ÂÛÑØÅÅ ÏÐÎÔÅÑÑÈÎÍÀËÜÍÎÅ ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈÅ Н. Н. МИХАЙЛОВ, М. Н. МИХАЙЛОВ ЛИНГВОСТРАНОВЕДЕНИЕ США AMERICAN CULTURAL STUDIES 1 ÓÄÊ 800.879:73(075.8) ÁÁÊ 81:7Coe ÿ 73 Ì69 Ðåöåíçåíò êàôåäðà ïåðåâîäà è ïåðåâîäîâåäåíèÿ Ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ãóìàíèòàðíîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà èì. Ì. À. Øîëîõîâà (çàâ. êàôåäðîé äîêòîð ôèëîëîãè÷åñêèõ íàóê, ïðîôåññîð À. Ñ. Êàëÿêèí); ïðîôåññîð Ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî îáëàñòíîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà, äîêòîð ôèëîëîãè÷åñêèõ íàóê Â. Â. Îùåïêîâà Ì69 Ìèõàéëîâ Í. Í. Ëèíãâîñòðàíîâåäåíèå ÑØÀ = American Cultural Studies : ó÷åá. ïîñîáèå äëÿ ñòóä. ôèëîë. ôàê. è ôàê. èí. ÿç. âûñø. ó÷åá. çàâåäåíèé / Í. Í. Ìèõàéëîâ, Ì. Í. Ìèõàéëîâ. Ì. : Èçäàòåëüñêèé öåíòð «Àêàäåìèÿ», 2008. 288 ñ. : èë. ISBN 978-5-7695-4438-5 Ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå íàöåëåíî íà òâîð÷åñêóþ ÿçûêîâóþ äåÿòåëüíîñòü ñòóäåíòîâ, ðàçâèòèå óìåíèé ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî àíàëèçèðîâàòü ñòðàíîâåä÷åñêóþ ëèòåðàòóðó è âûñêàçûâàòü ñîáñòâåííûå ñóæäåíèÿ. Îíî âêëþ÷àåò â ñåáÿ òåêñòû íà àíãëèéñêîì è ðóññêîì ÿçûêàõ, çàèìñòâîâàííûå èç ðàçëè÷íûõ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ èçäàíèé. Òåêñòû àäàïòèðîâàíû â öåëÿõ ïðîôåññèîíàëüíî îðèåíòèðîâàííîãî ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà è ñíàáæåíû ÿçûêîâûìè è ðå÷åâûìè óïðàæíåíèÿìè. Äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ôèëîëîãè÷åñêèõ ôàêóëüòåòîâ è ôàêóëüòåòîâ èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ âûñøèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé. Ìîæåò áûòü ðåêîìåíäîâàíî àñïèðàíòàì, à òàêæå ëèöàì, èçó÷àþùèì àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê â êà÷åñòâå áóäóùåé îñíîâíîé èëè äîïîëíèòåëüíîé ñïåöèàëüíîñòè. ÓÄÊ 800.879:73(075.8) ÁÁÊ 81:7Coe ÿ 73 Îðèãèíàë-ìàêåò äàííîãî èçäàíèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñîáñòâåííîñòüþ Èçäàòåëüñêîãî öåíòðà «Àêàäåìèÿ», è åãî âîñïðîèçâåäåíèå ëþáûì ñïîñîáîì áåç ñîãëàñèÿ ïðàâîîáëàäàòåëÿ çàïðåùàåòñÿ ISBN 978-5-7695-4438-5 2 © Ìèõàéëîâ Í. Í., Ìèõàéëîâ Ì. Í., 2008 © Èçäàòåëüñêèé öåíòð «Àêàäåìèÿ», 2008 ÏÐÅÄÈÑËÎÂÈÅ Èñòîðèÿ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ ñòðàíîâåäåíèÿ íà ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ôàêóëüòåòàõ âóçîâ áûëà ìíîãîòðóäíîé è â ÷åì-òî âåñüìà õàðàêòåðíîé äëÿ ñîâåòñêîãî ãóìàíèòàðíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ. Ââåäåííûé â ó÷åáíûé ïëàí â ñåðåäèíå 1960-õ ãîäîâ â óñëîâèÿõ òîòàëüíîãî äåôèöèòà ìàòåðèàëà î æèçíè çàðóáåæíûõ ñòðàí (à òîò, ÷òî èìåëñÿ, áûë ïðåäåëüíî èäåîëîãèçèðîâàí), ýòîò êóðñ âûíóæäàë ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé ñâîäèòü ëåêöèè ê çàäèêòîâûâàíèþ íåîáõîäèìîé èíôîðìàöèè, à ñåìèíàðñêèå çàíÿòèÿ ê ñòóäåí÷åñêèì äîêëàäàì íà îñíîâå ïîÿâèâøèõñÿ ê ýòîìó âðåìåíè êíèã äëÿ ÷òåíèÿ ïî ñòðàíîâåäåíèþ, ñîñòàâëåííûõ èç îòðûâêîâ õóäîæåñòâåííûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèé, ïóáëèöèñòèêè è ñïðàâî÷íîé ëèòåðàòóðû. Ñåé÷àñ ñèòóàöèÿ êàðäèíàëüíî èçìåíèëàñü. Íà íåäîñòàòîê ñâåäåíèé îá Àíãëèè è ÑØÀ ãðåõ æàëîâàòüñÿ. Êðîìå áîëüøîãî êîëè÷åñòâà ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ èçäàíèé çàðóáåæíûõ è îòå÷åñòâåííûõ àâòîðîâ ê óñëóãàì ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé è ñòóäåíòîâ èìååòñÿ Èíòåðíåò, ãäå ìîæíî íàéòè âñå, ÷òî óãîäíî. Èíûå òåïåðü è óñëîâèÿ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ: ñòðàíîâåäåíèå ïåðåìåñòèëîñü ñî ñòàðøèõ êóðñîâ íà ìëàäøèå è êîëè÷åñòâî ó÷åáíûõ ÷àñîâ óâåëè÷èëîñü. Ñîâðåìåííûì ñòóäåíòàì ìëàäøèõ êóðñîâ âñå åùå íåîáõîäèìî «ó÷èòüñÿ ó÷èòüñÿ». Ïîýòîìó òâîð÷åñêè ìûñëÿùèå ïðåïîäàâàòåëè ïûòàþòñÿ ïðåäëîæèòü íîâûå ïîäõîäû è ïèøóò ñïåöèàëüíûå ïîñîáèÿ, çàêëàäûâàÿ â íèõ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé àïïàðàò, íàöåëåííûé íà ðåøåíèå ýòîé êàðäèíàëüíîé çàäà÷è: íàó÷èòü ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîé ðàáîòå ñî ñòðàíîâåä÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðîé è óìåíèþ ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàòü ñâîè çíàíèÿ íà ñåìèíàðñêèõ çàíÿòèÿõ. Íàäååìñÿ, ÷òî äàííîå ïîñîáèå îêàæåò èì â ýòîì ñóùåñòâåííóþ ïîìîùü. Ïðåæäå âñåãî, ñòàðàÿñü íå óâîäèòü ìëàäøåêóðñíèêîâ îò ïðèâû÷íûõ òåì, ñ êîòîðûìè îíè ðàáîòàþò íà çàíÿòèÿõ ïî ÿçûêîâîé ïðàêòèêå, ìû ñîñðåäîòî÷èëèñü íà ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé òåìàòèêå. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ïîñîáèå ñîñòîèò èç äâóõ ÷àñòåé: â ïåðâîé ãåîãðàôèÿ ñ ýëåìåíòàìè èñòîðèè, âî âòîðîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîå óñòðîéñòâî ñ ýëåìåíòàìè ãðàæäàíîâåäåíèÿ ïëþñ ìàêñèìàëüíî âîçìîæíîå êîëè÷åñòâî êóëüòóðîëîãè÷åñêîé èíôîðìàöèè â îáåèõ ÷àñòÿõ. Êàæäàÿ èç ÷àñòåé âêëþ÷àåò â ñåáÿ òåêñòû íà àíãëèéñêîì è ðóññêîì ÿçûêàõ, ñíàáæåííûå ñèñòåìîé óïðàæíåíèé, âûïîëíåíèå êîòîðûõ ñïîñîáñòâóåò ðåøåíèþ óïîìÿíóòîé âûøå ìåòîäè÷åñêîé çàäà÷è. Ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê êîíêðåòèêå íàøåãî êóðñà 3 åå ìîæíî ñôîðìóëèðîâàòü êàê ìåòîäè÷åñêè ïðîäóìàííûé ïåðåõîä îò «ñòðàíîâåäåíèÿ» ê «ëèíãâîñòðàíîâåäåíèþ», îñíîâàííîìó íà îñìûñëåíèè è êîíñîëèäàöèè êóëüòóðîëîãè÷åñêèõ ÿâëåíèé, èìåþùèõ ÿçûêîâîå âûðàæåíèå. Ìû îòêàçàëèñü îò òðàäèöèîííîãî ïîñòðîåíèÿ ñòðàíîâåä÷åñêèõ ïîñîáèé èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî íà òåêñòàõ íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå. Èçâåñòíî, ÷òî òàêèå ìàòåðèàëû íå òîëüêî ñ ëåãêîñòüþ çàïîìèíàþòñÿ äîìà è âîñïðîèçâîäÿòñÿ â àóäèòîðèè, íî è ñ íå ìåíüøåé ëåãêîñòüþ çàáûâàþòñÿ, òàê ÷òî íà çàíÿòèÿõ ïî ïðàêòèêå óñòíîé ðå÷è ñòóäåíòû ïðîñòî íå óçíàþò ñîâñåì íåäàâíî èçó÷åííûå ñòðàíîâåä÷åñêèå ïîíÿòèÿ è ðåàëèè. Íåîáõîäèìî ó÷èòûâàòü, ÷òî â ãóìàíèòàðíûõ íàóêàõ òîëüêî òà èíôîðìàöèÿ ìîæåò ñ÷èòàòüñÿ óñâîåííîé, êîòîðàÿ ïðè ýòîì îñâîåíèè ïîäâåðãàëàñü òâîð÷åñêîé ïåðåðàáîòêå. Èìåííî ïîýòîìó â íàøåì ïîñîáèè ïîäàâëÿþùàÿ ÷àñòü ìàòåðèàëà î ÑØÀ äàåòñÿ íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, à â êà÷åñòâå ìåòîäà èçó÷åíèÿ åãî ïðåäëàãàåòñÿ ïåðåâîä. ×òî ìîæåò áûòü áîëåå òâîð÷åñêèì, ÷åì ïåðåâîä, ôåíîìåí, êîòîðûé îäèí èç êðóïíûõ ïåðåâîäîâåäîâ íàçâàë «ñàìîé ñëîæíîé òðàíñïîçèöèåé, ïîäîáíîé ýâîëþöèè êîñìîñà»! Ñðàçó æå îãîâîðèìñÿ, ÷òî ïåðåâîä êàê ìåòîäè÷åñêèé ïðèåì äîâîëüíî ñëîæíûé èíñòðóìåíòàðèé. Äåëî â òîì, ÷òî â ñðåäíåé øêîëå èì ïîëüçóþòñÿ èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî êàê ñðåäñòâîì îáó÷åíèÿ ÿçûêó, è â ýòîì ñëó÷àå îí âîâñå íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ íàñòîÿùèì ïåðåâîäîì, ò. å. òâîð÷åñêîé òðàíñïîçèöèåé. Ýòî òîëüêî äåøèôðîâêà, ïîäñòàíîâêà çàâåäîìî èçâåñòíûõ çíàêîâ â èçâåñòíóþ ïàðàäèãìó. Òîò ïåðåâîä, êîòîðûé ðåêîìåíäóåì ìû äëÿ çàíÿòèé ñòðàíîâåäåíèåì, ýòî îáó÷åíèå àíãëîÿçû÷íîé ðå÷åâîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, îòòàëêèâàþùååñÿ îò ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî òåêñòà. Ýòî êàæåòñÿ ïðîñòûì òîëüêî íà ïåðâûé âçãëÿä: ëþáîé ïðåïîäàâàòåëü-ïðàêòèê çíàåò, êàêîé ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèé êîøìàð ïîëó÷àåòñÿ èç ðå÷è ñòóäåíòà ìëàäøåãî êóðñà, ïûòàþùåãîñÿ ïåðåñêàçàòü ðóññêèé òåêñò íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå. Ñïîñîá íàó÷èòüñÿ äåëàòü ýòî êóëüòóðíî òîëüêî îäèí: ïîäõîäèòü ê òåêñòó êàê ê äèàëîãó êóëüòóð. Ýòî çíà÷èò âíèêàòü, êîììåíòèðîâàòü è ñïîðèòü ñ òåêñòîì, íàïèñàííûì íà îäíîì ÿçûêå, ñðåäñòâàìè äðóãîãî. ×òîáû ïðèó÷èòü ñòóäåíòîâ äåëàòü ýòî, íåîáõîäèìî ïðåäâàðèòåëüíî ñíÿòü ãëàâíûå ÿçûêîâûå òðóäíîñòè ÷åðåç ïîäñêàçêè íóæíûõ ýêâèâàëåíòîâ òåìàòè÷åñêèõ ñëîâ, à çàòåì ïóòåì ïîñòàíîâêè ñåðèè íàâîäÿùèõ âîïðîñîâ íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå ìîòèâèðîâàòü àíãëîÿçû÷íóþ ðå÷åâóþ äåÿòåëüíîñòü íà îñíîâå ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî òåêñòà. Áóäó÷è ïðîïóùåííîé ÷åðåç òàêóþ òâîð÷åñêóþ òðàíñïîçèöèþ, àêòóàëüíàÿ äëÿ íàøåãî ïðåäìåòà èíôîðìàöèÿ íå çàáóäåòñÿ ñ òàêîé ëåãêîñòüþ, ñ êîòîðîé ýòî ïðîèñõîäèò ïðè ðàáîòå ñ àíãëîÿçû÷íûìè òåêñòàìè. Ïîýòîìó â äàííîì ó÷åáíîì ïîñîáèè íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå ìû äàåì òîëüêî òåêñòû îáùåãî õàðàêòåðà, íàçíà÷åíèå êîòîðûõ ñîñòîèò â òîì, ÷òîáû ïî îïðåäåëåííîé ëîãè÷åñêîé ñõåìå ââåñòè ãëàâíûå ôàêòû, î êîòî4 ðûõ ñòóäåíòû ïðî÷òóò áîëåå ïîäðîáíî â ñëåäóþùèõ òåêñòàõ ðàçäåëà, íî óæå íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå. Îáå ÷àñòè íàøåãî ïîñîáèÿ ñâîåãî ðîäà ìîäóëè, â êîòîðûõ êóëüòóðîëîãè÷åñêèå ðåàëèè, ôàêòû, ñîáûòèÿ, «êðûëàòûå ñëîâà», èìåþùèå çíàêîâûé õàðàêòåð äëÿ ÑØÀ, çà÷àñòóþ óïîìèíàþòñÿ ïî íåñêîëüêó ðàç, íî ïîä ðàçíûìè ðàêóðñàìè. Òàê ïðîèñõîäèò ñåìàíòèçàöèÿ è êîíñîëèäàöèÿ ëèíãâîñòðàíîâåä÷åñêèõ ðåàëèé, èçó÷åíèå êîòîðûõ ÿâëÿåòñÿ öåëüþ êóðñà ñòðàíîâåäåíèÿ íà ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ñïåöèàëüíîñòÿõ. Êðîìå òîãî, òàêîå ïîñòðîåíèå ïîñîáèÿ ïîçâîëÿåò ðàññìàòðèâàòü êàæäóþ ÷àñòü êàê ñàìîäîñòàòî÷íóþ åäèíèöó è èñïîëüçîâàòü åå íå òîëüêî â ðàìêàõ îñíîâíîãî êóðñà ñòðàíîâåäåíèÿ, íî è â êà÷åñòâå äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî ìàòåðèàëà, íàïðèìåð äëÿ ñïåöêóðñà îá àíãëîÿçû÷íîì ïîëèòè÷åñêîì èëè ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì äèñêóðñå. Êàæäàÿ èç ÷àñòåé ñîñòîèò èç òåìàòè÷åñêèõ ðàçäåëîâ (Units), ïîñòðîåííûõ ïî îäíîé ñõåìå: êðàòêîå ââåäåíèå â òåìó íà àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå (Introductory Notes è Reading), çàòåì òåêñòû, â êîòîðûõ îáñóæäàþòñÿ ðàçëè÷íûå ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå è èäåîëîãè÷åñêèå àñïåêòû ïðåäëîæåííîé òåìû, íî óæå íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå. Ýòî íå îðèãèíàëüíûå, à ó÷åáíûå ìàòåðèàëû, ñêîìïîíîâàííûå ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê çàäà÷àì êóðñà èç ôàêòîâ è ñòåðåîòèïîâ, íàáëþäåíèé è îïèñàíèé, ïðåäïîëîæåíèé è ñóæäåíèé, ïî÷åðïíóòûõ èç ñàìûõ ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ èñòî÷íèêîâ, ñïèñîê êîòîðûõ ïðèâîäèòñÿ â êîíöå ïîñîáèÿ. Èíîãäà ýòè òåêñòû ìîãóò ïåðåêëèêàòüñÿ äðóã ñ äðóãîì, óïîìèíàÿ îäíè è òå æå ôàêòû, ðàññìàòðèâàåìûå â ðàçíûõ àñïåêòàõ. Ïîñêîëüêó òåêñòû ïðåäïîñëàíû ðàçíûì ïî òèïó óïðàæíåíèÿì è âèäàì ó÷åáíîé ðàáîòû, òî ïîäîáíîå ïîâòîðåíèå äîëæíî ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü óñâîåíèþ ìàòåðèàëà. Ñâåäåíèÿ íàøåãî ó÷åáíîãî ïîñîáèÿ íè â êîåé ìåðå íå ïðåòåíäóþò íà ñàìûé «ïðàâèëüíûé» âçãëÿä íà îáñóæäàåìûå ïðîáëåìû. Óïðàæíåíèÿ çàäóìàíû íå òîëüêî êàê ñðåäñòâî óñâîåíèÿ íîâûõ çíàíèé, íî è êàê ïîäñïîðüå â âûðàáîòêå ñòóäåíòàìè ñâîåãî ñîáñòâåííîãî ïîíèìàíèÿ ýòèõ ïðîáëåì. Ñèñòåìà óïðàæíåíèé âêëþ÷àåò çàäàíèÿ äâóõ òèïîâ: îáîçíà÷åííûå òåðìèíîì Exercises ïðåäïîëàãàþò àóäèòîðíóþ ðàáîòó, à Assignments òðåáóþò ñåðüåçíîé äîìàøíåé ïîäãîòîâêè ñ ïîñëåäóþùèì îáñóæäåíèåì â àóäèòîðèè. Óïðàæíåíèÿ âòîðîãî òèïà áûâàþò äâóõ âèäîâ: (Guided) Summary, ïðåäïîñëàííûå òåêñòàì, ÿâëÿþùèìñÿ ïî ñâîåìó ñîäåðæàíèþ ñêîðåå èíôîðìàòèâíûìè, íåæåëè àíàëèòè÷åñêèìè èëè îöåíî÷íûìè, è (Oral) (Guided) Composition òåêñòàì áîëåå àíàëèòè÷åñêèì è îöåíî÷íûì, ÷åì èíôîðìàòèâíûì. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, óïðàæíåíèÿ ïåðâîãî òèïà ïðåäíàçíà÷åíû äëÿ ïèñüìåííîé äîìàøíåé ðàáîòû (èëè êîíòðîëüíîé êëàññíîé) è íóæäàþòñÿ â îïåðàòèâíîé (õîòÿ áû âûáîðî÷íîé) ïðîâåðêå ïðåïîäàâàòåëåì ñ ïîñëåäóþùèì ðàçáîðîì òèïè÷íûõ îøèáîê. Çàäàíèÿ âòîðîãî òèïà íàïðàâëåíû íà ïîäãîòîâêó ñòóäåíòàìè ñâîåãî ðîäà «äîìàøíèõ çàãîòîâîê» äëÿ îáñóæäåíèÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî òåêñòà â 5 àóäèòîðèè ôàêòîâ, èçëîæåííûõ â íèõ, òî÷êè çðåíèÿ àâòîðà íà ýòè ôàêòû, à òàêæå ëè÷íîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ñòóäåíòà ê ýòèì ôàêòàì è ïîçèöèè àâòîðà. Ñåðèÿ âîïðîñîâ, ïðåäïîñëàííûõ òåêñòó, ïîìîãàåò ñòóäåíòàì ñòðóêòóðèðîâàòü ìàòåðèàë, à ÷òî êàñàåòñÿ îáúåìà «çàãîòîâîê», òî ýòî äåëî âêóñà. Ãëàâíîå, ÷òîáû îíè áûëè äîñòàòî÷íûìè äëÿ ïîëíîöåííîãî îáñóæäåíèÿ ýòèõ òåì â àóäèòîðèè.  ïåðâîé ÷àñòè ïîñîáèÿ òðèàäíàÿ ñòðóêòóðà ðàçäåëà (òåêñò äëÿ ÷òåíèÿ, òåêñò äëÿ ïèñüìåííîé ðàáîòû, òåêñò äëÿ óñòíîãî ñî÷èíåíèÿ) îáû÷íî âûäåðæèâàåòñÿ, íî âî âòîðîé ÷àñòè è ñàìè òåêñòû ñòàíîâÿòñÿ äëèííåå, è çàäàíèé äëÿ óñòíîé ðàáîòû áîëüøå. Ýòî ñâÿçàíî íå òîëüêî ñ àíàëèòè÷åñêèì õàðàêòåðîì áîëüøèíñòâà òåêñòîâ, íî è ñ òåì, ÷òî ñòóäåíòû ê ýòîìó âðåìåíè äîëæíû óæå îâëàäåòü íîâîé äëÿ íèõ ìåòîäèêîé è ìîãóò ñìåëåå ïðîÿâëÿòü èíèöèàòèâó. È ïîñëåäíåå. Òðàäèöèîííî âñå ñòðàíîâåä÷åñêèå ïîñîáèÿ çàêàí÷èâàþòñÿ àíãëî-ðóññêèì ãëîññàðèåì ñëîâ è âûðàæåíèé, èíòåðåñíûõ ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ýòîãî ïðåäìåòà. Ââèäó òîãî, ÷òî êàæäîå èç ïîäîáíûõ ñëîâ òùàòåëüíî ñåìàíòèçèðóåòñÿ â òåêñòå è îòðàáàòûâàåòñÿ ÷åðåç óïðàæíåíèÿ, äëÿ íàøåãî ïîñîáèÿ òàêîãî ðîäà ñëîâàðü íå òîëüêî èçëèøåí, íî è ïåäàãîãè÷åñêè âðåäåí. Ïîñêîëüêó öåëüþ íàøåãî êóðñà ÿâëÿåòñÿ êîíñîëèäàöèÿ çíàíèé î ñòðàíå èçó÷àåìîãî ÿçûêà, ñîñòàâëåíèå òàêîãî ñëîâàðÿ äîëæíî áûòü äåëîì ðóê íå àâòîðîâ ïîñîáèÿ, à ñàìèõ ñòóäåíòîâ ïîä êîíòðîëåì ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿ, åñòåñòâåííî, ïîñëå îáó÷åíèÿ èõ àçàì ëåêñèêîãðàôèè. Òàêàÿ ðàáîòà ìîæåò áûòü îðãàíèçîâàíà êàê ãðóïïîâîé ïðîåêò. Ìàòåðèàëû ïîñîáèÿ, ðàâíî êàê è ïðåäëàãàåìàÿ ìåòîäèêà, áûëè àïðîáèðîâàíû â õîäå ìíîãîëåòíåé ðàáîòû â Èíñòèòóòå ëèíãâèñòèêè è ìåæêóëüòóðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè Ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî îáëàñòíîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà. Àâòîðû ïîëüçóþòñÿ ñëó÷àåì âûðàçèòü ãëóáîêóþ ïðèçíàòåëüíîñòü êîëëåãàì è ñòóäåíòàì, ó÷àñòâîâàâøèì â ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíîé ïðîâåðêå íåêîòîðûõ ìåòîäè÷åñêèõ ïðèåìîâ, à òàêæå óâàæàåìûì ðåöåíçåíòàì. 6 PART I GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE USA UNIT 1 NATURAL AND MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT OF THE USA A. INTRODUCTORY NOTES People generally refer to the USA meaning its lower fortyeight states and the District of Columbia (Washington, DC) situated in the central part of the North American continent. This territory has a great coast tocoast span and is geographically as diverse as it is vast. But we should not forget about the other two stars on the American flag, which represent the states of Alaska (northwest of Canada) and Hawaii (situated in the Central Pacific). Other territories and dependencies include American Samoa and Guam in the Pacific, and Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea. The continental part of the country has the best agricultural possibilities. It lies neither too far north, where little vegetation is possible, nor too far south, where the climate is so hot that people have little desire to work. It stretches from the warm temperate area in which cotton and sugar cane flourish, through cooler regions where corn and tobacco grow, to a cool temperate climate suitable for the production of wheat and other grains. Unfortunately the climate of any country depends not only on its geographical position. The peculiarities of the surface are often responsible for deserts where lush tropical forests could grow. The mountains and uplands determine the economic development of the country even more than geographical position. In this Unit, you will read about geographical and historical factors, which explain unequal development of different parts of the country. You will read how the setters moved West fulfilling their “manifest destiny”. You will also read about some peculiarities of American topo graphic terminology, which reflects specif ic geographical conditions of the New World and the specific features of American towns and cities. 7 B. READING Surface Divisions, Great Waterways, and Climate of North America The USA consist of several surface divisions. The low Coastal Plain borders the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Beyond it are the Appalachian Highlands, usually divided into three sections. Coming from the Coastal Plain we reach, first, the Piedmont Belt. The word “piedmont” means “foothill” and the Piedmont Belt is a strip of hilly land between the Coastal Plain and the real Appalachian Mountains. Going westward from the Appalachian Mountains we cross a succession of valleys made by rivers through the Appalachian Plateau. Here rock layers lie horizontally, instead of being wrinkled and bent as they are in the mountains. The rivers have worn down and intersected the plateau until some of it began to look like a mountain region. The Catskill Mountains in the state of New York are part of the plateau, though due to their appearance they even have the term “mountains” in their official name. Beyond the Appalachian Mountains lies a great area of plains — the Central Plains and the Great Plains. After crossing them, we get to the mountains, valleys, and deserts that make up the western third of the United States. A considerable part of it is occupied by the Rocky Mountains, which rise from the eastern edge of a great plateau and are more than a mile high and a thousand miles wide. On the western edge of the plateau are the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains. The Sierra Nevada, or “Snowy Range”, is in California. The Cascade Mountains take their name from the numerous cascades and falls in the Columbia River at the place where it works its way through the highland. Between the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains on the west and the central part of the Rocky Mountains on the east lies the Grand Basin, so named because it is hemmed in by great ridges on each side. The Great Basin is not lowland, though parts of it lie below sea level. The larger part of it is a plateau crossed by ranges of mountains. South of the Great Basin lies the Colorado Plateau, named after the river that runs through its territory. North of the Great Basin is the Columbia Plateau, also named after a river. It is a lava region, one of the largest areas, which is covered so thoroughly and so deeply by the flow from ancient volcanoes. Through many centuries the lava rock that filled the valleys has crumbled into the fertile soil. Abundant rainfall, caused by winds blowing from the Pacific Ocean, has helped to produce the deep forests, which cover the western slopes of the Coast Ranges. It is not by chance that many American regions and even states are named after American rivers. It indicates the great role they have always 8 played in the life of the people. As for the names of the rivers