Lecture #8
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Global Migration
Handout 2
This lesson will look at global migration and its impact on both the sending and receiving countries.
Although we will cite numerous challenges relating to migration, migration should not be considered a
"problem." There is nothing moral or immoral about moving from one country to another. Human beings
have always been migratory. It is the result of their movements that areas get populated, communities
experience diversity, and economies prosper. Thus, rather than looking at migration in terms of a simplistic
good vs. bad lens, treat it as a complex social phenomenon that even predates contemporary globalization.
What is Migration?
There are two types of migration: internal migration, which refers to people moving from one area
to another. within one country; and international migration, in which people cross borders of one country
to another. The latter can be further broken down into five groups. First are those who move permanently
to another country (immigrants) The second refers to workers who stay in another country for a fixed period
(at least 6 months in a year). Illegal migrants comprise the third group, while the fourth are migrants whose
families have "petitioned" them to move to the destination county. The fifth group are refugees (also known
as asylum seekers), Le.. those "unable or unwilling to return because of a well-founded fear of persecution
on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion."
Demographers estimate that 247 million people are currently living outside the countries of their
birth. Ninety percent of them moved for economic reasons while the remaining 10 percent were refugees
and asylum-seekers. The top three regions of origin are Latin America (18 percent of global total), followed
by Eastern Europe and Central Asia (16 percent), and the Middle East and North Africa (14 percent). On a
per country basis, India. Mexico, and China are leading, with the Philippines, together with Afghanistan,
only ranking 6th in the world. The top 10 country destinations of these migrants are mainly in the West and
the Middle East, with the United States topping the list.
Fifty percent of global migrants have moved from the developing countries to the developed zones
of the world and contribute anywhere from 40 to 80 percent of their labor force. Their growth has
outstripped the population growth in the developed countries (3 percent versus only 0.6 percent), such that
today, according to the think tank McKinsey Global Institute, "first-generation immigrants constitute 13
percent of the population in Western Europe, 15 percent in North America, and 48 percent in the GCC
countries." The majority of migrants. remain in the cities. The percentages of migrants in cities are 92
percent in the United States, 95 percent in the United Kingdom, and 99 percent in Australia. Once settled,
they contribute enormously to raising the productivity of their host countries (Table 1)
*Countries: United States, Germany, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada
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The migrant influx has led to a debate in destination countries over the issue of whether migrants
are assets or liabilities to national development. Anti-immigrant groups and nationalists argue that
governments must control legal immigration and put a stop to illegal entry of foreigners. Many of these
anti-immigrant groups are gaining influence through political leaders who share their beliefs. Examples
include US President Donald Trump and UK Prime Minister Theresa May, who have been reversing the
existing pro-immigration and refugee-sympathetic policies of their states. Most recently. Trump attempted
to ban travel into the United States of people from majority Muslim countries, even those with proper
documentation. He also continues to speak about his election promise of building a wall between the United
States and Mexico.
The wisdom of these government actions has been consistently belied by the data. A 2011 Harvard
Business School survey on the impact of immigration concluded that the "likelihood and magnitude of
adverse labor market effects for native from immigration are substantially weaker than often perceived."
The fiscal impact of immigration on social welfare was noted t be "very small. Furthermore, the 2013 report
on government welfare spending by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
clearly shows that native-born citizens still receive higher support compared to immigrants
The massive inflow of refugees from Syria and Iraq has raised alarm bells once again, but has not
proved to be as damaging as expected. The International Monetary Fund predicted that the flow of refugees
fleeing the war in Syria and Iraq would actually grow Europe's GDP, albeit "modestly." In Germany, the
inflow of refugees from the Middle East has not affected social welfare programs, and had very little impact
on wages and employment. In fact, they have brought much-needed labor to the economy instead
Benefits and Detriments for the Sending Countries
Even if 90 percent of the value generated by migrant workers remains in their host countries, they
have sent billions back to their home countries (in 2014, their remittances totaled $580 billion). In 2014,
India held the highest recorded remittance ($70 billion), followed by China ($62 billion), the Philippines
($28 billion), and Mexico ($25 billion). These remittances make significant contributions to the
development of small- and medium-term industries that help generate jobs. Remittances likewise change
the economic and social standing of migrants, as shown by new or renovated homes and their relatives'
access to new consumer goods. The purchasing power of a migrant's family doubles and makes it possible
for children to start or continue their schooling
Yet, there remain serious concerns about the economic sustainability of those reliant on migrant
monies. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) observes that in countries like the Philippines, remittances
"do not have a significant influence on other key items of consumption or investment such as spending on
education and health care. Remittances, therefore, may help in lifting "households out of poverty...but not
in rebalancing growth. especially in the long run."
