Specificity: When we encode a particular item into memory, the item is not processed in
isolation but together with the surrounding context.
Episodic Buffer: A new addition to the working memory model. It is thought to draw on the other buffers
(phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad) as well as on other stored long-term memories. This
aspect of working memory is engaged when remembering specific past episodes.
False Fame Effect: We attribute fame to a name since we cannot remember where we have seen it
before (source monitory error). Since we recognize the name, it must be famous!
Forgetting Curve: Memory savings plotted over time.
Free-Recall Paradigm: Participants are required to study of list of words presented one at a time. They
then need to recall as many words as they can in any order.
Haptic Memory: Sensory memory for our tactile system.
Iconic Memory: Sensory memory by our visual system.
Levels of Processing: A proposition by Craik and Lockhart that memory is not subdivided into separate
stores. Instead, memory is conceived of as a continuum; items encoded at a deeper level (more
attention, more elaboration) result in a longer-lasting memory trace than items encoded at a more
shallow level (less attention, less elaboration).
Long-Term Memory: The permanent storage of our memory. Breaks down into declarative (semantic
and episodic) and non-declarative memories (implicit and procedural).
Memory Savings: The difference in the time it takes to memorize a list at a test compared to a retest.
Misinformation Effect: The creation of false memories by incorporating new erroneous information with
an old memory.
Mnemonic Strategy: A device such as a pattern of letters, ideas, or associations that assists in
remembering something.
Nondeclarative Memory: A combination of implicit and procedural memories. These memories are
more automatic and unconscious.
Phonological Loop: Encapsulates the original notion of short-term memory. It is a temporary online
store that can maintain seven plus or minus two bits of phonological information for a short period of
time. The phonological loop maintains information that can be rehearsed verbally.
Primacy Effect: Participants during a free-recall task remember more words presented at the beginning
list.
Proactive Interference: Information learned prior to a specific memory interferes with its retrieval.
Reality Monitoring: Our ability to discriminate real memories from those that are thought or imagined.
Recency Effect: Participants during a free-recall task remember more words presented at the end of the
list.
Repressed Memory: A painful memory that has been forgotten as a defense mechanism.
Retrieval: The act of recovering stored information. Memory retrieval is dependent on retrieval cues—a
key piece of information that has the potential to activate a memory in full.
Retroactive Interference: Information learned after a specific memory interferes with its retrieval.
Schemas: With regard to memory, it is the mental frameworks for interpreting the world around us based
on prior experiences.
Self-Referent Effect: Information encoded with ‘me-in-mind’ is better remembered than information
encoded with something or someone else in mind.
Sensory Memory: The transient maintenance of perceptual and physical information from the very
recent past.
Short-Term Memory: Information that is selected from sensory memory enters consciousness and is
maintained in the short-term or working memory buffer. It is thought to operate like RAM on a computer,
whereby the selected information is held online for a short period of time but not necessarily stored
permanently.
Source Monitoring Error: When we cannot recall where we learned a piece of information.
Storage: Concerns about how the record of memory is maintained over time. This record is not fixed and
can be modified.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Memory is aided when similar processes are engaged at encoding
and retrieval. This is primarily due to encoding specificity.
Visuospatial Sketchpad: A new addition to the working memory model. It is thought to temporarily
represent and manipulate visual information.
Working Memory: Consists of three short-term buffers (or stores): the phonological or articulatory
loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. Working memory is the modern understanding
of short-term memory.
📚 Chapter 9
Chapter 9: Forming Expressions
Key Studies on Social Behavior and Isolation
Jane Elliott's Experiment (1968)
●
Divided students into groups based on eye color, assigning superiority to one group.
●
Showed how social categorization affects behavior and self-esteem.
Harry Harlow's Research (1950s-60s)
●
Isolated baby monkeys to study the effects of social deprivation.
●
Found isolation led to emotional and behavioral problems.
●
Highlighted the need for social interaction in development.
Solitary Confinement in Humans
●
Terry Anderson's experience showed that isolation causes depression, cognitive decline, and
emotional instability.
●
Minimal companionship helped alleviate these effects.
Human Social Nature
●
People adjust their behavior based on social contexts and group influences.
●
Understanding these dynamics is key to understanding behavior.
Attributions: Humans naturally assign cause-and-effect to the world, explaining behaviour by
speculating about motives or circumstances.
Types of Attributions:
●
Situational: Explaining behavior based on external factors or circumstances.
○
Example: If someone is late to class, you might think it’s because of traffic or
a family emergency.
●
Dispositional: Explaining behavior based on a person’s internal qualities, like
personality or intentions.
○
Example: If someone is late to class, you might think it’s because they are
lazy or irresponsible.
