ABSTRACT
This project aims at enumerating the production of paint. Chemicals such as calcium carbonate,
titanium oxide, water, Acrylic, Nitrosol etc. were added at different times in the reactor and stirred
until a paste(paint) was formed. The paint produced was of two different colours namely; white and
blue emulsion and texcote. Physical standard analysis test was carried out to know if it meets the
industrial standard specification. The paint passed the physical quality control test carried out on
them.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Until recently, paint production was regarded as art, and use was made of it principally for decorative purposes.
The production then was by trial and error with no standard principle and little or no regard to the quality of
the final product. With the application of science in the production of paint, product of high quality is now
possible. This time, not only to give appearance but more importantly for surface protection. Thus, modern
paint industry firm a small but important part of the chemical industry. It is closely related to the plastics, and
petroleum industries and like then is based on modern knowledge of chemistry, physical and engineering
(Abdulsalam., Surajudeen; Maiwada., Z. D;, 2015).
Paint was traditionally used to describe pigmented materials as distinct from clear films which are more
properly called lacquers or varnishes. Paint is a loosely word covering a whole variety of materials; enamels,
lacquers, varnishes, undercoats, surfacers, primers, sealers, fillers, stoppers and many others. If the pigment is
omitted, the material is usually called a varnish. The pigmented varnish, the paint is sometimes called an
enamel, lacquer, finish or topcoat, meaning that it is the last coat to be applied and the one seen when the
coated object is examined (Idris., N. M; Rashan., A. J;, 2017).
Paint can be traced historically from cave men, through Egyptian civilization to present day
industrialization. Primitive men were credited with making the first paints about 25,000years ago (school
science series. They were hunters and cave dwellers and were probably inspired by the dark formations of their
cave walls to outline and form the shapes of animals they hunted. Chemical analysis of cave paintings
discovered at Altamira (Spain) and Lascaux (France), showed that the main pigments used by Paleolithic artists
were based on iron and manganese oxides dug out from local soil, possibly from cave floors (Nwakaudu., M.
S; Oghome., P.;, 2020)
Generally, paints are composed of pigments, solvent, resins, and additives. The pigments give the paint colour;
solvents make it easier to apply; resins help it dry; and additives serve as something from, fillers to antifungicidal agents (Abdulsalam., S.; U., Yahaya. Y;, 2019).
Until recently, paint production was regarded as art, and use was made of it principally for decorative
purposes. The production then was by trial and error with no standard principle and little or no regard to the
quality of the final product. With the application of science in the production of paint, product of high quality
is now possible. This time, not only to give appearance but more importantly for surface protection. Thus,
modern paint industry firm a small but important part of the chemical industry. It is closely related to the
plastics, and petroleum industries and like then is based on modern knowledge of chemistry, physical and
engineering.
Paint is a mixture of insoluble particles of pigment suspended in a continuous organic or aqueous vehicle. It is
most commonly used to protect, colour or provide texture to objects. Paint can be made or purchased in many
colours and in many different types. It is typically stored, solid, and applied as a liquid, but dries into a solid.
With a branch, a roller, or a spray gun, paint is applied in a thin coat to various surfaces such as wood, metal,
or stone.
All paints require particular finely ground solid colour called pigments, a solvent or liquid vehicle which keeps
the paint in suspension until applied, and a binder or resin that has the ability to dry or otherwise harden and
adhere the paint to the surface for an extended period of time. The properties of paints depend on the relative
amounts of the ingredients in the paint. A typical paint consists of 35% pigment and filler and about 21% filforming and other ingredients. There are natural, synthetic as well as organic and inorganic pigments. Early
pigments were simply ground earth or clay. However, modern pigments are often sophisticated masterpieces
of chemical engineering. Paint for application to brick masonry walls should be durable, easy to apply and
have good adhesive characteristics. It should be porous if applied on exterior masonry, thereby permitting the
wall to breathe and preventing the trapping of free moisture behind the paint film (Manual on the Selection
and Use of Paints (Abagale., S. A; Twumasi., S. K; Awudza., J.M. A;, 2019).
Samples of the first known paintings made between 20,000 and 25,000 years ago, survive in caves in France
and Spain. Primitive paintings tended to depict humans and animals, and diagrams have also been found. Early
artists relied on easily available natural substances to make paint such as natural earth pigments, charcoal,
berry juice, blood, lard, and milk-weed sap. Later, the ancient Chinese, Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks and
Romans used more sophisticated materials to produced paints for limited decoration, such as painting walls.
Oils were used as vanishes, and pigments such as yellow and red ochres, chalk, arsenic sulfide yellow, and
malachite green were mixed with binders such as gun arabic, lime, egg albumen and beeswax.
The twenty-first century has seen the changes in paint composition and manufacture. Today, synthetic
pigments and stabilizers are commonly used to mass produce uniform batches of paints. New synthetic vehicle
developed from polymers such as polyreuthane and styrene butadene emerged during the 1940s. Alkyd resins
more synthesized, and they have dominated production since. Before 1930, pigment was ground with stone
mills, and these were later replaced by steel balls. Today sand mills and high-speed dispersion mixers are used
to ground dispersible pigments. Perhaps the greatest paint-related advanced has been its proliferation.
Paint is an essential commodity needed for painting houses, offices, etc. and the demand is in the
increase. There is hardly any house that is not painted these days, so the market is there for any
aspiring entrepreneur.
However, industrial survey shows that Nigeria paint industry is dominated by the importation of practically all
the important component of paint production. The demand effect is a high rise in the cost of raw materials for
paint production – thus making them unaffordable for many type of paint production. Consequently, there is
an urgent need to explore the use of locally sourced raw materials for paint production. Further studies are the
design of reactor types for paint production. Idris did an extensive Laboratory studies on small scale production
of three different grades of emulsion paints (Ekeolisa., C. I; Yiga., F.; Iregbu., P. O; Dagde, K. K;, 2020).
The quest to revive the nation’s economy toward local production of goods and services and gaining
employment of our teaming youths revolves through encouragement and development of small scale