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More importantly, global migration is "siphoning qualified personnel. [and] removing dynamic
young workers". This process has often been referred to as "brain drain." According again to the McKinsey
Global Institute, countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia have lost one-third of their college graduates.
Sixty percent of those who moved to OECD destinations were college graduates, compared to just 9 percent
of the overall population in the country. Fifty-two percent of Filipinos who leave for work in the developed
world have tertiary education, which is more than double the 23 percent of the overall Filipino population.
Furthermore, the loss of professionals in certain key roles. such as doctors, has been detrimental to
the migrants home countries. In 2006, some 15 percent of locally trained doctors from 21 sub-Saharan
African countries had emigrated to the United States or Canada; the losses were particularly steep in Liberia
(where 43 percent of doctors left), Ghana (30 percent), and Uganda (20 percent)"
Governments are aware of this long-term handicap, but have no choice but to continue promoting
migrant work as part of state policy because of the remittances impact on GDP. They are equally "concerned
with generating jobs for an under-utilized workforce and in getting the maximum possible inflow of worker
remittances Governments are thus actively involved in the recruitment and deployment of works, some of
them setting up special departments like the Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training in
Bangladesh; the Office of the Protector of Emigrants within the Indian Labor Ministry; and the Philippine
Overseas Employment Agency (POEAL The sustainability of migrant-dependent economies will partially
depend on the strength of these institutions.
The Problem of Human Trafficking
On top of the issue of brain drain, sending states must likewise protect migrant workers. The United States
Federal Bureau of Investigation lists human trafficking as the third largest criminal activity worldwide. In
2012, the International Labour Organization (11.0) identified 21 million men, women, and children as
victims of "forced labor, an appalling three out every 1.000 persons worldwide. Ninety percent of the
victims (18,7 million) are exploited by private enterprises and entrepreneurs 22 percent (4.5 million) are
sexually abused; and 68 percent (14.2 million) work under compulsion in agricultural, manufacturing.
infrastructure, and domestic activities." Human trafficking has been very profitable, earning syndicates,
smugglers, and corrupt state officials profits of as high as $150 billion a year in 2014. Governments, the
private sector, and civil society groups have worked together to combat human trafficking, yet the results
remain uneven.
Integration
A final issue relates to how migrants interact with their new home countries. They may contribute
significantly to a hair nation's GDP, but their access to housing, health care, and education is not easy. There
is, of course, considerable variation in the economic integration of migrants Migrants from China, India,
and Western Europe often have more success, while those from the Middle East, North Africa, and subSaharan Africa face greater challenges in securing jobs. In the United States and Singapore, there are bluecollar as well as white-collar Filipino workers (doctors, engineers, even corporate executives), and it is the
professional, white-collar workers that have oftentimes been easier to integrate
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Democratic states assimilate immigrants and their children by granting them citizenship and the
rights that go with it (especially public education). However, without a solid support from their citizens,
switching citizenship may just be a formality, Linguistic difficulties, customs from the "old country," and,
of late, differing religions may create cleavages between migrants and citizens of receiving countries,
particularly in the West. The latter accuse migrants of bringing in the culture from their home countries and
amplifying differences in linguistic and ethnic customs. Crucially, the lack of integration gives xenophobic
and anti-immigrant groups more ammunition to argue that these "new citizens are often not nationals (in
the sense of sharing the dominant culture),
Migrants unwittingly reinforce the tension by "keeping among themselves." The first-time
migrant's anxiety at coming into a new and often "strange" place is mitigated by "local networks of fellow
citizens that serve as the migrant's safety net from the dislocation of uprooting oneself. For instance, the
Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association of California provides initial support for new Chinese
migrants, guiding them in finding work or in setting up their small businesses (restaurants and laundromats
the state and elsewhere. The drawback of these networks is that instead of facilitating integration, they
exacerbate differences and discrimination.