themselves, they usually have some historical or folklore flavor. Among the major rivers of the east, the Charles River and the James River were named after the English monarchs, while the Delaware was named after an English governor, Lord De La Warr. The Hudson River was named after the explorer who followed its meandering course into the interior upstate New York, the Columbia after Christopher Columbus who discovered the New World. As with many placenames in the USA, the Potomac, the Shenandoah, the Roanoke and many other rivers are derived from American Indian words. The Mississippi is one of the longest rivers in the world. It got its name from the Indian word, which means “The Father of Waters”. The Mississippi receives the water from more than fifty navigable rivers and from hundreds of others not navigable. On the navigable branches one might sail for a distance nearly equal to the circumference of the earth. Flowing through a region of fertile soil and temperate climate, they afford more opportunity for navigation and development than any other system in the world. The two largest branches of the Mississippi are the Ohio and the Missouri, connecting the main stream with the eastern and western portions of the Central Plains. The Missouri, hurrying from its source three thousand miles away, pours into the Mississippi one hundred and twenty thousand cubic feet of water every second. About one hundred and fifty miles farther down the Mississippi we come to its junction with the Ohio. This river discharges more water into the trunk stream than the Missouri, though the Missouri is three times as long. But the Missouri drains a country where the rainfall is very light and the water quickly soaks into the parched ground or evaporates in the dry air. It is not surprising, that the floods of the lower Mississippi, which do great damage to shipping and farming, are due largely to the rising of the waters of the Ohio and its branches. The crest of the Rocky Mountains is the Great Divide of the country. It sends some rivers, such as the Missouri and the Arkansas, to join the Mississippi and to continue their course through level plains and fertile valleys to the Gulf of Mexico. Others, like the Columbia and the Snake, find their way over great lava plains to the Pacific Ocean. The Colorado, most wonderful of them all, works its way to the sea through a high plateau in which it has cut a canyon two hundred miles long and a mile deep. Few rivers join it in its long journey through the desert; indeed, in the whole world no other river of its size flows for so great a distance without a tributary. It is a dashing, foaming, impetuous stream, many hundred feet below the surface of the land, held in its place by vertical walls of rock. There are hundreds of canyons in this part of the country, yet none of them can compare with that of the Colorado. The surface divisions and geographical position determine the great varieties of climate in the USA. Without travelling beyond its 9 boundaries it is possible to go from the subtropical temperatures of the South to the almost arctic winters of the North; from the abrupt changes of the weather in New England states to the balmy winters of southern California, where the temperature varies only slightly and where the sun shines from a cloudless sky for weeks at a time. We may visit western Oregon, where nearly ninety inches of rain fall each year, and see its forests of immense trees, fields of waving wheat, and orchards of delicious fruit. Several hundred miles farther to the south, in southern California, we find one of the driest regions of the world. In Death Valley, a part of the Mohave Desert, less than two inches of rain falls annually, and often a year or two passes with no relief from the bright sunshine. No life exists here except a few varieties of the cactus plant and some lizards and horned toads. The sun’s rays in summer are intensely hot. Water thrown upon the ground disappears almost instantly, and a stone that has lain for some time in the sunshine becomes almost too hot to touch. The weather is also determined by the ocean currents that flow near the coasts of America. The western part is greatly influenced by the Japan Current, responsible for the warm winds that blow upon the western shores, bringing the mild, even temperature of the ocean and making the winter roses and fruits of southern California possible. Here temperatures are moderate yearround, although they start to dip as you go northward into America’s wettest region. The Cascade Range acts as a climatic divide, with the western side receiving up to twenty times more rain than the dusty plains to the mountains’ east. The cold, lofty peaks of the Sierra Nevada block the winds, and the rest of the western region receives very little rain indeed. On the eastern coast, the Labrador Current flows southward near the shore, chilling the land for miles around. Though not so agreeable, its importance to the people of the East is perhaps as great as that of the warm Japan Current to California; for in its cold waters, great numbers of codfish, herring, and mackerel find food and temperature suited to their development. The arctic stream is as necessary to the life of these fish as rain and sunshine are to the crops of the farmer, and without it the fishing industry of New England would not be possible. The lives of people in the eastern states are also affected by the Gulf Stream, a warm current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and flows northeast across the Atlantic, producing hot, wet, energysapping conditions for Florida and the other Gulf states. Because of the continent’s extreme weather patterns, rarely a year goes by without one headlinemaking natural disaster. These include hurricanes pounding the Gulf or the eastern seaboard, snowstorms paralyzing cities on the eastern coast, tornadoes tearing through “tornado alley” in the Midwest. Though the US meteorological services are able to predict extreme weather very accurately, and residents of the affected regions are usually prepared to react to such occurrences, the 10 people of the Gulf States, especially Louisiana, still suffer from hurricanes every year. By tradition, the hurricanes bear women’s names. In 2005, the Katrina hurricane practically destroyed the city of New Orleans and many other cities in Mississippi and Alabama. Oddly, considering the extremities of the American climate, weather words were slow to arise in the American English. Snowstorm, the first meteorological Americanism, isn’t recorded until 1771, and no one appears to have referred to a tornado in print before 1804. In between came cold snap (‘unexpected cold weather’) (1776). Blizzard, a word without which any description of a northern winter would seem incomplete, did not come to describe a heavy snowstorm until 1870. This word of unknown origin had been coined in America somewhat earlier, but previously denoted a blow or a series of blows, as with fists or from guns. The terms gale and hurricane are of late origin. The difference between these fierce winds is in their speed. If the speed of the wind is more than 38 miles an hour, it is a gale, and if it is more than 75 miles an hour, it is a hurricane. There are also some local words that refer to some special kinds of winds blowing in special places, such as Santa Anas, the hot and dry, often dusty wind that blows across the desert into southern California, and seems to make everyone grouchy. The chinook is either a warm wet wind that blows south from the Pacific Northwest or a warm dry wind blowing east off the Rockies. EXERCISES Answer the questions: 1) What parts does the Appalachian system consist of? What is the exact meaning of the word “Piedmont”? Why are parts of the Appalachian Plateau called “mountains”? What can you say about the economic possibilities of each section of the Appalachian system judging by their geographical positions only? 2) What is specific in the relief of the American West? What type of surface occupies most of the territory? What mountains rise from the eastern and western edges of that plateau? What is the Great Basin? What is there to the south and to the north of the Great Basin? Which part of the American West has better economic advantages than the others? 3) What is meant by the Great Divide? Where is it in the American West? Do we have such a thing in Russia? What do the names of American rivers express? What river got its name from the Indian word, which means “The Father of Waters”? Why? What Russian river may be compared with this great American river by its importance to economy and national consciousness? 