production. Emulsion paints were formulated using different local raw material as pigments and at different
pigment volume concentration of 32%, 19% and 10%. Polyvinyl acetate was used as binder, with dispersant
and solvent.
Hence, for a small scale business, it might require you to have at least half plot of land for the
production environment after a successful registration of your business name and the approvals from
standard organization of Nigeria, S.O.N. with a minimum number of five employees you can fairly
begin the production. Though, with just two people paint production can be due based on the scale of
production in a room space environment especially for a very small beginner.
In order to survive the cloaking dominance of the market leaders in the industry, new start-ups can
map out their self-sustaining market strategy. While some could afford to distribute in the open market
to compete amongst others, some may solely depend on personal contact and placing of orders before
embarking on production.
1.2 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Paint is a term used to describe a number of substances that consist of a pigment suspended in a liquid
or paste vehicle such as oil or water. With a brush, a roller, or a spray gun, paint is applied in thin
coat to various surfaces such as wood, metal, or stone. Although it’s primary purpose is to protect the
surface to which it is applied, paint also provides decoration.
Samples of the first known paintings, made between 25,000 years ago, survive in caves in France and
Spain. Primitive paintings tended to depict humans and animals, and diagrams have also been found.
Early artists relied easily available natural substances to make paint, such as natural earth pigments,
charcoal, berry juice, lard, blood, and milkweed sap. Later, the ancient Chinese, Egyptians, Hebrews,
Greeks, Romans used more sophisticated materials to produce paints for limited decoration, such as
painting walls. Oil were used as varnishes, and pigments such as yellow and red ochres, chalk, arsenic
sulfide yellow, and malachite green were mixed with binders such as gum Arabic, lime, egg albumen,
and beeswax.
Paint was first used as a protective coating by the Egyptians and Hebrews, who applied pitches and
balsams to the exposed wood of their ships. During the Middle-Ages, some inland wood also received
protective coatings of paint, but due to the scarcity of paint, this practice was
generally limited to store fronts and signs. Around the same time, artists began to boil resin with oil
to obtain highly miscible (mixable) paints, and artists of the fifteenth century were the first to add
drying oils to paint, thereby hastening evaporation. They also adopted a new solvent, linseed oil,
which remained the most commonly used solvent until synthetics replaced it during the twentieth
century.
1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY
The aim of this work is to make use of available raw materials in the production of Emulsion and
Texcote.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives are as follows
1. To facilitate the manufacturing process.
2. To enhance the products stability and durability
3. To enhance the product performance, which include application and film quality so as to
achieve all the desirous goals of the coating.
1.5 THE SCOPE OF PROJECT RESEARCH
The scope of this work will be limited to Emulsion paint, Texcote paint classification according to its
application and function such as Varnishes, leaguers, fillers etc. and their chemical analysis.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
On considering the high cost of imported raw materials for the production of paint in the paint
industry, which at the end of the production affect the market price, likewise causing economy
constrain, there is need to lookout for those locally raw materials, e.g. calcium carbonate which will
give such desirable qualities and properties as those of imported raw materials e.g. titanium dioxide).
It will be interesting to note that chemical Engineering have some of possible solutions towards
reduction of high cost of paint production and also this research project work is directed towards the
vital needs for the use of local pigments and extenders as raw materials for the production of paint of
high quality and standards which will stand the test of time and also compete with those produced
with imported raw materials.
Finally, this research project work will be of more importance to the paint manufacturers in the
country, who spend lots of money for importations of raw material, while they are blessed with much
raw materials as pigments and extenders for paint production in their country, it will also be of help
to student’s researchers, and also reveals the importance of research among producers for future
betterment and economy improvement.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Paints can be defined as a fluid, with viscosity, drying time and flowing properties dictated by formulation,
normally consisting of a vehicle or binder, a pigment, a solvent or thinner and a drier which may be applied in
relatively thin layers and which changes to a thin opaque continuous layer on surfaces. The opaque film is
mainly used for decorative and/or protective purposes. The main chemical constituents of astandard paint are
solvent/vehicle, binder, pigment, extender, thinner, plasticizer, dispersant and surfactant, while the minor
ingredients include biocide, anti-form, rust inhibitor tinker, pH adjuster, wetting agent, perfume, anti-skinning
agent, and anti-floating agent (Nwakaudu., M. S; Oghome., P.;, 2020).
Paint can be classifies based on the type of solvent used. Water based paints (emulsion), oil based paint (gloss)
and texcote, which will discuss in details in this chapter. Classification could also be based on the substrate
part of application (exterior paints, interior paint, automotive paints, marine paints and industrial
paints). Emulsion paints are the most widely used surface coatings in Nigeria because of their numerous
industrial applications (Nwakaudu., M. S; Oghome., P.;, 2020).
TYPES OF PAINT
Paint is a fluid, or semi-fluid material which may be applied to surfaces in relatively thin layers, and which
changes to a solid coating with time. The change to solid material may or may not be reversible, and many
occur by evaporation of solvent b chemical reaction, or by a combination of the two. There are many types of
paint, which include oil based paints (gross paints), emulsion paints (water based paint), textured paints
(texcote), cellulose paints, bituminous paints and rubber-based paints.
GROSS PAINTS (OIL BASED PAINTS)
These are paints that may be classified according to whether the drying mechanism is predominantly solvent
evaporation, oxidation or some chemical reaction. Gloss paints which dry essentially by solvent evaporation,
reply on a fairly hard resin as the vehicle.
Paints which dry by oxidation, the vehicle is usually an oil or an oil-based varnish, these usually contains driers
to accelerate the drying of the oil. Paint based essentially on oil with suitable pigment such as titanium dioxide,
extenders, and usually zinc oxide and white lead, are conventional outside ho use paints because these
materials give the combination of properties which meet this requirement.
ADVANTAGES OF OIL BASED PAINTS