Governments and private businesses have made policy changes to address integration problems,
like using multiple languages in state documents (in the case of the United States, Spanish and English).
Training programs complemented with counseling have also helped migrant integration in Hamburg,
Germany. while retail merchants in Barcelona have brought in migrant shopkeepers to break down language
barriers while introducing Chinese culture to citizens. Whether these initiatives will succeed or not remains
an open question.
Conclusion
Global migration entails the globalization of people. And like the broader globalization process, it
is uneven. Some migrants experience their movement as a liberating process. A highly educated
professional may find moving to another country financially rewarding. At the other end, a victim of sex
trafficking may view the process of migration as dislocating and disempowering
Like globalization, moreover, migration produces different and often contradictory responses. On
the one hand. many richer states know that migrant labor will be beneficial for their economies. With their
aging populations, Japan and Germany will need workers from demographically young countries like the
Philippines. Similarly, as working populations in countries like the United States move to more skilled
careers, their economies will require migrants to work jobs that their local workers are beginning to reject.
And yet, despite these benefits, developed countries continue to excessively limit and restrict migrant labor.
They do so for numerous factors already mentioned. Some want to preserve what they perceive as local
culture by shielding it from newcomers. Other states use migrants as scapegoats, blaming them for
economic woes that are, in reality, caused by government policy and not by foreigners.
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Yet, despite these various contradictions, it is clear that different forms of global interdependence
will ensure that global migration will continue to be one of the major issues in the contemporary world.
Countries whose economies have become entirely dependent on globalization and rely on foreign labor to
continue growing (eg. Singapore, Saudi Arabia, and even protectionist Japan) will actively court foreign
workers. Likewise. countries like the Philippines with an abundance of labor and a need for remittances
will continue to send these workers.
Hence, it is inevitable that countries will have to open up again to prevent their economies from
stagnating or even collapsing. The various responses to these movements-xenophobia and extreme
nationalism in the receiving countries; dependency in the sending countries will continue to be pressing
issues.
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Lecture #8
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Global Migration
Handout 3
During the Cold War, leaders all over the globe agreed to classify the world into three (3) categories:
First World refers to states which have high-income and are capital-rich; Second World refers to the former
communist-socialist, industrial states; and Third World refers to nations not aligned with either the First
World or Second World which are also called "developing" countries.
The aftermath of the Cold War ended the bipolarity of the world's hegemonic powers which were
held by the Western Bloc (United States, its NATO allies, and others) and the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet
Union and its satellite states). This left the United States as the sole remaining super power of the world.
By 1989, US had military alliances with 50 countries therefore bringing to life the American era. As a
superpower, US relied on its strong democracy and capitalist market to promote free market capitalism and
further emphasize its global power. However, its success in promoting such market led to the dispersal of
power to several other countries.
After a decade, Fareed Zakaria (2008) refers to this as the post-American world which is illustrated
by the diffusion of power from states to other actors. This diffusion of power signals the "rise of the rest"
which gives other states the power to play roles in the world's economic and political arena. In connection
with this, Huntington (1996) claims that Asian nations are expanding their economic, political, and military
strength as a way to show the power they can be capable to hold in the world. Thus, the American era which
includes the post-American world refers to a period power imbalance.
The classification of countries into three was changed into two: developed and developing.
Developed countries are countries that have progressive economies and advanced technological
infrastructures while developing countries are low-income countries with less developed industrial bases.
These two types of countries emerged to highlight the economic inequalities of states. Such inequalities
pushes people living in developing countries to seek better opportunities in developed countries or
sometimes, motivates them to just move from one country to another to attain the ways of living they are
aspiring for. This ongoing movement of people from one country to another is called migration.
As physical and human geographies develop, the world is becoming connected. Connectedness of
nations, ethnicities, and states is the new trend in the international arena. Civilizations become global
civilizations. Through the rising global civilizations, the world has turned into a multipolar power. In the
words of Samuel Huntington, he argues:
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The rivalry of the superpowers is replaced by the clash of civilizations. In this new world, the most
pervasive, important, and dangerous conflicts will not be between social classes, rich and poor, or
other economically defined groups, but between peoples belonging to different cultural entities.