11 4) What feature is usually mentioned first in relation to the climate of the USA? Is it good or bad for national agriculture? What factors influence the climate of the USA? What ocean currents contribute to it? What terms are used to refer to very fierce winds that are caused by those currents? What can you say about meteorological Ameri canisms? How does the Russian climate compare with that of America? What factors can help to explain the differences? Do you think we are more fortunate in climate than Americans? C. ORAL COMPOSITION Êàê îñâàèâàëèñü ïðîñòîðû Íîâîãî Ñâåòà Õîòÿ Àïïàëà÷è (Appalachian Mountains) è íå î÷åíü âûñîêè, òåì íå ìåíåå îíè ïðåäñòàâëÿëè ñîáîé çíà÷èòåëüíîå ïðåïÿòñòâèå, ñäåðæèâàâøåå ïðîäâèæåíèå åâðîïåéñêèõ ïîñåëåíöåâ íà âîñòîê, ïîñêîëüêó áûëè ïîêðûòû íåïðîõîäèìûìè ëåñàìè, â êîòîðûõ ñêðûâàëèñü äèêèå çâåðè è íå ñëèøêîì äîâîëüíûå ïîÿâëåíèåì «áëåäíîëèöûõ áðàòüåâ» èíäåéöû. Ïîýòîìó â òå÷åíèå äîëãîãî âðåìåíè ïîñåëåíèÿ êîëîíèñòîâ áûëè ñîñðåäîòî÷åíû âäîëü Ïðèáðåæíîé ðàâíèíû (Coastal Plain), ðàñòÿíóâøåéñÿ îò Íüþ-Éîðêà äî ñàìîé Ìåêñèêè. Áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü ïî÷âû áûëà ïðèíåñåíà ñþäà ðåêàìè, ïðîáèâøèìè ñâîé ïóòü ÷åðåç Àïïàëà÷ñêîå ïëàòî. Åùå áîëüøå åå ñêîïèëîñü â ïðèáðåæíîé ïîëîñå â óñòüÿõ ðåê.  ðåçóëüòàòå ìåäëåííîãî ïîäúåìà çåìíîé êîðû ñî âðåìåíåì çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü íàíåñåííîé ðåêàìè çåìëè îêàçàëàñü íàä óðîâíåì ìîðÿ. Ïîòîì çåìíàÿ êîðà ñíîâà íà÷àëà îïóñêàòüñÿ, è âíåøíÿÿ êðîìêà ïîáåðåæüÿ îïÿòü ïîãðóçèëàñü â âîäó, èç-çà ÷åãî óñòüÿ ðåê ïðåâðàòèëèñü â øèðîêèå è äîâîëüíî ãëóáîêèå ëèìàíû. Òàê îáðàçîâàëèñü òå «ïîòîïëåííûå äîëèíû ðåê» ñ ìíîæåñòâîì óäîáíûõ áóõò è ãàâàíåé, ôàêòîð, ñïîñîáñòâîâàâøèé âïîñëåäñòâèè ðàçâèòèþ òîðãîâûõ ïóòåé â âîñòî÷íûõ ðåãèîíàõ ñòðàíû. Àïïàëà÷è æå âî âðåìÿ ýòèõ ïîäâèæåê çåìíîé êîðû ïîòèõîíüêó ðàçðóøàëèñü, èõ îñòðûå âåðøèíû ïîñòåïåííî îêðóãëÿëèñü è çàðàñòàëè ëåñîì, ïðåâðàùàÿñü â ãðÿäó âûñîêèõ õîëìîâ, âîçâûøàþùèõñÿ íàä îáøèðíûì ïëîñêîãîðüåì. Íà ïîäñòóïàõ ê ýòèì ãîðàì ïðîòÿíóëàñü ãðÿäà õîëìîâ, ïîëó÷èâøèõ íàçâàíèå Ïèäìîíòñêîãî Ïîÿñà (Piedmont Belt). Ýòî âñå, ÷òî îñòàëîñü îò ãîðíîãî õðåáòà, ñîñòàâëÿâøåãî êîãäà-òî ÷àñòü Àïïàëà÷ñêèõ ãîð. Âåòðû è äîæäè ñãëàäèëè Ïèäìîíò, à âîäû ðåê, ïðîáèâàþùèõñÿ ê îêåàíó, âûìûëè îòñþäà âñå, ÷òî ìîæíî áûëî âûìûòü, îñòàâèâ òîëüêî î÷åíü òâåðäûå ïîðîäû.  ýòèõ ìåñòàõ îáðàçîâàëèñü ïîðîãè è âîäîïàäû. Ýíåðãèÿ ïàäàþùåé âîäû ïîçäíåå ñòàëà èñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ â ïðîìûøëåííîñòè: âäîëü âñåé «ëèíèè âîäîïàäîâ» âûðîñëè ãèäðîýëåêòðîñòàíöèè, ïèòàþùèå òåêñòèëüíûå ôàáðèêè Íîâîé Àíãëèè. 12 Çà Ïèäìîíòîì âñòàþò óæå íàñòîÿùèå Àïïàëà÷ñêèå ãîðû, âêëþ÷àþùèå â ñåáÿ íåñêîëüêî õðåáòîâ, ïðîòÿíóâøèõñÿ îò Íîâîé Àíãëèè äî Àëàáàìû. Ñàìûé âûñîêèé èç íèõ Ãîëóáûå ãîðû (Blue Ridge) ñ âûñî÷àéøåé âåðøèíîé Ìèò÷åëë (2 037 ì) â Ñåâåðíîé Êàðîëèíå. Çåëåíûå ãîðû (Green Mountains) â Âåðìîíòå, Áåëûå ãîðû (White Mountains) â Íüþ-Õýìïøèðå è Àäèðîíäàêñêèå ãîðû (Adirondack Mountains) â øòàòå Íüþ-Éîðê òîæå âõîäÿò â Àïïàëà÷ñêóþ ñèñòåìó. Îò ñîáñòâåííî Àïïàëà÷ñêèõ ãîð îíè îòäåëåíû äîëèíàìè ðåê Ãóäçîí (Hudson) è Ìîõàóê (Mohawk), ïî êîòîðûì óäîáíåå âñåãî ïðîíèêíóòü âî âíóòðåííèå ðàéîíû ñòðàíû. ×åðåç ýòè ðåêè ãîðîä Íüþ-Éîðê ñâÿçàí ñ Öåíòðàëüíîé ðàâíèíîé (Central Plain), è ýòî îáúÿñíÿåò îò÷àñòè åãî áûñòðûé ðîñò: íè îäèí èç ãîðîäîâ âîñòî÷íîãî ïîáåðåæüÿ íå ìîæåò ïîõâàñòàòüñÿ ñòîëü âûãîäíûì ìåñòîïîëîæåíèåì. Äâèãàÿñü ÷åðåç ãîðû â çàïàäíîì íàïðàâëåíèè, ìû ïåðåñåêàåì äîëèíû ðåê Øåíàíäîà (Shenandoah) â øòàòå Âèðäæèíèÿ è Òåííåññè (Tennessee) â îäíîèìåííîì øòàòå. Ýòè ðåêè ïðîáèëè ñåáå ïóòü ÷åðåç Àïïàëà÷ñêîå ïëàòî, ïî âíåøíåìó âèäó ìàëî îòëè÷àþùååñÿ îò ãîð, ðàçâå òîëüêî âûñîòîé. Ðàññêàçû èíäåéöåâ î ïëîäîðîäíûõ ïîëÿõ, ïðîñòèðàþùèõñÿ çà ãîðàìè, ïîáóäèëè íàèáîëåå ñìåëûõ èç ïîñåëåíöåâ îòïðàâèòüñÿ íà çàïàä. Ïîñòåïåííî áûëè ïðîòîðåíû ïÿòü íàèáîëåå óäîáíûõ ïóòåé, âåäóùèõ âî âíóòðåííèå ðàéîíû ñòðàíû. Ïåðâûé ïðîëåãàë ÷åðåç äîëèíó ðåêè Ñâ. Ëàâðåíòèÿ (St. Lawrence River) è Âåëèêèå îçåðà (Great Lakes), âòîðîé ÷åðåç äîëèíû ðåê Ãóäçîí è Ìîõàóê. Ýòîò ïóòü áûë ñàìûì óäîáíûì, è ïîòîìó çà êîíòðîëü íàä íèì ïðîèñõîäèëè ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå ñòû÷êè, ïåðåõîäèâøèå â êðîâàâûå âîéíû, êàê ñ èíäåéöàìè, òàê è ñ ôðàíöóçàìè, òîæå ïðåòåíäîâàâøèìè íà ýòè çåìëè. Òðåòèé ñïîñîá ïðîíèêíóòü â ãëóáü ñòðàíû ýòî ïîäíÿòüñÿ ââåðõ ïî ðåêå Ïîòîìàê (Potomac), à ïîòîì ÷åðåç ðåêó Îãàéî (Ohio) è åå ïðèòîêè. Âèðäæèíñêèå êîëîíèñòû ÷àùå âñåãî ïîëüçîâàëèñü ÷åòâåðòûì ïóòåì ïî ðåêå Äæåéìñ (James River), ïîäíÿâøèñü ïî êîòîðîé, îíè, îáõîäÿ Ãîëóáûå ãîðû, ïåðåñåêàëè ïëàòî. Ïÿòûé ïóòü ïðîëåãàë åùå þæíåå, ÷åðåç ðàéîíû ñåâåðíîé Äæîðäæèè. Õîòÿ îí è áûë ñðàâíèòåëüíî ëåãêèì, êîëîíèñòû ïîëüçîâàëèñü èì âñå ðåæå, ïîñêîëüêó îí íàõîäèëñÿ ïîä æåñòêèì êîíòðîëåì íåäðóæåñòâåííûõ èíäåéöåâ. Äëÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ ñëîâî «Çàïàä» íèêîãäà íå áûëî ÷èñòî ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèì ïîíÿòèåì, êàê, âïðî÷åì, è äëÿ ðóññêèõ. Íî åñëè äëÿ íàñ îíî àññîöèèðîâàëîñü ñ çàïàäíîåâðîïåéñêîé, âî ìíîãîì îòëè÷íîé îò ðóññêîé, öèâèëèçàöèåé, òî äëÿ ãðàæäàí ÑØÀ ïåðâóþ ïîëîâèíó èõ èñòîðèè «Çàïàäîì» áûëà åùå íå èçâåäàííàÿ, íî ìàíÿùàÿ òåððèòîðèÿ ñåâåðîàìåðèêàíñêîãî êîíòèíåíòà çà Àïïàëà÷àìè, à âòîðóþ ïîëîâèíó, ïðèìåðíî ñ ñåðåäèíû XIX âåêà, ïîñòåïåííî çàâîåâûâàâøèéñÿ Äèêèé Çàïàä. È êîëîíèçàöèÿ Äèêîãî Çàïàäà áûëà íå ïðîñòî ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ, à ñâîåãî 13 Manifest Destiny, àëëåãîðèÿ Äæ.Ãàñòà, 1872 ã. ðîäà ìèññèåé àìåðèêàíñêîãî íàðîäà, èëè, èñïîëüçóÿ ïîïóëÿðíîå êëèøå òîãî âðåìåíè, Manifest Destiny, êîòîðîå ìîæíî ïðèáëèçèòåëüíî ïåðåâåñòè êàê «ïðåäíà÷åðòàíèå ñóäüáû». Ãëàâíîé «ìàãèñòðàëüþ» ïðîäâèæåíèÿ íà Çàïàä áûëà ïðîëîæåííàÿ ïèîíåðàìè «Îðåãîíñêàÿ òðîïà» (Oregon Trail). Õîäÿ÷åå ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î òîì, êàê ïðàêòè÷åñêè îñóùåñòâëÿëîñü ýòî ïðîäâèæåíèå, ñôîðìèðîâàíî Ãîëëèâóäîì. Ýòî äëèííûå âåðåíèöû ãðîìîçäêèõ êðûòûõ ôóðãîíîâ, ïîëó÷èâøèõ íàçâàíèå «êîíåñòîãñêèõ» (Conestoga wagons), â ÷åñòü ðàéîíà â Ïåíñèëüâàíèè, ïðåæäå íàñåëåííîãî èíäåéöàìè ïëåìåíè êîíåñòîãà. Èñòîðèêè ñ÷èòàþò, ÷òî ýòè êàðòèíû íå ñîîòâåòñòâóþò äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè. Êîíåñòîãè, êîíå÷íî, èñïîëüçîâàëèñü ïåðåñåëåíöàìè, íî ëèøü äëÿ ïåðåâîçêè ãðîìîçäêèõ è òÿæåëûõ ãðóçîâ, âðîäå ìåáåëè è ïðî÷åãî äîìàøíåãî ñêàðáà, à â êà÷åñòâå «ñåìåéíûõ ýêèïàæåé» èñïîëüçîâàëèñü áîëåå ëåãêèå êèáèòêè, êîòîðûå íàçûâàëèñü «øõóíàìè ïðåðèé» (prairie schooners). È îáû÷íî òàùèëè èõ íå ëîøàäè, à áûêè, áîëåå âûíîñëèâûå è ëó÷øå ïðèñïîñîáëåííûå ê òÿãîòàì äîëãîãî ïóòåøåñòâèÿ ïî áåçäîðîæüþ. Êñòàòè, îíè ïåðåäâèãàëèñü íå â ðÿä, êàê â ãîëëèâóäñêèõ ôèëüìàõ, à ñîáëþäàëè äèñòàíöèþ èëè äâèãàëèñü «áîê î áîê», ÷òîáû íå íàãëîòàòüñÿ ïûëè, ïîäíèìàåìîé êîëåñàìè èäóùåãî âïåðåäè ýêèïàæà. 14 Êàê èçâåñòíî, îäíà èç ñàìûõ áîëüøèõ íåïðèÿòíîñòåé â Ðîññèè ýòî åå äîðîãè.  Àìåðèêå æå äî íà÷àëà ÕÕ âåêà ïðîåçæèå äîðîãè áûëè íå òîëüêî íè÷åì íå ëó÷øå ðîññèéñêèõ (ïî ñâèäåòåëüñòâó î÷åâèäöà, âî âðåìÿ åãî ïóòåøåñòâèÿ èç Íüþ-Éîðêà â Öèíöèíàòè â 1839 ãîäó åãî ýêèïàæ ïåðåâîðà÷èâàëñÿ 9 ðàç), íî è òåõ áûëî ìàëî. ×àùå âñåãî îíè ïðåäñòàâëÿëè ñîáîé åäâà çàìåòíûå ñëåäû (traces) êîëåñíûõ ýêèïàæåé, ïðîïàäàþùèå íà ïîäõîäå ê ðåêàì è èñ÷åçàþùèå â ãîðèñòîé ìåñòíîñòè. Íåñëó÷àéíî òåðìèí trace äî ñèõ ïîð ôèãóðèðóåò â îôèöèàëüíûõ íàçâàíèÿõ íåêîòîðûõ äîðîã, íàïðèìåð â Natchez Trace. Äëÿ áîëåå îñíîâàòåëüíî ïðîòîðåííûõ äîðîã èñïîëüçîâàëñÿ òåðìèí trail, îñîáåííî â ïåðèîä îñâîåíèÿ Çàïàäà.  îòëè÷èå îò ñâîåãî áðèòàíñêîãî ýêâèâàëåíòà footpath àìåðèêàíèçì trail îçíà÷àåò íå ïðîòîïòàííóþ ëþäüìè óçêóþ äîðîæêó, à äîâîëüíî íåîïðåäåëåííûé â î÷åðòàíèÿõ ïóòü, ïðîëîæåííûé ñðåäè òðàâû ìíîæåñòâîì êèáèòîê, äâèæóùèõñÿ íà Çàïàä äîâîëüíî øèðîêèì ôðîíòîì. Âïëîòü äî êîíöà XVIII âåêà åäèíñòâåííûìè íàñòîÿùèìè, çàñëóæèâàþùèìè ýòîãî íàçâàíèÿ, áûëè ïëàòíûå äîðîãè, íàçûâàþùèåñÿ â Àìåðèêå turnpikes, ïîòîìó ÷òî âúåçä íà íèõ çàãðàæäàëñÿ øåñòîì (pike), êîòîðûé «ïîâîðà÷èâàëñÿ» (turned ) ïîñëå óïëàòû äîðîæíîãî ñáîðà (toll ). Ïîêðûòèå ëó÷øèõ èç íèõ íàçûâàëè «âåëüâåòîâûì» (corduroy), ÷òî îòíþäü íå áûëî êîìïëèìåíòîì: äëÿ èõ ìîùåíèÿ èñïîëüçîâàëèñü áðåâíà, êîòîðûå õîòü è çàêðûâàëè ãðÿçü, íî îäíîâðåìåííî äåëàëè ðåëüåô äîðîãè ïîõîæèì íà âåëüâåòîâûé «ðóá÷èê». Íå óäèâèòåëüíî, ÷òî ïîÿâëåíèå æåëåçíûõ äîðîã áûëî âñòðå÷åíî àìåðèêàíöàìè ñ òàêèì ýíòóçèàçìîì, ÷òî ìíîãèå ïîêîëåíèÿ, óïîòðåáëÿÿ ñëîâî road, èìåëè â âèäó rail road.  