Attractive gloss

Good “leveling” (brush strokes fill themselves in to create a smooth finish)

Hard durable finish
EMULSION PAINTS (WATER BASED PAINTS)
These are paints with water soluble vehicle and they includes, calcimines, in which the vehicle is glue and case
in paints, in which the vehicles is casein or soya bean protein. The high demand for emulsion paint for
protective and decorative purposes has encourage the development of different equipment for the
manufacturing operation. Due to the high cost of emulsion paint formulation and production, because of the
imported raw materials. (E.g Titanium dioxide), and thereby disclosing a local raw material from our natural
domain which could also be used for the same purpose. An example of this locally obtained raw material for
emulsion paint production is calcium carbonate in the form of calcite and dolomite.
PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL EMULSION PAINT

Ideal emulsion paint should be;

Water soluble (non toxic) and safe to use in any environment.

Easy to apply on any surface

Long lasting; can be diluted when thick which would increase the paint quantity, which would make
it last long.

Non allergic for human and animals.

Less potent odour.
ADVANTAGES OF WATER BASED PAINTS ( EMULSION PAINT)

Low VOCs (low levels of toxic emissions)

Easy cleanup with water

Quick drying

An elastic, flexible finish resistant to cracking

Stable colour over time, without yellowing
TEXTURED PAINTS (TEXCOTE)
Texcote is a paint with rough texture to maintain everlasting look of natural beauty. It is a finish paint having
an insoluble additive, as sand, to give the paint a slightly rough textural effect.
ADVANTAGES OF TEXTURE PAINT(TEXCOTE)

It is weatherproof

It is energy saving

Minimal Maintenance
USES OF PAINT
The great thing about paint is that it is so incredibly versatile-whether the intended use is a child’s art project,
a scale garden fence or the walls of your home, it is guaranteed that there is a paint specifically designed to
suit any purpose (T., Rodger, 2020). The uses of paint are listed below. The main functions perform by paint
are:

It is used to give a high class finish.

It is used to give a high colours.

It is used to give pleasing surface design and appearance.

To protect various substance from corrosion.

To make the materials long lasting.

It is used to protect the material from atmosphere effects.
PROPERTIES OF PAINT

It should have high hiding power & the required colour.

It should be able to resist the atmospheric conditions to which it will be put.

The films produced should be washable.

It should resist corrosion.

It should have the necessary consistency (property to resist permanent change of shape) for a particular
purpose for which the paint is to be used.

The film produced by applying the paint on a surface should have gloss.
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINT
Paints are variable combinations of:

Binder

Pigment

Filler/ Extender

Volatile organic compound (Thinner)

Driers

Additives (Anti skinning agents, Anti settling agent, Plasticizers, fire retardants etc.
BINDERS (RESINS)
Simplistically, a binder is anything that binds, while technically, a binder is a non volatile potion of the vehicle
of a paint, it binds or cement the pigments particles together and also the paint film as a whole to the material
it is applied. Examples of binders are thickener (Nitrosol) and Acrylic.
purpose of binder

Binds pigment, fillers & additives together

Imparts adhesion & strongly influences: Gloss, Durability, Flexibility, Toughness.
PIGMENTS
pigments can be defined as a substance used for coloring (hiding) purpose. However, more technically,
pigments can be defined as finely powdered solid substance, essentially insoluble in the medium in which they
are dispersed (if any) and are used in paints to provide the dried film and such properties as, hiding and colour.
There are different kinds of pigments used in making paints like basic white pigment (titanium dioxide)
selected for its excellent concealing properties, black pigments commonly made from carbon black. Others are
iron oxide and cadmium sulfide for reds, metallic salts for yellow and oranges, iron blue and chrome yellows
for blues and greens.
PROPERTIES OF PIGMENT
OPAQUE: When a coating is opaque the pigment particles scatter &/or absorb light sufficiently to prevent it
from reaching the substrate so that it may have good covering power. Opacity depends on two characteristic
properties:

Refractive Index (RI): If the particles do not have a high RI, less the bending of light travelling &
thus insufficient hiding of the substrate.

Particle size: Particle size has also an effect on the effectiveness of the pigment. As the particle size
decreases, pacifying ability increases.

Should be non-toxic so that they have no bad effect on health of painter & inhabitants.
PURPOSE OF PIGMENT
Pigment plays a major role to attain the following essential properties of paint system

Provides colour, opacity, film cohesion and sometimes corrosion inhibition

Provides aesthetic look to the paint

Obliterates the substrate and previous colour on the substrate, if any

Protects the film by reflecting the destructive UV light
WIDELY USED PIGMENTS
White Lead, Zinc Oxide, Titanium Dioxide, Red Oxide, Carbon Black, Prussian Blue, Chrome Yellow,
Aluminum powder etc. (Titanium dioxide is extensively used because it has good covering power).
Titanium is an excellent reflector of infrared.
TYPES OF PIGMENTS
Based on the chemical composition, pigments are divided into inorganic and organic pigments; based on color,
pigments can be divided into white, red, yellow, black and other pigments.
Organic Pigments: Organic pigments compose of carbon compounds. They are usually of animal and plants
origin but are produced synthetically also. Examples of synthetically produced pigments are alizarin, azo
pigments, phthalocyanine and quinacridone.