Dispositional or Situational Attributions:
●
●
●
Consensus: Same situation, different people
○
If others react the same way, the cause is likely situational.
○
Example: If everyone fails a test due to bad instructions, the situation is the cause.
Distinctiveness: Same person, different situations
○
If someone acts differently in different situations, the cause is likely dispositional.
○
Example: If someone is shy at parties but confident at work, it’s their personality.
Consistency: Same person, same situation (over time)
○
If someone always acts the same way, the cause is likely dispositional.
○
Example: If someone always gets angry in traffic, it’s part of their personality.
Covariation Theory
Example: Imagine you are standing outside of a movie theatre, and Charlie walks up to you
and tells you that she just saw a fantastic movie. You don't recognize the title of the movie.
Consensus → How do others behave in this situation?
High = Most people behave like this → Situational
Low = Not many people behave like this (only the individual's reaction) → Dispositional
Distinctiveness → How do they behave in other situations?
High = They don’t behave this way in other situations → Situational
Low = They do behave this way in other situations → Dispositional
Consistency → How do they behave in this situation at other times?
High = They behave this way in this situation → Both (Situational or Dispositional)
Low = They don’t usually behave this way in this situaion → Wider Situational
Here's a simplified version of Correspondent Inference Theory:
Correspondent Inference Theory: This theory helps us decide if someone's behavior is due to their
personality (internal factors) or the situation (external factors).
●
Internal factors (dispositional): These are related to a person’s personality, character, or
intentions.
●
External factors (situational): These are influenced by the context or environment the person is
in.
The theory emphasizes analyzing the following factors:
1.
Intended consequences (what the person intended to achieve).
2.
Degree of choice (whether the behavior was freely chosen).
3.
Expectations (whether the behavior is typical or socially accepted).
Intended Consequence:
●
Refers to the goals and motivations behind an actor's behavior.
●
Example:
○
A commercial advocating for lower smoking levels by a tobacco company might be
suspected of having a hidden motive, like trying to appear as a responsible corporate
entity.
○
If your sister advocated the same message, you'd be less suspicious, unless she
worked for a tobacco company.
Key Question: What are the underlying goals or motivations behind the behavior?
Degree of Choice:
-
Refers to how much freedom the actor had in choosing their behavior or opinion.
-
Example:
○
If someone argues strongly for the death penalty because they chose their position, it
suggests they truly believe in it.
○
If they were randomly assigned to argue that side, it's harder to infer they truly believe
in it.
We focus more on behaviors that defy expectations or go against typical social roles.
Key Question: Did the person choose to act this way?
Expectations (Typicality or Social Acceptability): The behavior we expect in a given situation. If
behavior aligns with expectations, we attribute it to the situation. If it's unexpected or out of the ordinary,
we attribute it to the person’s internal traits.
Example:
●
Typical Behavior: Dressing formally at a wedding (situational influence).
●
Unusual Behavior: Singing loudly at a wedding (dispositional attribution).
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE):
●
Definition: Overestimating personality (dispositional) factors and underestimating
situational factors when explaining someone else's behavior.
●
Example: If someone is rude, we think they are rude by nature, not that they might be
having a bad day.
●
Why it happens: We focus on what we see (the person's actions) and ignore external
factors (situations or contexts).
Actor-Observer Effect
●
What it means: We blame others' actions on their personality (dispositional) but
blame our own actions on the situation (situational).
●
Example: If you fail a test, you might blame it on the unfair test (situation). If someone
else fails, you might think they didn’t study enough (personality).
Research Example:
●
Jones & Harris (1967):
○
Study: Students watched debates where the debater’s stance on Fidel Castro
was either chosen or assigned.
○
Findings: Students thought the debater’s opinion reflected their personal
beliefs, even when the stance was assigned, showing they focused on the
person’s character instead of the situation.
Misinterpretations of Success
●
What it means: We tend to think others are more capable than they really are
based on how they present themselves, while ignoring the context behind their
success.
●
Example: A first-year student feels overwhelmed by their peers who brag
about their impressive summer experiences. However, they later realize these
achievements were influenced by circumstances, not necessarily better skills
or abilities.
Cultural Differences
●
What it means: The fundamental attribution error (overvaluing dispositional factors for
others' behaviors) is more common in Western cultures, but not universal. Cultural
context can influence how we attribute behavior.
●
Example: Miller (1984) found that American participants were more likely to attribute
negative behavior to dispositional factors, whereas Indian participants considered
situational factors more often.
Self-Serving Bias
●
What it means: We tend to take credit for our successes (attributing them to our skills
or intelligence) but blame failures on external factors (like bad luck or unfair
circumstances). This bias boosts our self-esteem and protects us from negative
evaluations.