Àíãëèè, ãäå ñ ðàçâèòèåì ãóæåâîãî òðàíñïîðòà óëó÷øàëèñü è äîðîãè, ñëîâî road âñåãäà ñîõðàíÿëî çíà÷åíèå, êîòîðûì àìåðèêàíöû íàäåëÿþò ñëîâî highway, à âîò ïîåçäà õîäÿò ïî «ðåëüñîâûì ïóòÿì» (railways). Ñ ðàçâèòèåì àâòîìîáèëüíîãî òðàíñïîðòà ïðîåçæèå äîðîãè ïðåâðàòèëèñü â ðàçâèòóþ òðàíñïîðòíóþ ñèñòåìó ñ òðàññàìè íåñêîëüêèõ êàòåãîðèé: routes ýòî ìåñòíûå äîðîãè, íàõîäÿùèåñÿ â âåäîìñòâå øòàòà, highways äîðîãè ôåäåðàëüíîãî çíà÷åíèÿ, ñðåäè êîòîðûõ åñòü expressways (èëè freeways) ñêîðîñòíûå äîðîãè ñ ðàçäåëåííûìè ïîëîñàìè äâèæåíèÿ è parkways äîðîãè, ïðîõîäÿùèå ÷åðåç æèâîïèñíûå ìåñòà è èçíà÷àëüíî ïðåäíàçíà÷åííûå äëÿ ýêñêóðñèîííûõ ïîåçäîê. Íà íèõ îãðàíè÷åíà íå òîëüêî ñêîðîñòü äâèæåíèÿ, íî è êîëè÷åñòâî çàïðàâî÷íûõ ñòàíöèé è òîðãîâûõ òî÷åê. Îáúåçäíûå äîðîãè âîêðóã áîëüøèõ ãîðîäîâ íàçûâàþòñÿ beltways (áðèòàíñêèé ýêâèâàëåíò ring-road). Çàïàä áûë ñîâñåì äðóãîé Àìåðèêîé, âåðíåå ñêàçàòü, âîîáùå íå Àìåðèêîé, ïîòîìó ÷òî ïåðåñåëåíöû, íå ñóìåâøèå ïî òåì èëè èíûì ïðè÷èíàì ïóñòèòü òàì êîðíè, ãîâîðèëè, ÷òî ñîáèðàþòñÿ «âåðíóòüñÿ íàçàä â Àìåðèêó». Íî äàëåêî íå âñå ñëîâà è âûðàæå15 íèÿ, îïèñûâàþùèå áûò è íðàâû Äèêîãî Çàïàäà, ðîäèëèñü èìåííî òàì. Ìíîãèå èç ýòèõ àìåðèêàíèçìîâ ïðèäóìàíû ïîçäíåå ñöåíàðèñòàìè èç Ãîëëèâóäà (òàêèå, íàïðèìåð, êàê gunslinger «ñòðåëÿþùèé íàâñêèäêó»), äðóãèå áûëè â õîäó çàäîëãî äî òîãî, êàê èõ âçÿëè íà âîîðóæåíèå ïèîíåðû è ïîñåëåíöû. Ñëîâî desperado äî òîãî, êàê îíî ñòàëî ñèíîíèìîì ñëîâà «áàíäèò», èñïîëüçîâàëîñü åùå â îòíîøåíèè ó÷àñòíèêîâ ïåðâîãî â èñòîðèè ÑØÀ âîññòàíèÿ ôåðìåðîâ ïîä ïðåäâîäèòåëüñòâîì Øàéñà (Shyss Rebellion). Ïðè÷èíîé âîññòàíèÿ áûëî íåäîâîëüñòâî æåñòêîé ïîëèòèêîé ïðàâèòåëüñòâà ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ðàçîðÿâøèìñÿ ôåðìåðàì, âûðàæàâøåéñÿ â êîíôèñêàöèè èìóùåñòâà ó íåñîñòîÿòåëüíûõ äîëæíèêîâ. Øèðîêîïîëàÿ Ñòåòñîíîâñêàÿ øëÿïà (Stetson hat) çàäîëãî äî «Îðåãîíñêîé ëèõîðàäêè» âîøëà â ìîäó íà Àòëàíòè÷åñêîì ïîáåðåæüå ñ ëåãêîé ðóêè ôèëàäåëüôèéñêîãî ôàáðèêàíòà ìóæñêîé îäåæäû Äæîíà Ñòåòñîíà, êîòîðîìó è â ãîëîâó íå ïðèõîäèëî, ÷òî îíà ñòàíåò îáÿçàòåëüíûì àòðèáóòîì êîâáîéñêîé ýêèïèðîâêè. Êñòàòè, è ñàìî ñëîâî cowboy («êîðîâîïàñ») óïîòðåáëÿëîñü âî âðåìÿ Âîéíû çà íåçàâèñèìîñòü êàê óíè÷èæèòåëüíûé òåðìèí ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ëîÿëèñòàì (loyalists) àìåðèêàíöàì, ïîääåðæèâàþùèì àíãëè÷àí.  îòíîøåíèè ïåðåãîíùèêîâ ñêîòà èç Òåõàñà â Êàíçàñ ñëîâî óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ ñ 1867 ãîäà, è ââåë åãî â óïîòðåáëåíèå ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëü Äæîçåô Ìàêêîé, êîòîðîãî íåêîòîðûå èññëåäîâàòåëè ñ÷èòàþò òåì ÷åëîâåêîì, ïî ïîâîäó êîòîðîãî áûëî âïåðâûå ñêàçàíî the Real McCoy. Òåïåðü ýòî èäèîìà, îçíà÷àþùàÿ «íå÷òî ïîäëèííîå, íåïîääåëüíîå». Çàïàäíûå ðàéîíû ÑØÀ âûãëÿäÿò òàê, ñëîâíî Ñîçäàòåëü ñïåöèàëüíî ñòàðàëñÿ ñäåëàòü òàì âñå íå òàê, êàê íà âîñòî÷íîì ïîáåðåæüå. Ãîðû çäåñü äîñòèãàþò âûñîòû ïÿòè òûñÿ÷ ìåòðîâ, à íèçìåííîñòè ñêîðåå ìîæíî íàçâàòü âïàäèíàìè äî ñòà ìåòðîâ íèæå óðîâíÿ ìîðÿ! Çäåñü åñòü è ïëîäîðîäíåéøèå çåìëè, ãäå ðàñòóò âûñî÷àéøèå äåðåâüÿ â ìèðå. Äàæå ó÷åíûå íå çíàþò, êàê èíäåéöû íàçûâàëè ýòè ÷óäî-äåðåâüÿ, êîòîðûì åâðîïåéöû ïðèñâîèëè èìÿ Ñåêâîéè, îäíîãî èç èçâåñòíåéøèõ âîæäåé ïëåìåíè ÷åðîêè. Åñòü òàì è áåñïëîäíåéøèå ïóñòûíè, ãäå äàæå êîëþ÷èé êóñòàðíèê áîëüøàÿ ðåäêîñòü. Çäåñü ñàìûå æàðêèå â ñòðàíå ìåñòà è ñàìûå âûñîêèå âåðøèíû ãîð, ïîêðûòûå âå÷íûìè ñíåãàìè, ãäå áåðóò íà÷àëî ñàìûå äëèííûå ðåêè, è çäåñü æå, íà Çàïàäå, íå ðåäêîñòü ìåñòà, ãäå íå òîëüêî ðåê, íî è ðó÷üåâ íåò íà ñîòíè êèëîìåòðîâ âîêðóã. Ïîèñòèíå êðàé êîíòðàñòîâ! Ñêàëèñòûå ãîðû (Rocky Mountains) ñâîåãî ðîäà «êðûøà» Çàïàäà. Ýòî ãèãàíòñêàÿ ãîðíàÿ ñèñòåìà, ïðîòÿíóâøàÿñÿ îò õîëîäíûõ ðàéîíîâ Êðàéíåãî Ñåâåðà äî òðîïèêîâ Öåíòðàëüíîé Àìåðèêè.  ýòó ñèñòåìó âõîäÿò è õðåáòû Ñüåððà-Íåâàäà (Sierra Nevada). Èìåííî òàì â 1849 ãîäó áûëè îáíàðóæåíû çîëîòûå ðîññûïè, è íà÷àëàñü çíàìåíèòàÿ «çîëîòàÿ ëèõîðàäêà», ïðèâëåêøàÿ â ýòîò êðàé òûñÿ÷è çîëîòîèñêàòåëåé «ñîðîêàäåâÿòíèêîâ» (forty-niners). Êòî-òî ðàçáî16 ãàòåë, íî äàëåêî íå âñå. Ìíîãèå èç òåõ, êòî ïðèøåë òóäà â ïîèñêàõ çîëîòà, íî íè÷åãî íå íàøåë, òåì íå ìåíåå îñòàëèñü òàì ðàäè òîãî, ÷òîáû âîçäåëûâàòü ïëîäîðîäíóþ çåìëþ. Íà ìåñòå ïîñåëêîâ çîëîòîèñêàòåëåé ïîÿâèëèñü ôåðìû, à ïîòîì è ãîðîäà, îñíîâîé äëÿ ïðîöâåòàíèÿ êîòîðûõ ñòàëè ôðóêòîâûå ñàäû, ïøåíè÷íûå ïîëÿ è âûãîíû äëÿ ñêîòà. À ïîòîì, êàê ãîâîðèòñÿ, «ïðîöåññ ïîøåë». Íî îá ýòîì âû ïðî÷òåòå â ïîñëåäóþùèõ ðàçäåëàõ. ASSIGNMENTS Answer the questions: 1) Why such relatively low mountains as the Appalachians used to serve as a barrier preventing the westward movement of European settlement? Did the colonists really want to move deeper inland? What agricultural perspectives did the region where they landed have? How were the “drowned valleys” formed? Were they of any use to the settlers? What does the expression “fall line” mean? Could the settlers use its economic possibilities right after they landed? When did they appreciate these possibilities? 2) What ridges do the Appalachian Highlands include as a part of the system? What separates them from the “real Appalachian Mountains”? What is especially advantageous in the position of New York that explains its rapid development? How many “natural highways” did the early settlers have at their disposal in order to get into the interior of the country? 3) What are the connotations of the geographical term West for the Russians and the Americans? What idea is emphasized in the slogan manifest destiny? What is the difference between manifest destiny and fortune? What road served as the main highway to realization of that Destiny? What vehicles were used by pioneers and wouldbe settlers? What is the meaning of the word trail in its American usage? What other terms were used to refer to the different types of roads in America? 4) What is specific in Americanisms connected with the conquest of the West? What does the word gunslinger mean? In what way is he different from a desperado? What does a Stetson hat look like? Was it invented by cowboys? What semantic changes did the word cowboy undergo in the American English? 5) What is most typical of the West from the tourists’ point of view of? Was it an asset from the point of view of settlers? Why was population growth in the Rocky Mountains so slow at the beginning of the period of colonization? What happened in 1849? Is the Russian Conquest of Siberia comparable to the American Conquest of the West? 17 D. GUIDED COMPOSITION Îñîáåííîñòè àìåðèêàíñêîé òîïîíèìèêè è ðàçâèòèå ãðàäîñòðîèòåëüñòâà â ÑØÀ Îñâîåíèå íîâûõ òåððèòîðèé âñåãäà ñîïðÿæåíî ñ ïðîöåññîì ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé íîìèíàöèè: ëþäè äàþò íàçâàíèÿ ãîðàì è ðåêàì, ïîñåëêàì è ãîðîäàì. Íèêîãäà â èñòîðèè ÷åëîâå÷åñòâà ýòîò ïðîöåññ íå øåë òàê èíòåíñèâíî, êàê â Íîâîì Ñâåòå. Çà äâà âåêà àìåðèêàíñêîé èñòîðèè áûëî ïðèäóìàíî ñâûøå òðåõ ñ ïîëîâèíîé ìèëëèîíîâ òîïîíèìîâ. Êàêèõ òîëüêî íàçâàíèé íå óâèäèøü íà êàðòå Àìåðèêè, âåäü çà÷àñòóþ ïðàâî íîìèíàöèè äàâàëîñü ìåñòíîìó íàñåëåíèþ!  ñâîåé «íåîôèöèàëüíîé» èñòîðèè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà â Àìåðèêå Áèëë Áðàéñîí óâåðÿåò, ÷òî ñðàâíèòåëüíî íåäàâíî íà àìåðèêàíñêèõ êàðòàõ ìîæíî áûëî íàéòè òàêèå òîïîíèìû, êàê Idiotville è Two Tits â øòàòå Êàëèôîðíèÿ, Shit-Horse Mountain â Àðèçîíå, Coldass Creek â Êåíòóêêè. Íî è ïî ñåé äåíü â ÑØÀ âñå åùå ñóùåñòâóþò ãîðîäà ñ òàêèìè íàçâàíèÿìè, êàê Delirium Tremens, Guano Hill, Dead Mule, Dead Bastard Peak, Sugar Tit è äð. Ïåðâûå êîëîíèñòû äàâàëè ñâîèì ïîñåëåíèÿì è êîëîíèÿì èìåíà àíãëèéñêèõ ìîíàðõîâ (Virginia, Charlestown, Jamestown, Maryland, Carolina).  ïåðèîä îñâîåíèÿ Ñðåäíåãî Çàïàäà íà êàðòå ïîÿâèëîñü ìíîãî èìåí ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ äåÿòåëåé, ïðè÷åì ñðåäè íèõ áûëî ñðàâíèòåëüíî ìàëî äåéñòâèòåëüíî âûäàþùèõñÿ ëþäåé. Èñêëþ÷åíèå ñîñòàâëÿåò Äæîðäæ Âàøèíãòîí, èìÿ êîòîðîãî íîñèò íå òîëüêî ñòîëèöà ñòðàíû, íî è îäèí èç ñåâåðî-çàïàäíûõ øòàòîâ, 31 ãðàôñòâî è ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå 120 íåáîëüøèõ íàñåëåííûõ ïóíêòîâ. Íî íè Ôðàíêëèí, íè Äæåôôåðñîí òàêîé ÷åñòè íå óäîñòîèëèñü, çàòî èìÿ ñåíàòîðà Ãåíðè Êëåÿ, êîòîðûé äâàæäû áàëëîòèðîâàëñÿ â ïðåçèäåíòû (è îáà ðàçà íåóäà÷íî), óâåêîâå÷åíî â íàçâàíèÿõ ãðàôñòâ è ãîðîäîâ â 18 øòàòàõ. Äàëëàñ íàçâàí â ÷åñòü íè÷åì íå ïðèìå÷àòåëüíîãî ïîëèòèêà, âåðøèíîé êàðüåðû êîòîðîãî áûëî âèöå-ïðåçèäåíòñòâî, à Äåíâåð â ÷åñòü íè÷åì íå ïðîñëàâèâøåãîñÿ ãóáåðíàòîðà Êàíçàñà. Êàêîå-òî âðåìÿ áûëî ìîäíî ÷åðïàòü íàçâàíèÿ èç àíòè÷íîé èñòîðèè. Òàê íà êàðòå Àìåðèêè ïîÿâèëàñü ñâîÿ Òðîÿ (Troy), Èòàêà (Itaca), Ñïàðòà (Sparta), Êàðôàãåí (Carthage). Âûõîäöû èç Åâðîïû è Àçèè äàâàëè íîâûì àìåðèêàíñêèì ãîðîäàì èìåíà ãîðîäîâ ñâîåé èñòîðè÷åñêîé ðîäèíû (Cairo, Athens, Madrid, Odessa), íî ïðîèçíîñÿ èõ íå òàê, êàê ýòî ïðèíÿòî â Àíãëèè, à ñòðîãî «ïî ïðàâèëàì ÷òåíèÿ»: Kay-ro, Ay-thens, Mad-rid, Ou-desa.  þæíûõ è þãî-çàïàäíûõ øòàòàõ ìíîãî èñïàíñêèõ íàçâàíèé òèïà Santa Fe è Los Angeles òî, ÷òî îñòàëîñü îò êóäà áîëåå äëèííûõ îôèöèàëüíûõ íàçâàíèé ýòèõ ãîðîäîâ: La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco (Êîðîëåâñêèé ãîðîä ñâÿùåííîé âåðû ñâÿòîãî Ôðàíöèñêà) è El Pueblo de 18 Nuestra Sen ~ora le Reina de los Angeles (Ãîðîä íàøåé Öàðèöû Íåáåñíîé è Öàðèöû àíãåëîâ). Âïðî÷åì, è ìíîãèå àíãëîÿçû÷íûå íàçâàíèÿ, ñîñòîÿùèå èç íåñêîëüêèõ ñëîâ, êîòîðûå ÷àñòåíüêî äàâàëè ñâîèì ãîðîäàì ïåðâûå êîëîíèñòû, òîæå ñîêðàùàëèñü. Íàïðèìåð, ãîðîä Newark ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî íàçûâàëñÿ New Ark of the Covenant (Íîâûé êîâ÷åã çàâåòà). Ñðåäè èçíà÷àëüíî ôðàíöóçñêèõ íàçâàíèé åñòü áîëåå èëè ìåíåå àäàïòèðîâàííûå ïîä àíãëèéñêîå ïðîèçíîøåíèå. Íåêîòîðûå èç íèõ ñîõðàíÿþò èñêîííîå íàïèñàíèå, íî ÷èòàþòñÿ ïî àíãëèéñêèì ïðàâèëàì (íàïðèìåð, Des Moines, Detroit, St. Louis, Illinois). Äðóãèå ïîäâåðãëèñü òàê íàçûâàåìîé íàðîäíîé ýòèìîëîãèè: îçåðî LEau Froide (Õîëîäíàÿ âîäà) ïðåâðàòèëîñü â Low Freight, ðåêà â ãîðàõ Les Monts Verts (Çåëåíûå ãîðû) â Lemon Fair River (Ðåêà â çåëåíûõ ãîðàõ). Âñòðå÷àþòñÿ è ïåðåõîäíûå ñëó÷àè: ïðîöåññ íàðîäíîé ýòèìîëîãèè çàòðàãèâàåò òîëüêî ïðîèçíîøåíèå íàçâàíèÿ ïðè ñîõðàíåíèè òðàäèöèîííîãî ôðàíöóçñêîãî íàïèñàíèÿ: íàçâàíèÿ ãîðîäîâ De Blieux è Breazale â øòàòå Ëóèçèàíà ïðîèçíîñÿòñÿ double-you è brazil ñîîòâåòñòâåííî. Âñå ýòî áûëî áû íå òàê ïëîõî, åñëè áû ðàçíûå ðåãèîíû äîãîâàðèâàëèñü ìåæäó ñîáîé, êàê ïèñàòü îäèí è òîò æå òîïîíèì (òàê îäíè è òå æå ãîðíûå õðåáòû íàçûâàëèñü â Âèðäæèíèè Alleghany, â øòàòå Íüþ-Éîðê Allegany, â Ïåíñèëüâàíèè Allegheny), åñëè áû àìåðèêàíöû íå äàâàëè îäíîìó è òîìó æå ìåñòó ïî íåñêîëüêó íàçâàíèé è åñëè áû îíè ïåðåíÿëè ó ñâîèõ ïðåäêîâ-àíãëè÷àí îáû÷àé íèêîãäà íå èçìåíÿòü äàííûõ íàçâàíèé.  