Ethology
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour
Behavior can be defined as observable activities an animal performs in
response to the various stimuli in order to survive and reproduce
A behavioral act is a response to a stimulus which is the basic and
universal concept of behavior.
Stimulus, Any change in the biotic and abiotic environments capable of
eliciting or causing some sort of reaction or response in a living organism.
It is always a change in the internal or external environment of organisms.
A stimulus may be in the form of signs/symbols or releases.
Signs can be visual, auditory, chemical or other types of sensory models.
Causation
Proximate causation - immediate causes
Explains how behavior works - what stimulates behavior to occur
Studied by measuring or describing the stimuli that elicit behavior
Internal stimuli - physiological events (hormones,
nervous system)
External stimuli – from the surrounding
environment.
Ultimate causation – historical explanations of behaviour.
• Explains why a behavior evolved in a species of animals.
• Studied by measuring influence on survival or reproduction.
• Examples – A courtship display not only attracts a mate, but also
increases the likelihood of passing genetic information to the next
generation.
- Migration of birds during winter is to just move away from cold
weather but also ensures survival of the species.
oBehaviors that increase survival and reproductive success are passed
down the generation line (Genetic).
Development of Behaviour
• Development of a normal behavior pattern requires the genes that code
for the formation of the structures and organs involved in the behavior.
• For example, in vertebrates, normal locomotion movements will not occur
without proper development and growth of the limbs.
• This process requires some interaction with the animal’s environment
because proper nourishment, water balance, and other factors must be
maintained for normal development.
Behaviour can be categorized into two main types,
1. Nature/Innate or inherent behaviour or Instinct or genes
determine behaviour
2. Nurture/Learned or acquired behaviour or influence behaviour
Innate or inherent behaviour is inborn or inherent behaviour sequence of activities which is
predictable, species specific, genetically controlled and independent of past experience.
Since this is type of behaviour follows a fixed pattern (FAP) which is predictable and found
in all members of a species it also called stereotyped behaviour
• Innate behavior
 Sequence of unlearned behaviors, Under strong genetic control
 Ex: - Suckling in new born mammals, Smiling and crying in
human newborns.
• Appear in fully functional form when first perform
• Reflexes, A simple movement of a part of the animal in response to a
stimulus is called reflex
• Instinct, unlearned, genetically controlled and species specific and it
is in response of a sign or releaser stimuli (e. g, nesting of bird,
singing to attract males, territoriality, migration, parental care)
II. Learnt Behaviour: a change in behavior or in potential behavior that
occurs as a result of experience/expopsure.
A. Classical conditioning
o If a neutral stimulus (a stimulus that at first elicits no response) is
paired with a stimulus that already evokes a reflex response, then
eventually the new stimulus will by itself evoke a similar response.
• Neutral stimulus paired with significant stimulus
• Reflexive response triggered by neutral stimulus
• EX: Pavlov’s dog (-bell + food drooling of saliva
- bell alone drooling of saliva)
B. Operant conditioning or Trial And Error Learning/
Instrumental Conditioning
•Operant conditioning occurs when an animal voluntarily
modifies its behavior following positive or negative
consequences.
•Gradual strengthening of stimulus-response connections.
Operant conditioning….
B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) is the person whose work is most often cited in
connection with operant conditioning.
• Skinner’s box
 The rat pressed the lever accidentally, while looking for the way out,
and a food dropped down.
 What do you think the rat did next?
• Reinforcement and punishment are the primary factors.
• When an animal behaves in a certain way (does something) and
gets a positive outcome(reinforcement), then it is likely to repeat
that behaviour.
• When an animal behaves in a certain way (does something) and
gets a negative outcome (punishment), it is less likely to repeat
that behaviour
• Positive reinforcement (reinforcement): Occurs when a behavior (response) is
followed by a stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency
of that behavior.
• In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or a sugar solution can
be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.
• This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement.
• Negative reinforcement (escape): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed
by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's
frequency.
• In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise
continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target
behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.