●
Example: Winning a card game is attributed to good strategy (dispositional), but
losing is blamed on a bad hand (situational).
Observers' Attributions:
○
For negative events, people tend to blame situational factors (e.g., bad
luck).
○
For positive events, people tend to credit dispositional factors (e.g., the
person's abilities or character).
Representativeness Heuristic
●
What it is: Judging something by how similar it is to a typical example or stereotype.
Examples:
Jeff's Job: People think Jeff is a test pilot because he's adventurous, even though he's more
likely to be a librarian.
Linda’s Case: People think "bank teller and feminist" is more likely than just "bank teller,"
even though it's less probable.
Tversky & Kahneman (1983):
●
Even experts make this mistake, showing how stereotypes can mess with logic.
The Availability Heuristic
●
Definition: We judge how likely something is based on how easily we can think of
examples.
●
Examples:
○
Causes of Death:
■
We might think cancer is more common because we hear about it a
lot in the news.
■
We might think accidents happen more than strokes because
accidents are often reported, even though strokes happen more.
Grandfather Example: If we know someone who smoked and lived a long life, we might
wrongly believe smoking isn’t that bad for health.
Key Point: What we remember or hear most often can affect how we judge the likelihood of
something, even if it’s not actually that common.
The False Consensus Effect: Thinking most people agree with you when they might not.
●
Why it happens: It helps us feel understood and part of a group.
●
Example: You think everyone loves pizza as much as you do, even though some people might
not like it at all.
●
Why it’s wrong: We assume others share our views because of our own experiences, even if
that's not the case.
●
We tend to overestimate how much other people share our beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
Example: In a study by Ross, Greene, & House (1977), participants thought most people
would make the same choice they did (e.g., contesting or paying a traffic ticket), even though
opinions varied widely.
Cognitive Biases:
●
Availability Heuristic: We judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily we
can recall examples.
●
Illusory Correlations: We see a relationship between two variables when none
exists, often based on stereotypes.
●
Implicit Biases: Subconscious biases that affect how we perceive and interact with
others, often based on stereotypes and prejudices.
Availability Heuristic and Illusory Correlations
●
Availability Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples
come to mind. If something is easier to recall, we think it’s more likely to happen.
●
Illusory Correlation: Perceiving a relationship between two variables when no actual
relationship exists.
●
Examples:
○
Stereotypes: A negative experience with a lawyer might reinforce the
stereotype that all lawyers are dishonest.
○
Contrast with Grandmothers: A negative experience with a grandmother is
less likely to be generalized due to the positive stereotype of grandmothers.
●
Implication:
○
Stereotype-consistent examples are more memorable, which reinforces
illusory correlations and biases, making us more likely to believe in inaccurate
associations.
Decline in Explicit Prejudice but Persistence of Implicit Bias
Progress in Prejudice: Explicit Prejudice: Open endorsement of negative racial stereotypes
has decreased significantly over the last century (Dovidio & Fazio, 1992; Schuman et al.,
1997).
Implicit Bias: Stereotypes still persist unconsciously, influencing behavior without our
awareness.
IAT (Implicit Association Test):
○
What it measures: A categorization task that reveals how easily people
associate groups with positive or negative traits.
○
Example: People perform faster when stereotypes align with the task, like
associating black faces with negative words.
●
Key Findings:
○
40% of Black participants and 46% of homosexual participants showed
negative implicit biases toward their own groups.
○
Implication: Implicit biases aren't necessarily reflective of personal beliefs but
rather the result of societal reinforcement and cultural conditioning.
Mechanisms Behind the IAT
●
Compatible Condition: Matches societal stereotypes (e.g., white/positive,
black/negative).
●
Incompatible Condition: Opposes stereotypes (e.g., black/positive, white/negative).
●
Faster Responses: Indicate implicit associations influenced by societal stereotypes.
Why Implicit Biases Exist:
●
Exposure to stereotypes ingrains them in cognitive networks, even among targeted
groups.
●
Social reinforcement, not personal prejudice, drives these biases.
Reducing Implicit Bias
●
Awareness & Mindfulness:
○
Recognize and uncover implicit biases.
○
Use tools like the IAT to measure personal biases.
●
Cultural Reflection:
○
Challenge societal stereotypes in daily interactions.
Key Takeaways:
●
Explicit prejudice has declined, but implicit biases persist due to societal
reinforcement.
●
Availability heuristic and illusory correlations contribute to stereotype formation.
●
Recognizing and addressing implicit biases is key to reducing their impact on
behavior.