ðåçóëüòàòå ýòèõ æå «îñîáåííîñòåé íàöèîíàëüíîé òîïîíèìèêè» ê êîíöó XIX âåêà íà êàðòå Àìåðèêè öàðèë íàñòîÿùèé õàîñ. ×òîáû íàâåñòè òàì õîòÿ áû ìèíèìàëüíûé ïîðÿäîê, ïðåçèäåíò Ãàððèñîí (Harrison Benjamin) ó÷ðåäèë â 1890 ãîäó Êîìèññèþ ïî ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèì íàçâàíèÿì. Ýòà êîìèññèÿ âûðàáîòàëà íåêîòîðûå ïðèíöèïû, ñîãëàñíî êîòîðûì áûëî ðåêîìåíäîâàíî óáðàòü èç íàçâàíèé ôðàíöóçñêèå è èñïàíñêèå íàäñòðî÷íûå çíàêè, âñåãäà ñëåäîâàòü àìåðèêàíñêèì íîðìàì ïðàâîïèñàíèÿ (íàïðèìåð, çàìåíèòü âñå -burgh íà -burg, centre íà center), ïî ìåðå âîçìîæíîñòè äåëàòü èç äâóõ ñëîâ îäíî (New Castle → Newcastle, La Fayette → Lafayette), óáðàòü ñâåðõäëèííûå è òðóäíîïðîèçíîñèìûå íàçâàíèÿ, çàìåíèâ èõ íà áîëåå êðàòêèå è áëàãîçâó÷íûå. Ê ñîæàëåíèþ, ýòè âïîëíå ðàçóìíûå òðåáîâàíèÿ âûïîëíÿëèñü äàëåêî íå âñåìè è íå âñåãäà, õîòÿ ìèíèìàëüíûé ïîðÿäîê â àìåðèêàíñêîé òîïîíèìèêå áûë íàâåäåí.  çàêëþ÷åíèå íåñêîëüêî ñëîâ ïî ïîâîäó îáû÷àÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ äàâàòü èçâåñòíûì ãîðîäàì ïðîçâèùà. Òàê, Íüþ-Éîðê ÷àñòî èìåíóåòñÿ «Áîëüøèì ßáëîêîì» (Big Apple), Ñàêðàìåíòî «Áîëüøèì Ïîìèäîðîì» (Big Tomato), àâòîìîáèëüíàÿ ñòîëèöà ñòðàíû Äåòðîéò Motown. Áîñòîí èçâåñòåí êàê Beantown â ÷åñòü òðàäèöèîííîãî áëþäà ïå÷åíûõ áîáîâ, ×èêàãî êàê Windy City â ÷åñòü âåòðîâ, êîòîðûì ãîðîä îáÿçàí ñâîèì ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèì ïîëîæåíèåì. Ïðîçâèùå Ôèëàäåëüôèè City of Brotherly Love îòðàæàåò 19 àìáèöèè åå îñíîâàòåëÿ Óèëüÿìà Ïåííà. Ñòîëèöà ñòðàíû Âàøèíãòîí ÿâëÿåòñÿ îñîáîé àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîé åäèíèöåé, íå âõîäÿùåé íè â îäèí èç øòàòîâ, District of Columbia (DC), è ïîýòîìó îáû÷íî íàçûâàåòñÿ ïðîñòî District èëè åùå ïðîùå DC. Íàçâàíèÿ íåêîòîðûõ ãîðîäîâ èñïîëüçóþòñÿ â ðàçãîâîðå â óñå÷åííîé ôîðìå: Ïèòòñáóðã The Burgh, Ôèëàäåëüôèÿ Philly. Èñòîðèêè èçó÷àþò ýâîëþöèþ ãîðîäîâ ïî àðõèòåêòóðíûì ñòèëÿì, ïîïóëÿðíûì ñðåäè ñòðîèòåëåé â ðàçíûå èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåðèîäû. Àìåðèêà ñðàâíèòåëüíî ìîëîäàÿ ñòðàíà, ðàçâèòèå êîòîðîé âñåãäà çàâèñåëî îò ïðèòîêà èììèãðàíòîâ èç ýêîíîìè÷åñêè ðàçâèòûõ åâðîïåéñêèõ ñòðàí. Îòäåëåííàÿ îò Åâðîïû Àòëàíòè÷åñêèì îêå- Îñîáíÿê â íåîãîòè÷åñêîì («êîëîíèàëüíîì») ñòèëå 20 àíîì, Àìåðèêà òåì íå ìåíåå íèêîãäà íå ïîêèäàëà îñíîâíîãî ðóñëà åâðîïåéñêîé êóëüòóðíîé òðàäèöèè, â òîì ÷èñëå è â îáëàñòè ñòðîèòåëüñòâà. Àðõèòåêòóðíûå ñòèëè, ïîïóëÿðíûå â ñòàðîé Àíãëèè, áûëè ïîïóëÿðíû è â Íîâîé, îñîáåííî â êîëîíèàëüíûé ïåðèîä (1600 1800). Õîòÿ ìîäà íà êëàññè÷åñêóþ ñèììåòðèþ êàìåííûõ çäàíèé, ñî÷åòàþùàÿñÿ ñ âû÷óðíûì îðíàìåíòîì âîêðóã îêîí è äâåðåé, õàðàêòåðíàÿ äëÿ òàê íàçûâàåìîãî ãåîðãèàíñêîãî ñòèëÿ (â ÷åñòü êîðîëåé Ãåîðãîâ, çàíèìàâøèõ àíãëèéñêèé ïðåñòîë â êîíöå XVII íà÷àëå XVIII âåêà) (Georgian style), íà÷èíàåòñÿ â Àìåðèêå ñ íåêîòîðûì çàïîçäàíèåì, íî çàòî è äëèòñÿ òàì äîëüøå, ÷åì â Àíãëèè, îïðåäåëÿÿ âíåøíèé îáëèê ìíîãèõ áîãàòûõ äîìîâ íà ïðîòÿæåíèè âñåãî XVIII âåêà. Äëÿ ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíû ýòîãî ïåðèîäà (1600 1700) áîëåå òèïè÷íû äîìà â êîëîíèàëüíîì ñòèëå (Colonial style) ïðîñòûå ñòðîåíèÿ, îñíîâàòåëüíûå êàìåííûå ñòåíû è ñòîëü æå îñíîâàòåëüíàÿ, âûñîêàÿ êàìåííàÿ òðóáà ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò î ãëàâíîé ôóíêöèè ýòèõ äîìîâ ñëóæèòü çàùèòîé îò âåòðîâ è ñòóæè. Äîâîëüíî ÷àñòî äëÿ äîìîâ, ïîñòðîåííûõ â ýòîì ñòèëå, èñïîëüçóåòñÿ òåðìèí Acadians â ÷åñòü îäíîé èç íîâîàíãëèéñêèõ êîëîíèé. Îäíàêî èäåàëîì íîâîàíãëèéñêîé óñàäüáû ñ÷èòàþòñÿ ñòðîåíèÿ òàê íàçûâàåìîãî ôåäåðàëüíîãî ñòèëÿ (Federal style) êîíöà XVIII íà÷àëà XIX âåêà (1780 1820). Ýòî ïðîñòîðíûå äîìà ñ äîâîëüíî ñòðîãèìè ôàñàäàìè áåç õàðàêòåðíûõ äëÿ ãåîðãèàíñêîãî ñòèëÿ ëåïíûõ óêðàøåíèé â âèäå ãèðëÿíä èç öâåòîâ è ôðóêòîâ (òàê íàçûâàåìûõ swags), îñòàâëåííûõ â íåáîëüøîì êîëè÷åñòâå íàâåðõó, âäîëü íèçêîñêàòíîé êðûøè. Èíîãäà èõ íàçûâàþò «Àäàìîâûìè» (Adams homes) â ÷åñòü áðàòüåâ Ðîáåðòà è Äæåéìñà Àäàìîâ, ïîñëå êîòîðûõ õîòü è íå îñòàëîñü èçâåñòíûõ çäàíèé, íî êîòîðûå ïðèäóìàëè è âíåäðèëè òàê ìíîãî íîâøåñòâ, óïðîñòèâøèõ è îáëàãîðîäèâøèõ âû÷óðíûé ñòèëü ïðåäøåñòâåííèêîâ. Ñîâðåìåííèêè íàçûâàëè ýòè çäàíèÿ «àäàìåñêàìè» (the Adamesques).  ïîñëåäóþùèå 20 30 ëåò ê ñòðîãèì ëèíèÿì îôèöèàëüíûõ è ÷àñòíûõ äîìîâ äîáàâèëñÿ ïîðòèê ñ ìàññèâíûìè êîëîííàìè, êàê â ãðå÷åñêîì Ïàðôåíîíå, çàñòàâèâøèé èñòîðèêîâ ãîâîðèòü î ïåðèîäå 1820 1860 ãîäîâ êàê î «Ãðå÷åñêîì âîçðîæäåíèè» (Greek Revival ) â àìåðèêàíñêîé àðõèòåêòóðå, îñîáåííî â þæíûõ øòàòàõ. À äëÿ âòîðîé ïîëîâèíû XIX ñòîëåòèÿ õàðàêòåðíî óâëå÷åíèå ãîòè÷åñêèìè ìîòèâàìè åâðîïåéñêîãî Ñðåäíåâåêîâüÿ (Gothic Revival, 1840 1880). Ìíîãèå çàãîðîäíûå äîìà áîãàòûõ àìåðèêàíöåâ, ïîñòðîåííûå â òîò ïåðèîä, ñâîèìè îñòðîêîíå÷íûìè áàøåíêàìè è ñòðåëü÷àòûìè àðêàìè íàïîìèíàþò ñâàäåáíûé ïèðîã. Ïîñêîëüêó ñòðîèëèñü îíè îáû÷íî èç äåðåâà, à íå èç êàìíÿ, êàê ñðåäíåâåêîâûå ñîáîðû, àìåðèêàíñêàÿ íåîãîòèêà ïîëó÷èëà íàçâàíèå «ïëîòíèöêîé» (Carpenter Gothic). Áëèæå ê êîíöó XIX âåêà (1870 1900) â ìîäó âõîäèò èìïîðòèðîâàííûé èç Àíãëèè âèêòîðèàíñêèé ñòèëü (Victorian style), â êîòîðîì âû÷óðíîñòü ïåðåõîäèò â ïîìïåçíîñòü. Ê íàèáîëåå èçâåñòíûì 21 çäàíèÿì ýòîãî ñòèëÿ îòíîñèòñÿ ðÿä çäàíèé, ñïðîåêòèðîâàííûõ âûäàþùèìñÿ àìåðèêàíñêèì àðõèòåêòîðîì Ãåíðè Ðè÷àðäñîíîì (Henry Richardson) äî òîãî, êàê â åãî òâîð÷åñòâå ïîáåäèëè ýëåìåíòû «ðîìàíñêîãî» ñòèëÿ, âîïëîùåííîãî â çäàíèè òîðãîâîãî öåíòðà «Ìàðøàëë Ôèëä» (Marshall Fields) â ×èêàãî. Ñ ýòèì ãîðîäîì ñâÿçàíî çàðîæäåíèå ñòèëÿ, ïðèäàâøåãî âñåì áîëüøèì àìåðèêàíñêèì ãîðîäàì èõ ñîâðåìåííûé âèä: ñòðîèòåëüñòâî âûñîòíûõ äîìîâ, ïîëó÷èâøèõ â Àìåðèêå íàçâàíèå «íåáîñêðåáîâ» (skyscraper). Ñîâðåìåííûé ýòàï â ðàçâèòèè àðõèòåêòóðû íà÷èíàåòñÿ â ÕÕ âåêå, ýòî âðåìÿ âûäàþùèõñÿ àðõèòåêòîðîâ Ëóèñà Ñàëëèâàíà (Louis Sullivan), Ôðýíêà Ëëîéäà Ðàéòà (Frank Lloyd Wright) è äð. Ïóòåøåñòâóÿ ïî Àìåðèêå, ìîæíî óâèäåòü öåðêâè, æèëûå äîìà è àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûå çäàíèÿ, ïîñòðîåííûå ïî êàíîíàì òîãî èëè èíîãî àðõèòåêòóðíîãî ñòèëÿ. Îáû÷íî îíè ñîñðåäîòî÷åíû â öåíòðàëüíûõ ðàéîíàõ è ñîñòàâëÿþò íå áîëåå 5 10 % æèëîãî è îôèñíîãî ôîíäà áûñòðî ðàñòóùèõ è ïîñòîÿííî ìåíÿþùèõ ñâîé îáëèê àìåðèêàíñêèõ ãîðîäîâ. Òàê ÷òî íå ýòà àðõèòåêòóðíàÿ êëàññèêà îïðåäåëÿåò îáùèé îáëèê Àìåðèêè. È ýòî åùå îäíî ïðîÿâëåíèå îñîáåííîñòåé àìåðèêàíñêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà, îäíà èç íàèáîëåå çàìåòíûõ ÷åðò êîòîðîãî òàê âîñõèùàëà åùå ïåðâîãî ñåðüåçíîãî åâðîïåéñêîãî èñòîðèêà íîâîé ñòðàíû, ôðàíöóçà Àëåêñèñà Òîêâèëÿ (Alexis Tocqueville). Ýòà ÷åðòà íåïîñåäëèâîñòü, îòëè÷àâøàÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ ñ ñàìûõ ïåðâûõ ëåò êîëîíèçàöèè. Äæåéìñòàóí (Jamestown), îäèí èç ïåðâûõ àìåðèêàíñêèõ ãîðîäîâ, óòðàòèë ñâîå çíà÷åíèå, ïðåâðàòèâøèñü â çàõîëóñòüå ìåíüøå ÷åì çà 50 ëåò ïîñëå ñâîåãî îñíîâàíèÿ. Ãîðîäà âîçíèêàëè èç íåáûòèÿ, ñòðåìèòåëüíî ðîñëè è î÷åíü ÷àñòî òàê æå ñòðåìèòåëüíî ïðåâðàùàëèñü â «ãîðîäàïðèçðàêè», îñòàâëåííûå ñâîèìè æèòåëÿìè. Íà êàæäûé ïðîöâåòàþùèé ãîðîä òèïà ×èêàãî, ïðåâðàòèâøèéñÿ çà 50 ëåò èç êðîõîòíîãî ïîñåëåíèÿ âî âòîðîé ïî ÷èñëåííîñòè íàñåëåíèÿ ãîðîä ñòðàíû, áûëè òûñÿ÷è, óòðàòèâøèå äàæå ñâîè íàçâàíèÿ. Òàêîé ñòðåìèòåëüíûé ðîñò àìåðèêàíñêèõ ãîðîäîâ îáû÷íî ñâÿçûâàþò ñ èçîáðåòåíèåì íîâîãî ìåòîäà ãîðîäñêîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà òàê íàçûâàåìîãî balloon frame construction: ãðóáî ñêîëî÷åííûé äåðåâÿííûé êàðêàñ çäàíèÿ îáøèâàåòñÿ äîñêàìè è îáêëàäûâàåòñÿ êèðïè÷íîé êëàäêîé. Êîíå÷íî, òåðìèí ââåë â îáèõîä íå èçîáðåòàòåëü ìåòîäà Àâãóñòèí Òåéëîð (Augustine Taylor), à ñêåïòè÷åñêè íàñòðîåííûå ïëîòíèêè, êîòîðûì êàçàëîñü, ÷òî ýòè íà âèä íåïðî÷íûå çäàíèÿ óíåñåò ïåðâûé æå ïîðûâ âåòðà. Ýòîò ñïîñîá èñïîëüçóåòñÿ è ïî ñåé äåíü, îñîáåííî â ïðèãîðîäíûõ ïîñåëêàõ. Âûãëÿäÿùèå âåñüìà èìïîçàíòíî, òàêèå äîìà ïîëíîñòüþ çàâèñÿò îò êîíäèöèîíåðîâ è ïðî÷èõ òåõíè÷åñêèõ óëîâîê, äåëàþùèõ èõ ïðèãîäíûìè äëÿ æèëüÿ. Ïðèíöèïèàëüíîå äëÿ àíãëè÷àí ðàçëè÷èå òåðìèíîâ town è city äëÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ íåàêòóàëüíî.  Àíãëèè òåðìèí city èñïîëüçóåòñÿ äëÿ ññûëêè íà áîëüøèå àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûå öåíòðû, â Àìåðèêå 22 æå îí ìîæåò èñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ äëÿ ëþáîãî ñêîïëåíèÿ äîìîâ, ïóñòü äàæå âåñüìà ñêðîìíîãî. Íà òåððèòîðèè ñòðàíû åñòü ìíîæåñòâî òàêèõ «ãîðîäîâ», êàê, íàïðèìåð, Ðîê-Ñèòè â øòàòå Èëëèíîéñ (Rock City) ñ íàñåëåíèåì 313 æèòåëåé (ïî ïåðåïèñè 2000 ãîäà). Âñå àìåðèêàíñêèå ãîðîäà, íåçàâèñèìî îò êîëè÷åñòâà æèòåëåé, îòëè÷àëèñü îò òèïè÷íûõ åâðîïåéñêèõ ãîðîäîâ âûñîêîé êîìïàêòíîñòüþ ðàçìåùåíèÿ «æèëîãî ôîíäà».  