Quinacridone Pigments- It is an inorganic molecule, utilized in organic pigments manufacturing.
Quinacridone pigments produces seven types of bright and intense colors, ranging from bright yellow
to vibrant purple.

Phthalocyanine Pigments: It is blue color powder which is insoluble in water and most of the solvents.
Some of its derivatives are phthalo alfa blue, phthalo beta blue, phthalo green.

Azo Pigments: Azo pigments contain a nitrogen group and account for most of colour ranging from
yellow to red.
Inorganic Pigments:
Inorganic pigments are metal compounds and are produced through the calcinations process. Example of
natural inorganic pigments includes umbers, ochres and sienna. Inorganic pigments can be categorized as
titanium dioxide, iron oxide and other metal oxides.

Ultramarine Pigments: Ultramarine pigments are inorganic blue color pigment made by grinding lapis
lazuli into a powder. Ultramarine pigments have applications in rubber, plastics, inks, detergents,
paints and coatings etc. Some of the examples of ultramarine pigments include ultramarine blue,
ultramarine pink, ultramarine red, ultramarine violet etc.
FILLER/ EXTENDER
Non -expensive commonly natural inorganic materials added to the paint in order to increase its volume (RI
<1.5). Extenders are mainly inorganic substances & do not provide colour to the paint but added to improve
adhesion, ease of sanding and film strength as they are cheap in comparison to prime pigments, they reduce
overall cost of the paints and average dia up to 50µ.
PROPERTIES:

Do not provide colour.

Poor optical properties (reflectance, opacity, etc.)

It improves adhesion.

If extender pigment added are of needle shaped or flaked shape, the settling may be very little.
PURPOSE:

Thickens the film

Increases volume, paint film thickness

Reduces cost of the paint

Imparts toughness, abrasion resistance & texture

Control consistency
WIDELY USED FILLERS:
Calcium carbonate, Gypsum, Ground silica, Barytes, Slate powder ,French chalk, china clay, asbestos, silica,
mica, whiting etc.
VOC/THINNER
Thinner are Liquid used for viscosity adjustment for correct application used to dissolve the binder and to
facilitate application of paint. Solvents are usually organic liquids or water, not a part of the paint film.
Excessive thinner dulls the colour & gloss and most hazardous due to its toxicity & flammability. Once the
solvent gets evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed on to the surface. Thinner can commonly be divided into
two, via: polar solvents and non polar solvent.
Polar solvents are known to contain OH group (enthanol group) whereas non polar solvents do not contain the
OH and are mostly organic in nature. In the surface coating industry, i.e. paint industry, the universal solvent
is water (A., G. P;, 2019).
PURPOSE:

Control flow and application properties.

Act as carrier for binders & pigments.

Help penetration into porous surfaces.

Used to clean brushes & other painting tools.
WIDELY USED THINNER:

Turpentine oil (distilled pine tree sap): the most commonly used thinner.

Benzene & Naphtha: as substitute.