According to Huntington, global civilizations are divided into the following categories: Western,
Latin American; Islamic; Sinic; Hindu; Buddhist; Orthodox: Japanese; and African. At present, people from
these global civilizations constantly move from one place to another just to achieve economic stability,
democratic freedom, and holistically good life that their home countries might not be able to offer.
According to Heywood (2011), cosmopolitanism literally means the adherence or belief in the
world state. It is the ideology that all human beings belong to a single community. As a concept that can be
linked to globalization, it began its journey when the world moved towards a single moral community from
simply believing that the world could be governed by one state. In the analysis of Pogge (2008), he identifies
three (3) elements of this concept-individualism, universality, and generality.
In individualism, cosmopolitanism believes that a human being is the ultimate unit of moral
concern; second, the element of universality wherein he asserts that all human beings are of equal moral
worth; and lastly, the concept acknowledges the element of generality which implies that human beings
have necessary concern for each other (Pogge, 2008). Thus, understanding the concept of cosmopolitanism
requires an in-depth understanding of the role of moral integrity among people. Through this concept, the
global city in globalization has come into existence. However, some critics say that it is impossible to
transcend moral and cultural aspects of societies on an international level. Migration can be linked to
cosmopolitanism in the way that it enables people to agree on a common moral standard which is influenced
by how different cultures come in contact with one another as people move from one place to another.
There are two types of migration-internal and international migration. Internal migration is any
movement from one place to another in the same country. On the other hand, international migration is a
movement from one country to another.
From the rise of the very first civilizations, many scholars believe that social inequality, economic
depression, and freedom deprivation are the factors why people move from one place to another. These
factors are the reasons why cosmopolitan ideas exist. They occur at present and since the concept of
cosmopolitanism adheres to the equality and moral integrity among men, it plays a role in why people
migrate. It is clear that migration is and will always be a trend. Some experts say that migration also has its
own catalysts for it fuels the population growth of a region or a country. Internal migration is also known
as local migration and has always been driven by economic sustainability.
In the midst of globalization, nations around the world engage in trade to promote and strengthen
relationships among them. There is no global government that could govern all nations. According to Henry
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Nau (2009), transnational relations exist in the present world because countries trade with one another,
and populations move across state boundaries.
Due to transnational relations and the growing demand for economic wealth, migration exists. It
is defined as the form of social behavior that both shapes and is shaped by broader social and economic
structures and processes of transformation (International Migration Institute, 2011). In the definition of
Boswell (2002), however, migration is not only rooted in economic aspirations but also in political
motivations. This is because some people are being oppressed by their governments and want to be free
from tyrannical politicians. For centuries, this trend has been existent because of the necessity to explore
and gain natural resources. At present, global migration is a unique concept.
To better understand the concept of global migration, three (3) categories of this trend were created:
voluntary economic migration, forced displacement, and refugee crisis. Voluntary economic migration is
rooted is the pursuit of economic stability. It is usually seen in the condition of people in the global south
such as in the regions of Asia and Africa. People from these regions move to other countries which have
steadily growing labor markets and can provide them high salaries. This kind of migration in illustrated by
Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW). The second and third categories, on the other hand, refer to how people
are forced to migrate. According to Boswell (2002), forced displacement and the refugee crisis could be
traced to the factors of state tyranny or corruption or the fear of violence such as civil war.
There are several effects of migration in a particular country. There are different scenarios and
different factors why people migrate. Migration plays a vital role in the social, economic, and political
aspects of the Philippines. With the country reliant on labor export, OFWs are seen to be major economic
drivers of the country. They affect the economic sustainability of the country through their remittances. In
addition, this is also the reason why the country's foreign policy focuses on labor export. Another effect of
migration in the Philippines is the brain drain. In 2009, the Philippine Institute of Development Studies
found out that fifty percent of employed Filipino emigrants have tertiary education and only 14.5 percent
of them are managers and professionals, 26.6 percent of them are working as technicians and clerks, and
the rest are operators known as service workers (Zosa & Obeta, 2009).
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