Four Factors of Attractiveness
1. Proximity: Physical closeness increases the likelihood of attraction.
○
○
Key Aspects:
■
Physical Distance: Geographic closeness.
■
Functional Distance: Frequency of interactions (e.g., shared spaces).
Reason: More interactions increase relationship opportunities.
2. Physical Attractiveness: Appearance plays a key role in initial attraction.
○
Key Points:
■
Culturally influenced beauty standards.
■
Traits like symmetry and health are commonly linked to
attractiveness.
3. Familiarity:
○
Definition: Repeated exposure increases liking.
○
Key Mechanism: The mere exposure effect makes people seem more
approachable over time.
4. Other People’s Opinions of Us:
○
Definition: How others perceive and treat us affects our attraction toward
them.
○
Key Insight: We tend to be more attracted to those who show interest or
positive regard.
○
Self-fulfilling Cycle: Positive opinions can enhance attraction and deepen
relationships.
Cultural Differences in Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Orientations
●
American Culture:
○
Emphasizes individualism, which leads to more dispositional attributions
(focusing on personal traits when explaining behavior).
○
●
Tends to explain behavior by considering individual actions and choices.
Indian Culture:
○
Emphasizes collectivism, leading to more situational attributions
(considering the context and external factors).
○
More likely to focus on the influence of surroundings or group dynamics when
explaining behavior.
Degree of Intent:
●
High Degree of Intent: Actions are purposeful and deliberate (you meant to do it).
●
Low Degree of Intent: Actions are accidental or unplanned (it wasn’t on purpose).
Keyterms 9
Key Terms
Availability Heuristic: Our probability estimates are affected by how easy it is to
think of examples.
Dispositional Attribution: We attribute the behaviour to the personality of the
individual and not the situation.
False Consensus Effect: We tend to believe more people share our views than they
actually do.
Fundamental Attribution Error: We have a tendency to over-estimate dispositional
attributes and under-estimate situational attributes especially when judging the
behaviour of others.
Illusory Correlation: When individuals believe that two variables are related even
though there is no evidence for that relationship. This is particularly relevant to the
formation of stereotypes.
Implicit Association Test (IAT): A speeded categorization task where participants
categorize stimuli into four categories using two response keys. Categories are paired
so that two categories require one response key and two categories require the other
response key. If the participant completing the task views two categories requiring the
same response as related, their performance on the IAT will be fast and accurate. If
instead, two related categories require different responses, their performance on the
IAT will be slower with more errors. This test can help to reveal the presence of
unconscious stereotypes.
Representativeness Heuristic: We tend to judge a sample (a particular outcome) to
be likely to occur if it is similar to the population from which it was selected, even if it’s
not statistically probable.
Self-Serving Bias: We tend to view our successes as reflecting our true abilities and
failures as flukes of circumstance.
Situational Attribution: We attribute the behaviour to the situation and not the
individual's disposition (personality trait).
miller (1984)
The Miller (1984) study investigated how people in different cultures make attributions about
behavior, focusing on the difference between situational and dispositional attributions. The
study aimed to compare Indian and American children and adults to see how cultural factors
influenced their perceptions of behavior.
Key Findings of Miller (1984):
1. Cultural Differences:
○
American adults were more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors
(i.e., personal traits, internal characteristics) — for example, explaining a
person’s actions based on their personality or intentions.
○
Indian adults, on the other hand, were more likely to attribute behavior to
situational factors (i.e., external circumstances, the environment) — for
example, explaining actions based on the situation or context the person was
in.
2. Children's Attributions:
○
The study showed that Indian children began to emphasize situational factors
around age 11, whereas American children tended to focus more on
dispositional factors.
○
Before the age of 11, Indian children were more likely to explain behavior in
dispositional terms, similar to their American peers. But by age 11, Indian
children began to overestimate the importance of situational factors compared
to dispositional factors.
3. Why the Difference?:
○
The cultural context of India tends to place a stronger emphasis on
collectivism (group-oriented, situational influences), while American culture
leans toward individualism (personal responsibility and internal traits).
○
This difference in focus likely reflects how cultural values shape how people
view actions—whether based on individual traits or the context in which they
occur.
📚 Chapter 10
Chapter 10: Influence of Others
Presence of Others:
Norman Triplett is noted as the first formal study of social psychology in 1898.
-
Co-Actor: Another individual performing the same task
-
Audience: A group of people watching an individual perform a task
Social Facilitation:
Many studies show that with the presence of co-actors or an audience, the
performance will increase. Does not say anything about the interests of the audience,
only that there is one.
Robert Zajonc wrote an article in 1965 titled “Social Facilitation: A Solution is
Suggested for an old social psychological problem”.