íà÷àëå XIX âåêà Áîñòîí, ñ÷èòàâøèéñÿ áîëüøèì ãîðîäîì, çàíèìàë ìåíüøå òðåõ êâàäðàòíûõ êèëîìåòðîâ, è âñå â íåì íàõîäèëîñü â ïðåäåëàõ «øàãîâîé äîñòóïíîñòè». Ïî ìåðå ðàçâèòèÿ ãîðîäîâ ïðîåçæàÿ ÷àñòü ñòàíîâèëàñü áîëåå ïðèãîäíîé äëÿ ñòðåìèòåëüíî óâåëè÷èâàþùåãîñÿ êîëè÷åñòâà ðàçëè÷íûõ òðàíñïîðòíûõ ñðåäñòâ, êàê ãóæåâûõ, òàê è ìîòîðíûõ. Äîðîãè ïîêðûëèñü àñôàëüòîì ðàíüøå, ÷åì â Åâðîïå. Èíòåðåñíî, ÷òî â àìåðèêàíñêîì âàðèàíòå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà íàçâàíèå ïðîåçæåé ÷àñòè ïðîèçâîäèòñÿ îò ñëîâà «ìîñòèòü» (êñòàòè, è â ðóññêîì òîæå: ñð. pavement to pave, ìîñòîâàÿ ìîñòèòü), à òðîòóàðà îò ñëîâà «õîäèòü ïåøêîì» (sidewalk), â òî âðåìÿ êàê â áðèòàíñêîì âàðèàíòå òåðìèí pavement óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ êàê ðàç ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê òðîòóàðó. Ïîñêîëüêó ïðîåçæàÿ ÷àñòü áîëüøèõ ãîðîäîâ ñòàíîâèëàñü òåñíîé äàæå â ýïîõó êîëåñíûõ ýêèïàæåé, ïîÿâèëàñü íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïðîêëàäûâàòü äëÿ íèõ ïîäçåìíûå òîííåëè, ïîëó÷èâøèå íàçâàíèå subways. Òåðìèí îñòàëñÿ çà òîííåëÿìè è ïîñëå òîãî, êàê ïî íèì ïóñòèëè ïîåçäà ìåòðîïîëèòåíà, à àíãëè÷àíå ïîçàèìñòâîâàëè åãî äëÿ ïîäçåìíûõ ïåðåõîäîâ ïîä óëèöàìè ñâîèõ ãîðîäîâ. Ñëîâî pedestrian (ïåøåõîä) â Àíãëèè ñ ñàìîãî íà÷àëà èìåëî íåñêîëüêî óíè÷èæèòåëüíûé ñìûñë, ïîñêîëüêó ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëÿëî ïåøåõîäîâ âëàäåëüöàì ñîáñòâåííûõ ýêèïàæåé (carriage people).  Àìåðèêå æå ïåøèé ñïîñîá ïåðåäâèæåíèÿ áûë íàñòîëüêî åñòåñòâåííûì, ÷òî ýòî ñëîâî íèêîãäà íå âêëþ÷àëî â ñåáÿ ýòèõ íåãàòèâíûõ êîííîòàöèé, è íå ñòîëüêî èç-çà «âðîæäåííîãî» äåìîêðàòèçìà àìåðèêàíöåâ, ñêîëüêî áëàãîäàðÿ îñîáåííîñòÿì èõ ãîðîäîâ. Ñêó÷åííîñòü íàñåëåíèÿ â êîìïàêòíûõ öåíòðàëüíûõ ðàéîíàõ óæå ê ñåðåäèíå XIX âåêà ñäåëàëà èõ íåïðèÿòíûì ìåñòîì äëÿ ïðîæèâàíèÿ. Ïîýòîìó, êàê òîëüêî â æèçíü Àìåðèêè âîøåë æåëåçíîäîðîæíûé òðàíñïîðò, åãî ñðàçó æå íà÷àëè èñïîëüçîâàòü äëÿ ñîîáùåíèÿ ñ îòäàëåííûìè æèëûìè ìàññèâàìè, êóäà âñå ÷àùå ñòàëè ïåðåáèðàòüñÿ íà æèòüå áîëåå èëè ìåíåå îáåñïå÷åííûå ëþäè. Ïåðâûå «æåëåçíîäîðîæíûå ïðèãîðîäû» ïîÿâèëèñü â îêðåñòíîñòÿõ ×èêàãî â íà÷àëå 1850-õ ãîäîâ. À óæå â 1865 ãîäó îòìå÷åíî óïîòðåáëåíèå äâóõ àìåðèêàíèçìîâ: to commute «åæåäíåâíî èñïîëüçîâàòü ïðèãîðîäíûå ïîåçäà äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû åçäèòü íà ðàáîòó» è commuter «÷åëîâåê, åçäÿùèé íà ðàáîòó èç ïðèãîðîäà». Ïåðåìåùåíèå æèòåëåé ãîðîäîâ èç öåíòðàëüíûõ ðàéîíîâ íà îêðàèíû ÷àñòî íàçûâàþò ïðîöåññîì «ñóáóðáàíèçàöèè». Ýòîò òåðìèí ïðîèçâåäåí îò ñëîâà suburb (ïðèãîðîä), óæå äàâíî èñïîëüçî23 âàâøåãîñÿ â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå äëÿ ññûëêè íà ïîãëîùàåìûå ðàçðàñòàþùèìñÿ ãîðîäîì áëèçëåæàùèå äåðåâíè, ïîñòåïåííî ïðèîáðåòàþùèå «ãîðîäñêîé» îáëèê. Ðàñòóùàÿ ïîïóëÿðíîñòü ïðîæèâàíèÿ çà ãîðîäîì ïðèâåëà ê ïîÿâëåíèþ âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XIX âåêà ïåðâûõ «îáðàçöîâûõ ïðèãîðîäîâ» (model suburb). Îáû÷íûå «æåëåçíîäîðîæíûå ïðèãîðîäû» âîçíèêàëè ñàìè ñîáîé, ÷àñòî ïîãëîùàÿ áîëåå ñòàðûå ïîñåëåíèÿ. «Îáðàçöîâûå» ïðèãîðîäû, êàê ïîäñêàçûâàåò ñàì òåðìèí, îòëè÷àëèñü îò ïåðâûõ óæå òåì, ÷òî ñòðîèëèñü ïî èíäèâèäóàëüíîìó ïëàíó íà âûáðàííûõ ñïåöèàëüíî äëÿ ýòîãî è ðàñ÷èùåííûõ ïëîùàäêàõ. Êðîìå òîãî, ê óñëóãàì æèòåëåé ïðåäëàãàþòñÿ íå òîëüêî óäîáíûå èíäèâèäóàëüíûå äîìà, íî è âñÿ íåîáõîäèìàÿ èíôðàñòðóêòóðà: òîðãîâûå öåíòðû, øêîëû, áîëüíèöû, ïàðêè è ñêâåðû, à òàêæå «ñåëüñêèé êëóá» öåíòð êóëüòóðíîãî äîñóãà. Ñðåäè òàêèõ «îáðàçöîâûõ ïðèãîðîäîâ» ìîæíî íàçâàòü Áåâåðëè-Õèëëñ (Beverly Hills, ïðèãîðîä Ëîñ-Àíäæåëåñà), ÔîðåñòÕèëëñ (Forest Hills) è Éîíêåðñ (Yonkers) (Íüþ-Éîðêñêèå ïðèãîðîäû). Õîòÿ ýòè ïåðâûå ïðèãîðîäû è èçìåíèëè äî íåêîòîðîé ñòåïåíè îáëèê áîëüøèõ ãîðîäîâ, òåì íå ìåíåå â XIX âåêå è â ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå ÕÕ âåêà â íèõ ïðîæèâàë íè÷òîæíûé ïðîöåíò àìåðèêàíöåâ. Òîëüêî ïîñëå îêîí÷àíèÿ Âòîðîé ìèðîâîé âîéíû íà÷àëîñü íàñòîÿùåå ìàññîâîå áåãñòâî æèòåëåé èç öåíòðàëüíûõ ðàéîíîâ. Ìàññîâîìó «èñõîäó» èç öåíòðàëüíûõ ðàéîíîâ àìåðèêàíñêèõ ãîðîäîâ ñïîñîáñòâîâàëè äâà ôàêòîðà. Âî-ïåðâûõ, íåîáõîäèìîñòü íåìåäëåííîãî èçûñêàíèÿ íåäîðîãîãî, íî äîñòàòî÷íî êîìôîðòíîãî «æèëîãî ôîíäà» äëÿ ïÿòè ìèëëèîíîâ ìîëîäûõ àìåðèêàíöåâ, âåðíóâøèõñÿ ñ ôðîíòà è æåëàþùèõ íà÷àòü ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíóþ æèçíü. Âî-âòîðûõ, ïðåâðàùåíèå àâòîìîáèëÿ èç «ðîñêîøè» â «ñðåäñòâî ïåðåäâèæåíèÿ». À öåíòðàëüíûå ðàéîíû äîâîëüíî ñêîðî ñòàëè ñàìûìè íàñòîÿùèìè ãåòòî ñ âûñî÷àéøèì óðîâíåì ïðåñòóïíîñòè è çàïóùåííûì äî ïðåäåëà æèëûì ôîíäîì. Âñêîðå äëÿ òàêèõ ðàéîíîâ ïîÿâèëîñü è íàçâàíèå «âíóòðåííèå ãîðîäà» (inner cities). Òåðìèí tenement, óïîòðåáëÿâøèéñÿ â Àíãëèè îòíîñèòåëüíî ëþáûõ ñêîïëåíèé æèëûõ ìíîãîêâàðòèðíûõ äîìîâ, â Àìåðèêå, ãäå â êâàðòèðàõ æèëè òîëüêî ñàìûå áåäíûå ëþäè, ñòàë ïðèìåíÿòüñÿ ê òðóùîáàì «âíóòðåííèõ ãîðîäîâ». À äëÿ ññûëêè íà íàèáîëåå êðèìèíîãåííûå ðàéîíû, ãäå ñîñðåäîòî÷åíû çëà÷íûå ìåñòà, àìåðèêàíöû èñïîëüçóþò, êàê íè ñòðàííî, êóëèíàðíûé òåðìèí «âûðåçêà» (tenderloin). Ýòî óïîòðåáëåíèå çàêðåïèëîñü ñ ëåãêîé ðóêè îäíîãî íüþ-éîðêñêîãî ïîëèöåéñêîãî, êîòîðûé, óçíàâ, ÷òî åãî ïåðåâîäÿò â îäèí èç òàêèõ ðàéîíîâ, ðàñïîëîæåííûé íèæå 42-é óëèöû ê çàïàäó îò Áðîäâåÿ, ñêàçàë, ÷òî òåïåðü îí ñìîæåò ïåðåéòè ñ îáû÷íîé ãîâÿäèíû íà âûðåçêó (èìåÿ â âèäó áîëåå øèðîêèå âîçìîæíîñòè äëÿ âçÿòîê). Äëÿ ðåøåíèÿ ïðåñëîâóòîãî «êâàðòèðíîãî âîïðîñà» ó Àìåðèêè áûë ñâîé ñîáñòâåííûé ïóòü. Ñòðîèòåëüíàÿ ôèðìà ïîêóïàëà ýííîå 24 êîëè÷åñòâî çàãîðîäíîé çåìëè â ïðåäåëàõ äâèæåíèÿ ïðèãîðîäíûõ ïîåçäîâ è çàñòðàèâàëà åå ñîòíÿìè à òî è òûñÿ÷àìè ñòàíäàðòíûõ äîìèêîâ íà îäíó ñåìüþ. Ïîÿâèëñÿ äàæå ñïåöèàëüíûé òåðìèí äëÿ òàêèõ ïîñåëåíèé ëåâèò-òàóíû (Levittowns), íàçâàííûõ â ÷åñòü Àáðàõàìà Ëåâèòòà (Abraham Levitt), íàëàäèâøåãî â 1947 ãîäó ìàññîâîå ïðîèçâîäñòâî ñòàíäàðòíûõ äîìèêîâ ïî ñìåøíûì öåíàì è çàñòðîèâøåãî èìè âñå Àòëàíòè÷åñêîå ïîáåðåæüå.  ðåçóëüòàòå ê 1950 ãîäó óæå ÷åòâåðòü àìåðèêàíñêèõ ñåìåé æèëà â ïðèãîðîäàõ, ê 1960-ìó îäíà òðåòü, à â íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ â ïðèãîðîäàõ ïðîæèâàåò ñâûøå ïîëîâèíû àìåðèêàíñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ ò. å. áîëüøå, ÷åì â ãîðîäàõ è ñåëàõ, âìåñòå âçÿòûõ. Ìàññîâàÿ ìèãðàöèÿ ãîðîäñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ â ïðèãîðîäû ñîïðîâîæäàëàñü ñîçäàíèåì â íèõ áîëüøîãî ÷èñëà ðàáî÷èõ ìåñò.  1960 1990-õ ãîäàõ ïÿòü èç øåñòè íîâûõ ìåñò ñîçäàâàëèñü â ïðèãîðîäíîé çîíå. Âìåñòî òîãî ÷òîáû êóðñèðîâàòü ìåæäó ðàáîòîé â ãîðîäå è äîìîì â ïðèãîðîäå, ìèëëèîíû àìåðèêàíöåâ íàõîäèëè ðàáîòó ïîáëèçîñòè îò äîìà è âîîáùå ïåðåñòàâàëè åçäèòü «â ãîðîä».  ðåçóëüòàòå â êîíöå 1950-õ ãîäîâ äëÿ æèòåëåé ïðèãîðîäîâ, óòðàòèâøèõ ñâîþ çàâèñèìîñòü îò «ãîðîäà» è â ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì, è â ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêîì ñìûñëå, ïîÿâèëñÿ òåðìèí exurbians (èëè exurbia). À â íà÷àëå 1990-õ ïîÿâèëñÿ òåðìèí edge cities, îáîçíà÷àþùèé ïðèãîðîä, â êîòîðîì îôèñíûå ïîìåùåíèÿ çàíèìàþò ñâûøå 5 ìëí. êâ. ìåòðîâ, à ìàãàçèíû ñâûøå 600 òûñ. êâ. ìåòðîâ, è â êîòîðîì ðàáîòàåò áîëüøå ëþäåé, ÷åì æèâåò.  íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ òàêèõ ðàéîíîâ âåëèêîå ìíîæåñòâî: òîëüêî â Íüþ-Éîðêå è Ëîñ-Àíäæåëåñå òàêîâûõ íàñ÷èòûâàåòñÿ ïî äâà äåñÿòêà.  îñíîâíîì îíè ïðåäñòàâëÿþò ñîáîé äîâîëüíî áåçðàäîñòíîå çðåëèùå áåçëèêèå ñêîïëåíèÿ òîðãîâûõ öåíòðîâ è îôèñíûõ êîðîáîê, ìåæäó êîòîðûìè ìîæíî ïåðåìåùàòüñÿ òîëüêî â àâòîìîáèëå, ïîñêîëüêó òðîòóàðîâ äëÿ ïåøåõîäîâ ÷àñòî âîîáùå íå ïðåäóñìîòðåíî. Òîëüêî íåêîòîðûå èç íèõ ñâÿçàíû ëèíèÿìè îáùåñòâåííîãî òðàíñïîðòà ñ áëèçëåæàùèìè ãîðîäàìè, ïðåäîñòàâëÿÿ âîçìîæíîñòü æèòåëÿì ïðèøåäøèõ â óïàäîê «âíóòðåííèõ ãîðîäîâ» óñòðàèâàòüñÿ çäåñü íà ðàáîòó. Ñîãëàñíî ñòàòèñòèêå, îêîëî òðåòè íàñåëåíèÿ ÑØÀ æèâåò â «îêðàèííûõ ãîðîäàõ» è ïî÷òè äâå òðåòè ðàáîòàåò â íèõ; õîòÿ äëÿ òåõ, êòî òàì íå æèâåò è íå ðàáîòàåò, íàçâàíèÿ äàæå ñàìûõ èçâåñòíûõ èç íèõ èëè âîîáùå íè î ÷åì íå ãîâîðÿò, èëè îíè èõ ñëûøàëè, íî ñêàçàòü, ãäå îíè íàõîäÿòñÿ, çàòðóäíÿþòñÿ. ASSIGNMENTS Answer the questions in writing: 1) What do you think about a rather unusual way of naming some of the new towns and cities of America? Would you like to live in a town 25 like “Idiotville”? What sort of national mentality could have produced such toponymic monsters? 2) Do American toponymic traditions resemble English ones? In what way are they radically different? How do they treat the classical names they have chosen for their cities? What changes have the originally Spanish place names survived? What was the fate of French borrowings? Give examples of “popular etymology” in toponymics. 3) Why was it necessary for President Benjamin Harrison to create the Geographical Names Committee in 1890? What program of reforms did it submit? What happened to most of its rather reasonable suggestions? Compare Russian and American toponymic traditions. 4) Is it really possible to trace evolution of a town by its architecture? What criteria do historians use when trying to answer the question of the town’s age? Is it more easily done with a young country like the USA? Are architectural styles developed for the builders or for the dwellers? How many architectural styles did historians reveal while studying the evolution of residential homes and official buildings in the USA? What tendency did they observe? 