• Positive punishment (punishment) (also called "Punishment by
contingent stimulation"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is
followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud
noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
• Positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes
the "addition" of a stimulus or increase in the intensity of a
stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock).
This procedure is usually called simply punishment.
• Negative punishment (penalty) (also called "Punishment by contingent
withdrawal"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the
removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an
undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
• Extinction: Occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been
reinforced is no longer effective. \
• For example, a rat is first given food many times for lever presses. Then,
in "extinction", no food is given.
• Typically the rat continues to press more and more slowly and
eventually stops, at which time lever pressing is said to be
"extinguished."
• Understanding this is important in training of animals: When a desired
behavior is rewarded by positive reinforcement (usually an attractive
food or treat) the rate of the desired behavior increases, while the
opposite is true when punishment is administered.
• Most animal behavior experts agree that animals respond more
effectively to operant conditioning when positive reinforcement is used
rather than punishment.
 Evolutionary advantage?
Classical Vs Operant
• Both operant and classical conditioning involve learning about associations.
• However, an important difference between these two modes of learning is that
classical conditioning involves an association between two stimuli,
• while operant conditioning involves learning the association between an
animal’s behavior and the consequence immediately following the behavior.
• Another important distinction is that classical conditioning involves
modification of an involuntary or reflexive behavior,
• while operant conditioning involves modification of a voluntary behavior. Both
kinds of learning can be shaped by nature or by man.
C. Imprinting
• Imprinting, which is very common in bird species, occurs when young of a species
first recognize another organism as a parent figure.
• In most cases, the first other organism that newborn animals see is their parent.
From that point, newborns quickly learn to associate their parent with food and
protection.
• In some cases, however, offspring happen to see other organisms before their
parents, and so ‘imprint’ on them, instead.
• This often happens, for instance,
when humans raise ducks or geese from eggs.
Imprinting…
• The first parent-figure that the newly hatched birds see, and which they associate with food
and protection, is their human ‘parent’.
• Ducklings follow first moving object seen after hatching.
• Once learned, can’t be changed
The experiment of Konrad Lorenz
•
Evolutionary advantage?
(1903-1989) and with
ducklings/geese
D. Habituation
Decreasing inresponse to stimulus after repeated presentation
• Animal learns to ignore frequent, harmless or useless stimuli.
• In other words, animals lose sensitivity to a stimulus after repeated
exposure with no reward or punishment.
• Give some examples….
• The story of the sheepherder and the wolf
E. Reasoning/Cognitive Learning
• Analyze problem & devise solution using past experiences.
• Involves the ability of animals to not only receive and store information,
but to also combine different sources of information and solve
problems.
• Is also often associated with the presence of consciousness or selfawareness
• Common among primates and dolphins.
Eg: Chimpanzees use sticks to access fruits on trees.
Control of Behaviour
• Internal mechanisms (proximate causes) that include the
nervous system and the endocrine system regulate animal
behavior.
• These systems receive information from the external
environment via the sensory organs, process that information
involving the brain and the endocrine glands, and initiate
responses in terms of motor patterns or changes in the
operations of internal organs.
Nervous system…
• The nervous system mediates more specific and rapid responses.
• The key role of the nervous system is to act
as a stimulus filter.
oStimuli from many sources continuously bombard each
organism.
oThe sensory organs and central nervous system of the animal
block incoming stimuli that are unimportant or irrelevant.
• The information that passes through the sensory filters is then sorted and
processed within the nervous system to ensure appropriate responses.
• Examples in which nervous system controls behaviour?
Endocrine system
• The endocrine system monitors slower, more general responses.
• However, the endocrine system is closely interrelated with the nervous system.
• Many receptors located on neurons in the brain or central nervous system are
specialized for receiving input from hormones.
• In addition, the brain communicates with the endocrine system via neurons, such
as the connections between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland of vertebrates.
• Hormones, the products from the endocrine glands, affect behavior in
two major ways: organizational effects and activational effects.