-
Suggested that important factors affect your performance arousal or
physiological activity
-
How this heightened arousal affects your performance depends on the specific
task being performed
-
For many complex tasks when you are neither expert nor well practiced,
performance is hindered
Social Learning Theory → Popularized by Albert Bandura in the 1970s
This can help us to understand how a complex cognitive skill such as language is
acquired in children through a combination of imitation and explicit reinforcement.
-
Appropriate behaviours by modelling and imitating the behaviour of others
Bobo Doll Experiment: Inflatable doll with a weight in the
bottom that picks the doll back-up and it tips over.
-
Individual children between the eagles of three and six were offered a variety
of toys to play with in a room with an adult who was a confederate of the
study. As the adult would model aggressive play, the child would subsequently
display aggressive behaviour toward the Bobo doll.
-
Influential behaviourist ideas suggest that learning of behaviour would only
occur with explicit reinforcement.
Conformity
-
Norms: Unwritten but commonly accepted rules for how to behave
Norm Formation: When a certain behaviour becomes typical amongst a group
Autokinetic: A visual illusion that makes a stationary object appear to move
Asch’s Stimuli: A famous psychologist
-
He seated participants in a room with other individuals and told them they
were going to complete a rather simple experiment.
-
They would see one sample line and three comparison lines, and they would
have to identify which of the comparison lines matches the standard
-
In this group of seven individuals, only one is a real participant, the other six
are confederates of the experiment.
Normative Function: The role of others in setting standards for our conduct based on
a fear of rejection
-
This is evident in all aspects of popular culture: fashion trends, memes, food of
the moment, and viral videos.
-
Normative functions guide you to dress similarly to the rest of society and
behave a certain way because not doing so will lead to negative social
consequences
Informational Function: The role of others in providing information about an
ambiguous situation
-
Social rejection is not the only reason you conform to a group
-
Is the fire alarm that just went off real or just a drill? The informational function
of the group provides information about reality in an ambiguous situation.
In Deutsch and Gerard's (1955) variation of Asch's line-judgment study, participants
were placed in separate cubicles where they could neither see nor hear others. They
made anonymous responses by pressing a button after being shown the anonymous
responses of others via lights. Without the influence of normative pressures (e.g.,
avoiding ridicule), participants still conformed to incorrect group answers, particularly
on trials where the correct answer was unclear. This suggests conformity occurred
due to informational influence—participants doubted their perceptions and believed
the group might be correct.
The Risky Shift: highlights that group decisions can be more risky or conservative
than individual decisions, depending on the context. For example:
●
Groups can take a more reserved position, such as when Roger considered
taking out life insurance.
●
Groups can also adopt a riskier stance, like when participants agree on the
lowest probability of success in writing a novel.
The Discovery of Risky Shift: James Stoner in 1961 began a study in which the
common belief was that groups were more cautious than individuals.
-
He tested this by asking individuals to read a set of hypothetical situations and
make risk assessments. The individuals then came together into groups to
come to a consensus.
Group Polarization: Group decision-making strengthens the original inclinations of
the individual group members.
Groups tended to become riskier in Helen's case but not in Roger's case due to
group polarization, which suggests that group discussions amplify the pre-existing
inclinations of group members.
●
In Helen's scenario (e.g., writing a novel with low success probability),
individuals likely leaned toward risk-taking initially. Group discussions
strengthened this inclination, leading to a riskier decision.
●
In Roger's scenario (e.g., taking out life insurance), the group likely started
with a more cautious stance, and discussion reinforced this tendency,
resulting in a more cautious decision.
Group polarization builds on the risky shift by encompassing both riskier and more
cautious group decisions, depending on the initial attitudes of the group members.
Groupthink: A group decision making group cohesiveness becomes so strong it
overrides a realistic appraisal of reality and alternative opinions
Irving Janis has coined the term groupthink as a group decision-making environment
where group cohesiveness becomes so strong that it tends to override realistic
appraisal of alternative opinions. In essence, groupthink is what you might call a mob
mentality.
Groupthink occurs when a group prioritizes unanimity and cohesion over critical
thinking and sound decision-making. Characteristics include:
●
A belief in the group's unquestionable correctness and the assumption that
other groups are wrong.
●
Failure to critically test, analyze, or evaluate ideas within the group.
●
High levels of conformity pressure, leading members to censor dissenting
opinions.
●
Rejection of individuals who disagree.
According to Janis, such groups tend to overestimate their power and morality,
leading to flawed decision-making processes.
Preventing Groupthink: Key Strategies by Janis
Be Impartial: Group leaders should avoid endorsing a specific position at the start.
Encourage Critical Evaluation: Allow disagreements and debate.