Mineral spirit, acetone, carbon tetra chloride, ethyl alcohol.
ADDITIVES
Additives are small amounts of different chemical substances improving or modifying the paint properties
added to a paint in amounts 0.001% & ≤ 5% & have a profound influence on physical & chemical properties
of the paint to Prevent clustering of pigments. Surfactants such as polyoxyethylene ethers of dodecyl alcohol,
e.g. C12H25O (CH2 . CH2 .O)6H is added to attain compatibility of different material in the paint system. They
are also substance used to increase the performance during the paint production, after the production, during
the application and after the application, i.e. they serve as preventive and also enhance the stability of paint
during the storage period.
examples of additives:
Fungicides, Biocides and Insecticides; prevent growth and attack of fungi, bacteria and insects. Flow
control agents improved flow properties.
Deformers; prevent formation of air bubbles entrapped in the coatings.
PAINTS UNIT OPERATIONS & EQUIPMENT
Manufacturing paints depend mainly on three physical processes which are mixing, milling, and filtration,
which will be described in some details, and according that 3 industrial units used which are mixers, mills,
filters, each of them will discussed in some details (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019).
MIXING OPERATION
In paints manufacturing several ingredients used to formulate paint system, each of them has properties differ
from others which mean that there is no homogeneity between all these several components, mixing process
has a vital role in achieving homogeneity to the mentioned components to get the final paint system. All paints
components are in solid or in liquid state so the used mixing techniques, will be depends on; solid -liquid
mixing, and liquid - liquid mixing.
LIQUID - LIQUID MIXING:
Most of paints components are liquids for providing a final liquid state for paint applying, three processes
occur simultaneously to achieve homogeneity which are; coalescence, dispersion, and suspension.
Coalescence and Dispersion:
Occur dependence on shear or velocity gradient which resulted from mixing speed of liquids drops, which
force drops to deform, to daughter drops increasing due to high energies that produced by dispersion, after
deformation they disperse, collide with each other, and then coalesce.
Suspension:
occur depending on flow movement inside mixing vessel, which come from speed of mixing, so high-speed
mixers are used to achieve coalesce drops suspension.
SOLID- LIQUID MIXING
Solid content of paint system varies, and may reaching to 50% or more from contents of paint formula, and
usually added in the middle stages of mixing after adding some liquidous components. This mentioned solid
content is a finite powder, dissolved in other liquidous components by three processes which are; suspension,
distribution, and drawing down of solids by agitation.
Suspension:
The condition where no particle remains on the bottom of the vessel (or upper surface of the liquid) for longer
than 1-2 sec. this position achieved by existence of anti-settling agents and high rotating speed.
Distribution:
It means that there’s no particles in flocculated state usually in bottom of mixing vessel, this achieves by using
dispersing agents which led for particles distribution in all directions inside vessel.
Drawing down of solids:
It achieved by agitation, and represented in mixing by a cone shape around agitator.
MIXING EQUIPMENT
As shown in fig 2.1 mixing operation in paints industry requires a jacketed vessel for water cooling or for
steam heating, which is usually vertical, and high-speed mixer consists of one or more impellers, which
consisted of a shaft contain one or more disk mixing blade, it driven by electrical motor and its rotational speed
organized using inverter.
Fig 2.1: A mixing unit (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019)
IMPELLER DESIGN
Impeller can be classified to axial, radial, and helical, according to shape of disk that attached to impeller shaft,
usually helical used in mixing pastes that has high density and viscosity, while axial and radial used in mixing
paints that has low density and viscosity, fig 2.2 show the different types of impellers.
Vessel flow pattern
There are four flow patterns for vessels which obtained in fig 2.3, but according to require to achieve con shape
or vortex for solid-liquid mixing, the first flow pattern will be used.
Fig 2.3: Vessel flow patterns. (a) Axial or radial impellers without baffles produce vortexes. (b) Off center
location reduces the vortex. (c) Axial impeller with baffles. (d) Radial impeller with baffles.
Fig 2.3: Representative impellers for fluid mixing in mechanically agitated vessels. (a) The three-bladed
Marine Propeller, (b) Chemineer HE-3 hydrofoil, (C) the Rushton turbine, (d) 4- blade 45° pitched blade, (e)
4-blade flat blade, (F) concave blade, (g) sawtooth, (h) helical ribbon, (I) Anchor, (j) Ekato intermig, (k)
hollow-shaft,(l) paravisc (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019).
MILLING OPERATION
If the mixer power does not achieve the required fineness for the mixture, the needing for milling appear to
achieve the required fineness, the problem which leads for using mills is that there’s a still colloid particle not
dispersed in the mixture although existence enough amount of dispersing agent. The point of view in this
process is damaging these agglomerations of particles and dispersing it in the mixture, and this can be done by
several processes, most common one in paint industry is collision the agglomerated particles with small balls,
these small balls manufactured from several materials such as glass, steel, and ceramics.
MILLING EQUIPMENT
There are two types of mills used in paints industry; rotary mills, and ball mills. Ball mills is more suitable and
provide more safety than rotary mills because milling processes done in open-air state which is non-suitable
wit paints that contain volatile solvents, these emissions are harm for working team, but in case of ball mills it
done under circular cover which prevent solvent emissions.
MILL DESIGN
The used mills in paints industry is rotary mills and ball mills, and as mentioned previously using ball mills is
better than rotary mill.
Rotary mill
It consists of number if rollers each of them rotates in opposite direction from the other one, as shown in fig
2.4, and with different speed, between each two rollers there’s a clearance controlled to get the required
fineness.
Fig 2.4: Rotary mill (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019).
Ball Mill
This type of mills uses small balls that crashed with colloid particles, it has two types classified according to
its position the first one is horizontal type and the other one is vertical type.
Horizontal ball mill
As obtained in fig 2.5, it consists of cylindrical tube and inside its horizontal axis and disks fixed on it rotate
around its center each impeller contains holes for moving of paint, this machine can use both of steel or glass
or ceramics balls.
Fig 2.5: Horizontal ball mill (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019)
Vertical ball mill
It also called with basket mill this type has more efficiency than the horizontal type, also it only uses ceramic
balls which give his its efficiency, fig2.6 show the basket-ball mill.
Fig 2.6: Basket-ball mill (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019)
FILTRATION OPERATION
A rest colloid particles and ability of glass balls to be broken in case of using it, so the filtration operation
needed, several techniques can be used in paints filtration but, screening filtration is more common in paints
industry.
Filtration equipment
As mentioned, the screen filter which is shown in fig 2.7, is the most widely filter, simply it consists of sheet
of cross-linked steel with holes for purification of paint.
Fig 2.7: Screen filter (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019)
INDUSTRIAL PAINTS MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES
Firstly, surface active agents, usually thickeners added to give a gel stage after that binders or oils added, in
addition to adding pigment and fillers also amount of solvent added, this procedure called premixing, after that
a sample sent to laboratory to get a report about its fineness, viscosity, and density. If the fineness not meet the
required specifications, the mixture charged to the milling unit, after that the other additives and the rest amount
of solvent added and mixed in a procedure called thinning, after this procedure another sample sent to the
laboratory to done some tests such as, viscosity, density, and hiding power. If test results meet the required
specification, the quality lab. Give a permission to start packaging, and before that the final mixture purified
using a bar screen, after that it packaged manually, semi-automatic, or automatic according production volume,
Fig 2.8: Paints manufacturing flow sheet (Youssef, AbdAl-Rhman Magdy Abdullah, 2019).
EQUIPMENT CLEANING
Equipment cleaning generates a high percentage of the waste associated with paint manufacturing. Because
much of this cleaning is performed with solvents, equipment cleaning is also a major source of volatile organic
compounds emissions. Any methods that reduce the need or Frequency of tank cleaning will also reduce
emissions. Several process and equipment modifications follow:
Rubber wipers:
Facilities can use rubber wipers to scrape the side of the tank to reduce the amount of clinging paint, therefore
reducing the amount of solvent needed to clean the tank. Wipers can be either manual or automatic.
High-pressure spray heads:
High pressure spray heads can be used to clean process tanks. These heads can reduce cleaning material use
by 80 to 90 percent.
Teflon lined tanks:
Teflon lined tanks will reduce the amount of paint clinging to the side of the tank and will make cleaning
easier.
Plastic pigs:
Plastic or foam "pigs" may be used to clean paint from process pipes. The "pig" moves through the pipes and
pushes ahead paint from a previous batch which has been left clinging to the pipe walls. This process reduces
solvent needed to clean the pipes and increases product yield.
Automatic tub washers:
Some facilities have successfully used automatic tub washers to clean process tanks. These washers form a
seal with the tank, pull a vacuum, and circulate cleaning solvent on a timed schedule.
COLOURING MATTER OF PAINTS
The other colours obtained in paints apart from whites originate from the primary colours which are red, blue,
yellow, green and black. The Table 2.1 below shows the variety of colours in which we can find paints apart
from the primary colours. The specific amount of each colour for combination is not given, but the necessary
colours required to achieve a third one are specified.
Table 2.1: COLOUR COMBINATION
Colour
Base Colour (combining colours)
Orange
Yellow
Emerald
Green + Clean yellow + black
Lime
Yellow HR + Clean yellow
Leaf Green
Yellow + Blue
Apple
Yellow + Green
Bluff Cream
Yellow + red + black
COLOURANTS
The following colourants are employed for tinting the production of paint:
Alkyd Colours: These products are manufactured by NYCIL Nigeria Synthetic Industries Limited, Sango Ota,
Ogun State.
Iron Oxide
This appears in black, yellow, red and brown colours. They can be used in its powdered form or in its paste
form in which case it can be obtained directly from HOECHST (NIG) LIMITED, IKEJA, LAGOS. It is also
manufactured in its paste form, in Umuoji in Anambra State. The powdered form is imported from overseas
countries.
Extender Pigments
The materials, which can be referred to as bodying agents are mined directly from the ground and used as
such or paper bagged by some local firms. They are as follows:

Talc. (Magnesium Silicate): This is obtained from Kwakati in Suleja, Nigeria.

Calcium Carbonate: This is also obtained from Ibadan, Umuahia, Awgu, Oji-River etc.

Caoline: This is obtained from Umuahia, Awgu, oji-River etc.

Clima Clay: This is locally obtained from Inyi (Oji-River Local Government Area) Enugu, Nkalagu,
Awgu etc.
NOTE: They are all stored at room temperature and pressure under dry condition.
PH ADJUSTERS
In other to neutralize the acidic effect of some materials appearing in paint, alkali or PH adjuster is required.
Strong alkali like ammonia solution NH3 is generally required in addition to the weak ones incorporated in
parts like CaCO3. In processing emulsion paints caustic soda as a PH adjuster is utilized in place of NH3. The
range of use of NH3 or NaoH is 0.1 – 0.4% on the wt of paint.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The sequences of operation which may be employed in the manufacture of paints are in four principal stages
which are as follows:

Dispersion stage.

Quality Control stage.

Scaling up stage/sieving.

Packaging and Shipping.
DISPERSION STAGE
This stage is the most essential and in fact determines the paint quality. It should also be pointed out that
pigment is the most expensive paint component and is usually introduced into a finished product system in the
physical state of dispersion. It followed quite naturally that a great deal of attention should be accorded the
processing of dispersions in order to achieve maximum pigment utilization, that is optimum hiding power and
colour. Dispersion is compared primarily of a combination of pigment, binder and solvent. In addition to these
three main components, dispersion contains a fourth ingredient called additives. This dispersion process can
be separated with three distinct phases. In practice, these stages overlap and occur simultaneously rather than
strictly consecutively during the dispersion process. These three phases are:

Wetting.

Particle separation.

Stabilization.
Wetting
Involves replacement of the pigment air and pigment moisture interface with the pigment – vehicle interface.
Wetting can be accomplished by mixing which permits intimate physical contact between the exposed
pigments surface and the liquid media.
Particle separation
Involves the reduction of the pigment particle size during the dispersion process.
Stabilization
This is the development and maintenance of a homogenous distribution of pigment particles in the liquid
media. Subsequent to deagglomeration, particles could dump together and form floe, floccules or flocculates.
Thus, this is the process of stabilization.
QUALITY CONTROL STAGE
This stage permits us to know when we have reached the desired end point. But before this, the paint content
from the dispersion section will be transferred to the mixing machine through a rubber tube. The mixing
machine or low-speed mill is fed by means of a rubber pipe from the dispersion container. Then, the binder
and more bodying elements are added. This agent will make up for “adjustments” in volume and quality of
paint. Where eventual mix is too thick, it will be made less viscous by adding a thinning agent.
To measure degree of dispersion, we can use either a fineness or tint strength as a quality control test. Fineness
method is the one extensively used by many paint factories and the procedure for determining the degree of
dispersion by the fineness method is thus:
Equipment’s used are:

Grind gauge.

Grind blade.