Organizational effects of hormones:
• Occur during development and are particularly important for sex
differentiation.
• These effects involve the presence of hormones and critical time periods
during which the developmental pathways for specific brain regions and
developing gonadal tissues are influenced to become either female- or
male-like.
Activational effects of hormones:
• Occur when an external stimulus triggers a hormonally mediated
response by the organism.
• Many male fishes change color patterns when their territory boundary
is threatened; the color change is a prelude to potentially aggressive
behavior to defend the territory.
• Many animals, including domestic cats, roosters, and mice, lose their
aggressive fighting ability after castration (removal of the gonads).
• The gonads are the source of testosterone, which stimulates particular
brain receptors to produce aggression.
Shaping Behaviour in Working Animals
o Working with animals requires due understanding of their behaviour. It is also
essential to be open minded to assess why animals behave in a certain way.
o Once we have a clue as to why the animal behaves in a given way, we can train it
to behave in ways we want it to behave.
o It is important to note that working animals are intelligent enough to be
trained.
o The behaviour of working animals can be shaped for good or at least for a brief
period for us to be able to work without causing distress to the animal and
harming ourselves.
oShaping is the process of breaking down the final required
behaviour, such as calmly picking up feet, down in to small
manageable steps.
oShaping helps the animal to deal safely with their fears in
small easily achievable pieces.
oAs a result of shaping, the animal will be less fearful and will
learn more easily.
oBefore implementing a shaping plan, it is important to rule out
PAIN, MEDICAL CONDITION and FEAR!
Animal
welfare is
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Animal Welfare
Why Animal Welfare?
• After many years of debate, contemporary societies
generally hold the view that it is acceptable to use
animals for human purposes provided that such use is
humane and justified (Banner et al., 1995).
• It is also recognized that animals can suffer and that it matters
to them how they are treated.
• To date, no single unified definition of animal welfare has emerged.
This is partly because, at any one time, scientists, scholars and other
contributors have emphasized different facets of animal
functionality and animal–human or animal–environmental
interactions.
• It is also partly because changes over time in our understanding of
the ways animals may experience their functional status or their
participation in interactions with people and the environment have
drawn attention to limitations in the existing definitions.
• Moreover, when assessing the welfare status of animals in practical
contexts different emphasis has been placed on different aspects of
current definitions (Nordenfelt, 2006).
The Three Perspectives of Animal Welfare
A. Biological/physiological State:
 The biological function view holds that, in general, welfare is good when the
animals are healthy, growing and reproducing well.
 For farm animals in particular, when good meat, milk, egg and
fiber productivity of individuals is broadly aligned with good
health and reproductive performance
 “I suggest that an animal is in a poor state of welfare only when
physiological systems are disturbed to the point that survival or
reproduction are impaired.”
B. The Mental/Affective State:
• The affective state orientation emphasizes the potential for animals to
suffer or have positive experiences
• Thus, good welfare is said to be present when an animal adapts
without suffering and/or with positive emotional experiences
(feelings) during its interactions with other animals, people and
the environment.
 “...neither health nor lack of stress nor fitness is necessary
and/or sufficient to conclude that an animal has good welfare.
Welfare is dependent upon what animals feel.”
“… sentience, in other words feelings, is what animal welfare
is all about’’
C. Natural State
• According to the natural state view, an animal’s welfare
may be compromised in proportion to how far the
conditions in which it is kept deviate from the original
wild state of the species.
• Considers the extent to which the animal is or is not able
to express most of its natural behaviours
• “Not only will welfare mean control of pain and
suffering, it will also necessitates nurturing and
fulfilment of the animals’ nature, which I call telos
• Animal Welfare is a State in an Animal and requires
both Consciousness and Sentience.
• The welfare status of an animal (whether it is
good, neutral or bad) represents the integrated
outcome of all sensory and other neural inputs
from within is body and from the environmentprocessed and interpreted by the animal’s brainand perceived consciously.
Three animal welfare concepts
Physical
Naturalness
Restrict natural
behaviour
Mental