○
Assign a devil’s advocate to present counterarguments.
Subdivide the Group
○
Break into smaller groups to make separate decisions.
○
Reunite to compare and discuss differences.
Hold a Second-Chance Meeting
○
Before finalizing a decision, revisit any lingering doubts.
Real-World Application:
These strategies are part of mandatory training for airline flight crews to ensure sound
decision-making.
The Bystander Effect
●
Origin: Sparked by the case of Kitty Genovese in the 1960s.
○
Initial reports claimed 38 witnesses failed to act during her 30-minute
murder.
○
Later findings revealed the story was exaggerated—fewer witnesses
were present, and some tried to help.
●
Impact:
○
Highlighted the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to
intervene in emergencies when others are present.
○
Prompted extensive research in social psychology on factors
influencing helping behavior.
●
Key Takeaway:
Misrepresentation in the media shaped public outrage but also led to valuable
insights into human behavior in group settings.
In Latané and Darley's experiment on the Bystander Effect, participants were asked
to fill out a questionnaire while smoke seeped into the room.
●
When alone, participants were quick to report the smoke.
●
With others present, the likelihood of reporting the smoke decreased, and
the response time was longer.
This experiment demonstrated how the presence of others can reduce the likelihood
of an individual taking action in an emergency.
Pluralistic Ignorance: When each individual in a group see nobody responding in a
given situation, they conclude that the situation is not an emergency
●
This occurs when individuals in a group see no one else responding in a
situation, and thus conclude that it's not an emergency.
●
In emergencies, people tend to remain calm and look to others for cues.
●
If others aren’t reacting, they assume the situation doesn't require action,
leading to no response.
●
This creates a cycle where everyone waits for someone else to act.
Latané and Darley used this term to explain how people fail to intervene when they
perceive no one else is responding.
In Darley and Latané's experiment, participants believed they were part of a group
discussion over an intercom. One of the staged participants mentioned having
seizures, and later, the participant heard cries for help, as if someone was
experiencing a seizure.
●
Results:
○
Participants who thought they were alone were most likely to respond
quickly.
○
As the number of people they believed were present increased, the
likelihood of them taking action decreased.
Diffusion of Responsibility is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to
act in an emergency if others are present.
●
When deciding whether to intervene, people assess how many others are
nearby and whether they have relevant skills.
●
The more people present, especially those with specialized skills, the less
likely an individual is to take action.
This effect explains why people often fail to help in emergencies when others are
around.
Pluralistic Ignorance:
This occurs when individuals look to others
for cues in a situation and assume that
because no one else is acting, the situation
isn't an emergency.
In the case of Kitty Genovese, many
bystanders initially thought the attack might
be a domestic dispute, not an emergency.
This shows how pluralistic ignorance can
prevent people from recognizing a situation
as an emergency.
Diffusion of Responsibility:
When people are in a group, they often
assume someone else will take action, or
that someone else is better equipped to
handle the situation.
This is what happened in Kitty Genovese’s
case. Even when the attack clearly became
an emergency, bystanders likely assumed
someone else would help or was more
qualified to intervene.
Together, these effects explain why
bystanders often fail to act in emergencies,
as seen in the tragic case of Kitty Genovese.
Social Loafing refers to the phenomenon where individuals put in less effort when
working in a group compared to working alone.
●
Alan Ingham's 1975 Study:
○
Participants were blindfolded and told they were playing tug of war with
a group.
○
In reality, they were pulling alone, but believed others were helping.
○
Result: Participants pulled 18% less when they thought they were in a
group than when they were pulling alone.
Social loafing is a form of diffusion of responsibility, where individuals feel less
personally accountable in a group setting.
Latané, Williams, & Harkins (1979) Study:
●
Experiment Setup:
○
Participants were blindfolded, wore headphones, and were told they
would join a group to clap or shout as loudly as they could.
○
The researchers simulated different group sizes through the
headphones, but the participants were actually clapping or shouting
alone.
●
Findings:
○
Participants made less noise as the perceived group size increased.
○
Self-Report: Participants believed they made the same amount of
noise whether they thought they were in a group or acting alone,
unaware of their reduced effort in the group setting.
This demonstrates social loafing, where individuals exert less effort when they
believe others are also contributing, especially when the group's size increases.
The diffusion of responsibility effect occurs when individuals are less likely to take
responsibility for action or intervention in an emergency when others are present. This
is because the responsibility is perceived as being spread across all group members,
which reduces the pressure on any one person to act.
Key points about the diffusion of responsibility:
●
Group setting: In a group, people often assume someone else will take
charge or act.
●
Less personal responsibility: The more people there are, the less any one
person feels individually responsible for intervening.