Spatula knife.
A very small quantity of the dispersed paint paste is obtained with the spatula knife and deposited on the grind
gauge and spread horizontally along two broad parallel lines in the grind gauge. Then if there are no small
pores on the spread surface of the paint paste on the grind gauge, the grind or rather a better degree of dispersion
is achieved but on the contrary, if there are small pores on the surface, the grind has not been achieved and
further dispersion of the paint paste is necessary.
SEIVING AND SCALING UP STAGE
Sieving involves the filtration of unused agglomerates thereby allowing only the passage of pure paint. The
purpose of scaling up is to bring the paint to the required standard, quality and workable viscosity. This is
achieved by adding the remaining 58% by wt of the vehicle, 65% by wt of the solvent and then the paint
additives and driers respectively into the paint slurry system. The paint is then transferred to a reservoir inside
the production hall.
PACKAGING AND SHIPPING
From the reservoir the paint is then packed and subsequently shipped. All paint packaging materials must from
an effective barrier to skinning (oxidation drying of paint at the wrong place and at the wrong time) moisture,
dirt and other micro-organism which might act on the paint. Hence, paint products are packed in cans made of
tins or they may be packed in plastics made of P.V.C or polyethylene.
CANS
These are containers for paints and they are obtained in different types as follows:

Metal Cans: there are produced by Metal Box Nigeria Limited, Lagos, Van Leer, Nigeria Limited,
Lagos etc.

Plastic Cans: there are manufactured locally by Plastic Manufacturing Plants.
APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL PAINT
Most of the industrial paints are used for corrosion control of concrete and steel, but these industrial-grade
products can be used for a number of other applications as well.
Air spray
Air spraying is among the best methods of industrial paint application. The paint is atomized into a mist or fine
spray by an air sprayer using air. Such an air sprayer should be chosen that offers different levels of pressure,
pattern, etc. This method offers a professional smooth finish on any surface.
Roller
A roll can come in handy when you have to paint a flat surface such as a floor or wall. The paint is transferred
efficiently and quickly when a roller is used to apply paint. It comes in various forms to produce different
results. For instance, there are some rollers that require a spiked roller for leveling the coating and removing
any trapped air. This paint system is ideal for concrete and cement screeds.
Dip coating
In industrial projects, there may be certain elements that need covering entirely in paint, quickly and efficiently.
The element can be dipped into the paint directly and allowed to dry if you are using a dip-coating method.
Dip-coating works best with thick paints with strong adhesive quality.
Paintbrush
The classic paintbrush method is also a good one. In some cases, it is exactly what you need to get the job
done. As paintbrushes are available in a wide variety of styles, shapes, angles, and bristles, there is one for
every task. For smaller details, small paintbrushes are the best. You can easily get a professional finish on any
project if you have a good brush technique.
Airless sprayer
The paint is atomized by an airless sprayer at a much higher pressure than an air sprayer. It is perfect for
spraying large industrial areas quickly and more efficiently than an air sprayer. Also, it can handle much thicker
coatings. It helps to stop you from over-spraying on large paint jobs. Wear an appropriate PPE when spray
applying any coatings, especially two-pack polyurethane paint.
IMPROVED OPERATING PRACTICES
In addition to process and equipment modifications, volatile organic compounds emissions may be reduced
by following good operating procedures:

All open ended paint manufacturing vessels shall be securely covered during periods of operation,
except when adding raw materials.

During the transfer of material to different containers, steps shall be taken to reduce and prevent
splashes and spills. Any liquid dry material spilled shall be cleaned as expeditiously as possible, but
not later than the end of the daily work shift.

Waste solvent shall be collected and stored in closed container the closed Containers m ay contain a
device that would allow pressure relief, but would not allow liquid solvent to drain from the container
prior to disposal.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
3.1 MATERIAL/INSTRUMENT USED
Table 3.0 Raw materials and chemicals for white emulsion paint and their measurement
CHEMICALS
MEASUREMENT
Calgon
16.25g
Titanium oxide
125g
Calcium carbonate
3.75kg
Kaolin(White)
0.5kg
Acrylic
0.5Liters
Natrosol
31.25g
Genepor
12.5g
Defoamer
12.5g
Acticide
8.7g
Ammonium
12.5g
Formalin
8.75g
Water
4Liters
3.2 Raw materials and chemicals used for production of white texcote paint
For the production of white texcoat the above listed chemicals in Table 3.0 were use, and 1kg of marble dust
was when producing the white texcoat paint.
3.3 Raw materials and chemicals used for production of blue emulsion paint.
For the production of blue emulsion paint, the above chemicals in Table 3.0 were used but for titanium 30g
was used, kaolin brown, and 20ml of blue past were added when producing the blue colour emulsion paint.
3.4 Raw materials and chemicals used for production of blue texcote paint.
For the production of blue texcoat paint, the above chemicals in Table 3.0 were used, but for titanium 0.5g
was used, kaolin brown, and 1kg of marble dust/fine sand were added when producing the blue colour texcoat
paint.
3.5 EQUIPMENT USED FOR THE PAINT PRODUCTION