5) What styles prevailed in English architecture at the end of the 18th — beginning of the 19th century? Were they all copied across the ocean by “American cousins”? Were Georgian ornamentation and big windows really necessary for Puritans? What features were more welcome in a New England home? What does a classical Federal house look like? 6) What sort of place is an average American city? What social processes began to spoil American cities from the inside much earlier than it happened in Europe? What is meant by “inner city”? Is such factor as dilapidated old houses in the city center enough to classify it as an “inner city”? Or does any ethnic community make it by living in a particular district for many generations? 7) How do English and American speakers use the word “tenement”? Why did the term have negative connotation in America, while in England it is a perfectly neutral term? 8) Do you know that the main business of America is business? If that is true, when did construction projects acquire the dimensions of businesses? Who was the initiator of such projects? How did the technology work? 9) What changes have occurred in commuter movement lately? Did it pursue interests of the retired and idle, who preferred to live closer to countryside? What was the most significant difference between the railway suburbs and model ones? Why lots of jobs were created inside and around model suburbs? Do you know statistics connected with it? What problem did it pose for a local city worker? 10) What sort of zones developed along the highways that used to connect the residential suburbs and office centers? How did they 26 integrate into local social contexts? How did the communities themselves change? What new communities with new mentality developed in the areas of former “dormitory suburbs”? Are set tlements of this kind numerous enough to constitute a special cate gory of city dwellers? E. COMPOSITION Æèâàÿ è íåæèâàÿ ïðèðîäà Ñåâåðíîé Àìåðèêè â çåðêàëå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà Ïî ïðèáûòèè â Íîâûé Ñâåò ïåðâûå êîëîíèñòû óâèäåëè ìíîæåñòâî æèâîòíûõ è ðàñòåíèé, ïðåæäå èì íå èçâåñòíûõ. Ïîðàæåííûå ìíîãîîáðàçèåì âèäîâ äèêîé ïðèðîäû, îíè ðàçäàâàëè ïðèâû÷íûå íàçâàíèÿ æèâîòíûì è ðàñòåíèÿì, õîòÿ áû ìèíèìàëüíî ïîõîæèì íà òåõ, ÷òî îêðóæàëè èõ íà ðîäèíå. Çâåðåê, êîòîðîãî îíè íàçâàëè êðîëèêîì (rabbit), íà ñàìîì äåëå çàÿö (hare), à äåðåâüÿ, êîòîðûå îíè íàçûâàëè «äóáàìè» (oaks), çà÷àñòóþ ïîõîæè íà ñâîèõ åâðîïåéñêèõ òåçîê ðàçâå òîëüêî âûñîêèì ðîñòîì è òåíèñòîñòüþ. Ëèñòüÿ îäíîãî èç àìåðèêàíñêèõ «äóáîâ», íàçûâàåìîãî poison oak, âûäåëÿþò ìàñëÿíèñòóþ æèäêîñòü, âûçûâàþùóþ ó ìíîãèõ ëþäåé ñèëüíåéøèå îæîãè. Íà Âîñòî÷íîì ïîáåðåæüå ïîäîáíûìè ñâîéñòâàìè îáëàäàåò ÿäîâèòûé ïëþù (poison ivy), íèêàêîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ê ïëþùàì íå èìåþùèé. Ïî ñëîâàì áîòàíèêîâ, î÷åíü ìíîãèå íàçâàíèÿ ðàñòåíèé (ñðåäè íèõ beech, walnut è hemlock) óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ â Àìåðèêå ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ñîâñåì èíûì âèäàì ðàñòåíèé, íåæåëè â Åâðîïå. Åùå áîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûì ñïîñîáîì íîìèíàöèè áûëî ñîçäàíèå ñëîæíûõ ñëîâ (eggplant, bluegrass, bullfrog, catfish è ò. ä.), êîòîðûå îòëè÷àþòñÿ, êàê è ìíîãèå äðóãèå àìåðèêàíèçìû, îáðàçíîñòüþ è ïðîçðà÷íîñòüþ ýòèìîëîãèè, ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñî ñëîâàìè, óïîòðåáëÿåìûìè äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ ýòèõ æå ïîíÿòèé â áðèòàíñêîì âàðèàíòå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà (ñð. íàïðèìåð, eggplant è aubergine). Êîëîíèñòû íå âñåãäà ñàìè ïðèäóìûâàëè ñîáñòâåííûå ñëîâà äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ íåèçâåñòíûõ èì ðàñòåíèé è æèâîòíûõ; èíîãäà îíè çàèìñòâîâàëè ìåñòíûå èíäåéñêèå íàçâàíèÿ. Ïåðâûå óïîòðåáëåíèÿ ñëîâà moose (àìåðèêàíñêèé ðîäè÷ åâðîïåéñêîãî ëîñÿ, elk) çàðåãèñòðèðîâàíû â 1603 ãîäó, ñëîâà raccoon (åíîò) â 1608-ì, caribou (êàíàäñêèé îëåíü), opossum (àìåðèêàíñêàÿ ñóì÷àòàÿ êðûñà, ïî÷òè ñëåïàÿ, î÷åíü áîëüøàÿ, ïîêðûòàÿ áåëîé ðåäêîé øåðñòüþ) è skunk (ñêóíñ) â 1610-ì, hickory (ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûé â Àìåðèêå âèä äðåâåñíîãî îðåõà, ïîõîæèé íà ãðåöêèé îðåõ) â 1618-ì. Âñå çàèìñòâîâàíèÿ ïðåòåðïåëè áîëåå èëè ìåíåå çíà÷èòåëüíûå ôîíåòè÷åñêèå òðàíñôîðìàöèè. Íàïðèìåð, ñëîâî raccoon ïðîèçâåäåíî îò 27 raugroughcum, skunk îò seganku, hickory îò pawcohiccora. Ñëîâî pawcohiccora èíäåéöû óïîòðåáëÿëè íå â îòíîøåíèè ñàìèõ äåðåâüåâ, à òîëüêî ê èõ ïëîäàì. Êîëîíèñòû æå íå òîëüêî ðàñøèðèëè åãî çíà÷åíèå, íî è ïðîèçâåëè îò íåãî öåëûõ äâà ñëîâà: hickory è pecan, óïîòðåáëÿÿ ïåðâûé äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ ðàñòåíèÿ Carya illinoensis, à âòîðîé äëÿ åãî ïëîäîâ. Íåêîòîðûå çàèìñòâîâàííûå èç èíäåéñêèõ ÿçûêîâ ñëîâà ïîäâåðãëèñü íàðîäíîé ýòèìîëîãèè, êàê, íàïðèìåð, ñëîâî woodchuck (ñåâåðîàìåðèêàíñêèé ñóðîê) ïðîèçîøëî íå îò ñëîæåíèÿ ñëîâ wood (ëåñ) è chuck (øâûðÿòü), à îò ñëîâà wuchak. À îò îñîáî òðóäíîïðîèçíîñèìûõ èíäåéñêèõ íàçâàíèé, íå ïîääàþùèõñÿ íè àññèìèëÿöèè, íè íàðîäíîé ýòèìîëîãèè, ïîñåëåíöû îòêàçûâàëèñü, çàìåíÿÿ òàê è íå ïðèæèâøèåñÿ òåðìèíû àíãëèéñêèìè ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿìè. Òàê, ðîäñòâåííèêîâ ýòîãî ñóðêà, æèâóùèõ ê çàïàäó îò Ìèññèññèïè, ñòàëè íàçûâàòü prairie dogs çà îòðûâèñòûå, ïîõîæèå íà ñîáà÷èé ëàé, çâóêè, êîòîðûå îíè èçäàþò, à ïëîäû ñúåäîáíîãî êàêòóñà metaquesunauk ïðîñòî «êîëþ÷èìè ãðóøàìè» (prickly pear). Íåæèâîé ïðèðîäå, ò. å. òåðìèíàì, ñâÿçàííûì ñ îñîáåííîñòÿìè ðåëüåôà, ïî÷â, âîäîåìîâ è ðàñòèòåëüíîñòè, ïîâåçëî íå ìåíüøå. Îêàçàâøèñü â âåñüìà ñïåöèôè÷åñêèõ ïðèðîäíûõ óñëîâèÿõ Íîâîãî Ñâåòà, êîëîíèñòû íå ìîãëè íå âíåñòè ñâîé âêëàä â ñëîâîòâîð÷åñòâî. Îíè ââîäèëè â îáèõîä íîâûå ñëîâà è âûðàæåíèÿ, îïèñûâàþùèå ñïåöèôè÷åñêèå ïðèðîäíûå îñîáåííîñòè èõ íîâîé ðîäèíû, à òàêæå óïîòðåáëÿëè ìíîãèå óæå ñóùåñòâóþùèå â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå ñëîâà â íîâûõ çíà÷åíèÿõ, çàñòàâëÿÿ èõ îáîçíà÷àòü ñîâñåì äðóãèå ðåàëèè. Óæå â íà÷àëå 1620-õ ãîäîâ îíè íà÷àëè èñïîëüçîâàòü ñëîâî pond íå â ñìûñëå «ïðóä», à äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ áîëüøèõ ïðèðîäíûõ âîäîåìîâ, êîòîðûå â Àíãëèè îáû÷íî íàçûâàþò ñëîâîì lake. Èëè äðóãîé ïðèìåð.  áðèòàíñêîì àíãëèéñêîì ñëîâî creek îïèñûâàåò óçêèé çàëèâ÷èê ñèëüíî «èçðåçàííîãî» áåðåãà ìîðÿ, à â Àìåðèêå îíî îáîçíà÷àåò «ðó÷åé» (âìåñòî ïî÷åìó-òî çàáðàêîâàííîãî ñëîâà brook). Òèïè÷íûå äëÿ çàáîëî÷åííûõ ðàéîíîâ àìåðèêàíñêîãî êðàéíåãî þãà «âÿëîòåêóùèå» ðó÷üè íàçûâàþòñÿ bayou. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, äëÿ îïèñàíèÿ ðàçëè÷íûõ òèïîâ ìåñòíîñòè àìåðèêàíöû íå èñïîëüçóþò ìíîãèõ ïðèíÿòûõ â Àíãëèè òåðìèíîâ. Ïî÷åìó-òî áûëî îòâåðãíóòî ñëîâî marsh, óïîòðåáëÿåìîå â Àíãëèè äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ òîïêèõ áîëîò, è âìåñòî íåãî ñòàëè óïîòðåáëÿòü ñëîâî swamp, ïðîèçâåäåííîå îò ãîëëàíäñêîãî zwamp. Êîíòàêòû ñ ôðàíöóçñêèìè êîëîíèñòàìè îáîãàòèëè ÿçûê àìåðèêàíöåâ ãàëëèöèçìàìè (íàïðèìåð, ñëîâî park äëÿ ãîðíîé äîëèíû è peak äëÿ ãîðíîé âåðøèíû) è êàëüêàìè ñ ôðàíöóçñêîãî (íàïðèìåð, badlands îò mauvaises terres). Ïî-âèäèìîìó, äëÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ áûëî áîëåå àêòóàëüíî, ÷åì äëÿ àíãëè÷àí, îïèñûâàòü îáðûâèñòûå ñêëîíû, è îíè ïîçàèìñòâîâàëè ó ôðàíöóçîâ ñëîâî chute äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ êðóòîãî ñïóñêà, ravine äëÿ ãëóáîêîãî îâðàãà è butte äëÿ õîëìà ñ îáðûâèñòûìè êðàÿìè, ñòî28 ÿùåãî íà ðàâíèíå, à ó ãîëëàíäöåâ blaff äëÿ îïèñàíèÿ îáðûâèñòîãî áåðåãà ðåêè. Ïîñëåäíèé òåðìèí äîñòîèí âíèìàíèÿ õîòÿ áû ïîòîìó, ÷òî áûë ïåðâûì èç àìåðèêàíèçìîâ, ñïðîâîöèðîâàâøèì êðèòè÷åñêèå âûïàäû áðèòàíñêèõ ÿçûêîâûõ ïóðèñòîâ. Åùå â 1735 ãîäó îäèí âàæíûé àíãëèéñêèé ÷èíîâíèê íàïèñàë, ÷òî ãîðîä Ñàâàííà ñòîèò íà îáðûâèñòîì áåðåãó ðåêè, êîòîðûé àìåðèêàíöû «íàçûâàþò íà ñâîåì âàðâàðñêîì ÿçûêå blaff». Ñýìóýë Äæîíñîí, àâòîð ïåðâîãî áîëüøîãî àíãëèéñêîãî òîëêîâîãî ñëîâàðÿ, òîæå îòìå÷àë, ÷òî â ñâîèõ ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèõ êíèãàõ àìåðèêàíöû íåïðàâèëüíî óïîòðåáëÿþò ìíîãèå ñëîâà. Íàïðèìåð, Äæîíñîíó íå íðàâèëîñü óïîòðåáëåíèå ñëîâà creek â çíà÷åíèè «ðó÷åé», branch äëÿ ïîëíîâîäíîãî ðó÷üÿ, gap â îòíîøåíèè ãîðíîãî óùåëüÿ è spur äëÿ íèçêèõ îòðîãîâ ãîðíûõ õðåáòîâ. Äæîíñîí áûë ïðîòèâ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ñëîâà main äëÿ îïèñàíèÿ ïðîñòîðîâ êàê çåìíûõ, òàê è îêåàíñêèõ, íàïðèìåð, êàê íàçâàíèå þæíîé ÷àñòè Àòëàíòèêè Spanish Main. Ýòîò ñìûñë ñîõðàíèëñÿ â ñëîâå mainland è îò÷àñòè â íàçâàíèè øòàòà Ìýí (Maine). Îäíèì èç ñàìûõ ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûõ ïðèåìîâ íîìèíàöèè áûëî èçìåíåíèå ñåìàíòèêè óæå èìåâøèõñÿ ñëîâ. Êàêîå-òî âðåìÿ äëÿ îïèñàíèÿ çàïàäíûõ ëàíäøàôòîâ èñïîëüçîâàëîñü ñëîâî desert (Great American Desert), êàê âèäíî, ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî óïîòðåáëÿâøååñÿ äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ âñÿêèõ áåçëþäíûõ ïðîñòðàíñòâ (ýòî çíà÷åíèå ñîõðàíèëîñü â ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèè deserted place), äàæå åñëè îíè ïîêðûòû ãóñòîé òðàâîé. Âïîñëåäñòâèè, êîãäà ñëîâî desert ñòàëî óïîòðåáëÿòüñÿ ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê âíóòðåííèì ðàéîíàì Çàïàäà, îíî ïðèîáðåëî åãî ñåãîäíÿøíèé ñìûñë. À äëÿ îïèñàíèÿ òðàâÿíèñòûõ ïðîñòîðîâ Çàïàäà àìåðèêàíöû ñòàëè óïîòðåáëÿòü çàèìñòâîâàííîå èç ôðàíöóçñêîãî ñëîâî prairie, êîòîðîå â êîëîíèàëüíûé ïåðèîä èñïîëüçîâàëîñü äëÿ óêàçàíèÿ íà ëþáûå ïóñòóþùèå çåìëè, îêðóæåííûå ñî âñåõ ñòîðîí ëåñîì. 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