●
In emergency situations: This effect can lead to a lack of action in critical
situations, as seen in cases like the Kitty Genovese murder, where bystanders
failed to intervene, assuming others would.
The diffusion of responsibility is linked to the bystander effect, where the presence of
others leads to inaction.
Keyterms 10
Key Terms
Bystander Effect: Individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other
people are present. Also know as bystander apathy.
Cognitive Dissonance: When our attitudes and behaviours do not line up we
experience a sense of discomfort. Something, usually the attitude, must change to
relieve the dissonance.
Communicator: With regard to persuasion, the communicator is the individual
delivering the message.
Conform: To adjust our behaviour or our thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Deindividuation: When people are part of a bigger group, they can sometimes lose
sight of their individuality and just act as part of the crowd.
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: The idea that altruism results from empathy.
Empathy refers to a shared sense of what another person is feeling. If you empathize
with someone else and therefore share in their difficulty, you’ll be motivated to act to
alleviate the problem.
Group Polarization: Discussion in groups tends to strengthen original inclinations. If
many individuals are leaning toward a somewhat risky the group will fortify that
stance. However if individuals are less open to risk, the group would be even less so.
Discussions in a group force people to state their views and making such statements
tends to make attitudes more extreme.
Groupthink: When thinking or making decisions as a group discourages creativity or
individual responsibility.
Hostile aggression: Involves behaviours that are directly confrontational—for
example, hitting someone or yelling at them. This is more commonly used by men.
Negative State Relief Model: We help others because we would feel distressed (and
guilty) if we didn’t.
Norm Formation: Proposed by Sherif. Found that participants gradually conformed
to the others opinion, regardless of starting point.
Normative Social Influences: In general, we want to be approved of by the people
we associate with.
Norm of Reciprocity: We are expected to reciprocate when someone else treats us
well.
Norm of Social Responsibility: As a member of a society, we are expected to
contribute to its welfare in a positive way.
Norms: The commonly accepted but unwritten rules of behaviour.
One-Sided Argument: Only one side/opinion of a particular argument is presented.
This tends to be to be more effective when the audience initially agrees with the
communicator.
Self-Perception Theory: Proposed by Bem. Indicates that we don’t necessarily have
a special insight into ourselves. We sometimes have to figure out who we are in a
way that is similar to how we figure out who others are: by assessing behaviour.
Social Loafing: A person will exert less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a
group than when they work alone.
Relational aggression: Involves personal interactions. Relationally aggressive
behaviours are engaged in an attempt to make others dislike someone—for example,
spreading rumours about someone or ignoring them. This is more commonly used by
women.
Risky-Shift: The observed tendency for people to make more daring decisions when
they are in groups, than when they are alone. However, later determined to be
caused by group polarization and not actually risk.
Two-sided arguments: Both sides of an opinion are explained by the communicator.
This tends to be more effective when the audience initially disagrees. Such an
audience may appreciate acknowledgment of their point of view and, following that,
may be more open to being brought around to a different one. This type of argument
works best to convince an academic audience.
Textbook
Key Concepts: Self-Perception Theory vs. Cognitive Dissonance
Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972)
●
Idea: We infer our attitudes by observing our behaviour, like assessing others.
Study Example:
●
Strack et al. (1988): Participants holding a pen to simulate smiling found
cartoons funnier, showing that behaviour (smiling) influenced attitudes
(amusement).
●
Takeaway: Behaviors shape attitudes, especially when attitudes are unclear.
●
Practical Insight: Acting cheerful can improve mood.
Cognitive Dissonance: Inconsistency between actions and attitudes causes
discomfort (dissonance), resolved by adjusting attitudes.
●
Study Example:
○
Festinger & Carlsmith (1957):
■
$1 payment: Low justification for lying → changed attitude to
rate a boring task as enjoyable.
■
$20 payment: External justification ("I lied for the money") → no
attitude change.
●
Takeaway: Minimal justification forces internal attitude adjustment.
Comparison
●
Self-Perception: Attitudes inferred from behaviour.
●
Cognitive Dissonance: Attitudes adjusted to reduce discomfort from
conflicting actions.
Real-Life Applications
●
Self-Perception: Acting happy can lift the mood.
●
Cognitive Dissonance: Justifying unethical actions by shifting attitudes
("They underpay me, so it’s fine").
Persuasion:
The Communicator:
●
Trustworthiness matters more than expertise (e.g., people trust priests over
doctors in some cases).
●
Likeable and attractive communicators are more persuasive but lose
effectiveness if their reputation suffers.
The Message:
●
One-sided arguments: Work best if the audience already agrees.
●
Two-sided arguments: Better for skeptical audiences.
●
Emotion: Positive feelings help; moderate fear works, but too much fear
backfires.
The Audience:
●
Academic audiences prefer logical, detailed arguments.
●
Non-academic audiences prefer simple, clear messages.
Persuasion Techniques
●
Low-Ball: Get agreement first, then reveal unfavourable terms.
●
Foot-in-the-Door: Start small, then ask for more.
●
Door-in-the-Face: Start big, then reduce the request to make it seem more
reasonable.
Advertising Strategies
●
Needs vs. Wants: Frame products as essential (e.g., iPhone).
●
Buzzwords: Words like "natural" imply quality.
●
Luxury Appeal: High cost or exclusivity adds prestige (e.g., Porsche sales
rose with a luxury tax in China).
Obedience and Conformity:
●
Adolf Eichmann, a key figure in the Holocaust, claimed he was "just following
orders."
●
Stanley Milgram designed his obedience experiment to explore whether
people set aside morals under authority or act on inherent tendencies.
Milgram’s Experiment on Obedience
●
Participants ("Teachers") were told to administer shocks to a "Learner" for
incorrect answers.
●
Shocks increased from 15 volts to 450 volts ("XXX"), with escalating learner
protests.
●
Despite visible distress, 65% of participants delivered the maximum shock
level, following authority.
Factors Affecting Obedience
1. Proximity:
○
Obedience decreased when the Learner was in the same room (40%)
or physical contact was required (30%).
2. Authority Presence:
○
Obedience dropped to 22% when the Experimenter gave instructions
remotely.
3. Authority Credentials:
○
Obedience was lower (20%) when the Experimenter was perceived as
less credible.
Why People Obey?
Desire to Follow Authority: Authority figures reduce participants' sense of personal
responsibility.
Social Politeness: People avoid confrontation, even in morally conflicting situations.
Incremental Commitment: Small initial actions (minor shocks) lead to gradual
escalation.
Real-World Correlations
●
Hofling et al. (1966): 21 out of 22 nurses followed unethical orders from a
doctor despite knowing the risks.
Ethical Concerns
●
Deception and participant stress raised ethical questions.
●
Despite this, 84% of participants later expressed gratitude for the experience.
The Influence of Groups
Unwritten Social Norms
●
Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour influenced by context and culture.
●
Examples:
○
Personal Interaction: Respond differently to “How are you?” depending
on the relationship.
○
Hand-Holding: Cultural and situational differences affect what’s
considered acceptable.
Roles and Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment
●
Study Setup:
○
24 participants were randomly assigned as Guards or Prisoners in a
mock prison.
○
Guards quickly became authoritarian; prisoners became submissive or
distressed.
○
The experiment ended after six days due to extreme psychological
effects.
●
Key Findings:
○
People quickly adopt behaviours and attitudes based on assigned
roles.
○
Authority and situational context can lead to abusive or unethical
behaviour.
Crowds and Deindividuation
●
Deindividuation: Loss of individuality in a group leads to behaviour not typical
of the individual (e.g., riots).
●
Mob Mentality: Anonymity in crowds can result in irresponsible or extreme
actions.
Broken Windows Theory (Wilson & Kelling, 1982)
●
Small signs of neglect (e.g., broken windows, litter) signal that no one cares,
fostering further rule-breaking and crime.
●
Key Study:
○
Cars abandoned in the Bronx were stripped in minutes; in Palo Alto,
they remained untouched for days.
●
Solution: Fixing small problems (like cleaning up litter) helps maintain order
and prevent larger crimes.
The Wisdom of Crowds
●
Groups can sometimes outperform individuals:
○
Example: Averaging 800 guesses of an ox’s weight was nearly perfect.
○
Groups of eyewitnesses often provide more accurate accounts than
individuals.
Altruism and Bystander Effects
Altruism refers to unselfish actions for others' benefit, though some argue all helping
has selfish roots. Social norms influence our behaviour:
●
Norm of Reciprocity: We return favours.
●
Norm of Social Responsibility: We’re expected to contribute positively to
society.
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson, 1981): Empathy motivates helping without
expectation of personal gain. Evidence: High-empathy participants helped even
without personal benefit.
Negative State Relief Model: Helping alleviate personal distress, such as guilt.
Bystander Effects: As the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood of
individual action decreases due to:
●
Diffused responsibility.
●
Fear of embarrassment.
●
Cost-benefit calculations.
To counteract: Directly address individuals for help.
Creating Heroes: Zimbardo’s Heroic Imagination Project promotes awareness of
barriers to helping, encouraging proactive, socially-centered mindsets to foster
heroism in everyday people.