Bucket

Turning rod

Weighing balance/scale
3,6 USES OF EQUIPMENT
Bucket: Use as a mixing tank.
Turning rod: Used for stirring of each step.
Weighing balance: Used for getting accurate measurement of each chemical used.
3.7 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Water and calgon was first transferred into the reactor and stir for proper dissolution, measured titanium was
added while stirring continuously. Kaolin was added and stirred vigorously for about 10min for proper
dissolution to bind all the chemicals together. To match the colour, calcium carbonate was added while stirring
continues, after matching the colour, calcium carbonate was added and stir to dissolve the calcium carbonate
in order to avoid lumps. Formalin, nepacide and genepool which serve as the preservative was well mixed in
a separate beaker and transferred into the reactor and stir properly, kerosene was added into the reactor and stir
thoroughly. Natrosol was weighed and dissolved in a bucket and transferred into the mixing reactor and stir
properly. Ammonium solution was added to the mixing reactor and stir thoroughly.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.0 RESULTS
After the production, drying test/ drying time, stain test, and density test was carried out on them using the
physical testing method.
4.1 DRYING TEST/ DRYING TIME
It’s one of important paint properties to consumer, which determine the time the paint solidify on the painted
surface, and accounting the time that it takes to be dry.
Drying test for emulsion paint
When applied on a plain surface and place under observation and accounting the drying time that it takes to be
dry, the was observed that it takes 2hours to dry on the plain surface. Drying time could depend on the porosity
of substrate texture and the application method. It was recoated after 3-4hours from the original painting. The
first coating was ‘touch dry’ at 2hours and then later was ‘hard dry’ around 8hours from its original timing,
and the second coating went on smoothly without picking up any of the initial paint
Drying test for texcote
When applied on a plain surface the maximum time it took was about 1-2hours to become ‘touch dry’. But the
second coating was inn a time interval of 3hours from its original time.
Factors That Affect Drying Time of Paint
Asides from the ambient temperature, here are other factors that affect the dry time of your paint:
Humidity
Humidity relates to the level of moisture in the atmosphere. When the humidity level is high, more water is in
the atmosphere. This happens during and after rainfall. Since there is increased water in the atmosphere, the
air current is slowed down and the temperature will be cooler. This will cause your paint to dry slower. The
paint can turn tacky, in extreme cases. However, the paint will dry if the humidity is at the right level. You
should apply paint when humidity is between 40-50%. You can test the humidity levels with a hygrometer,
and reduce it with a dehumidifier.
The Number of Coats
The number of paint coats determines the dry time of the paint. The more paint coats you apply, the more
solvent there is and the thicker the paint is, so the paint dries slower. It’s recommended to apply only 2 coats
of paint (4 coats is the maximum).
Prep Work
The level of prep work and how ready the surface determines the paint’s dry time. Before painting, you must
wipe, clean, and sand the surface. Sometimes, you’ll also need a primer coat before applying the paint. If you
don’t prime or wipe the surface before applying the paint, it will not dry fast.
Temperature:
Ideally, the temperature should be around 70 to 90OF during the drying/curing process. Temperatures below
49OF (9OC) will not allow the polymer solids to properly coalesce to form a continuous film, and may result
in film failure (cracking, adhesion failure, powdered film, etc.). Higher temperatures, like those reached with
a hair drier or heat lamp, can speed drying times up significantly, but overheating can cause bubbling or burn
the acrylic film. Likewise, lower temperatures will slow down the drying process and can be used to one’s
advantage for increasing the working time of the acrylic paints.
4.2 ACCELERATION AGEING TEST
The accelerated ageing test can be carried out using the Weather-Ometer Sunshine ARC XW laboratory
equipment, or exposing to the three enemies of paint are temperature fluctuations, ultraviolet sun rays, and
moisture. Perhaps the most demanding test for an exterior house paint is temperature fluctuations experienced
in freezing climates. This is due to the potentially damaging effects of the freeze/thaw cycle, where the
temperature may drop below freezing at night, and then rise above 32 degrees during the daytime
For this project work the ultraviolet sun rays was implored to check for the accelerating aging test, due to the
weather condition in Nigeria mainly lagos which is mostly sunny.
The paint was applied on a substrate and allowed to dry and then expose to ultraviolet rays for every 24hours
for a period of 4days the physical changes on the painted surface were observed, such as the colour changes,
breakage. And it was noticed good resistivity to ageing.
Heavy UV ray’s exposure can result in accelerated fading with some paints and erosion of the paint’s protective
properties the sun’s ultraviolet rays tend to deteriorate a paint’s binder. As the binder breaks down, pigment is
released in a powder or chalk-like form. It’s better to be safe by choosing a paint with superior protection
against UV degradation that will leave you with satisfied customers.
The constant solution in this battle against the three enemies of paint is to always use a top quality acrylic latex
paint. Regardless of your local weather conditions, it is good preventive medicine for customer-related
headaches.
4.3 DETERMINATION OF RESISTANCE TO WET ABRASION PAINT (ASTMD)
Paint sample was coated on a wall with a roller and brush and allowed to dry for 5-hours. Then, water of a
given flow rate was sprayed through a pumping channel directing to the paint coated wall for 30 minutes. This
test was carried out after 5 hours coating to confirm resistance to the wet abrasion of the paint. After the
resistance to abrasion test it was found to have a good abrasion resistivity.
4.4 DENSITY TEST
The formula for density is stated below;
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒……………………. 1
Density test for white emulsion paint
Weight of empty beaker = 0.168
Weight of content = 0.312
𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.312
=
= 0.00312𝑚𝑙
100𝑚𝑙
100𝑚𝑙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Conversion of 𝑚𝑙 𝑡𝑜 m3
1𝑀𝐿 = 0.00000001m3
100𝑚𝑙 = 𝑥
Using the cross multiplication method,
0.0000𝑚3ml = 𝑥𝑚𝑙
𝑥 = 0.000001𝑚3
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 = 0.168𝑔
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
0.312
0.144𝑔
Conversion of g to kg
1𝑔 = 0.01𝑘𝑔
0.144 = 𝑥
𝑥 = 0.00144𝑘𝑔
Density
0.00144
0.000001
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑚3 )
= 1440𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
4.5 DENSITY TEST FOR BLUE EMULSION PAINT
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.318𝑔
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 = 0.168𝑔
0.318𝑔 − 0.168𝑔 = 0.150𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑘𝑔
1𝑔 = 0.01𝑘𝑔
0.150𝑔 = 𝑥
𝑥 = 0.00150𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
0.00150𝑘𝑔
0.000001𝑚𝑐
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑚3 )
= 1500𝑘𝑔𝑚3
4.6 DENSITY TEST FOR BLUE TEXCOTE PAINT
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.320
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 = 0.168
0.320𝑔 − 0.168 = 0.152𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑘𝑔
1𝑔 = 0.0.01𝑘𝑔
0.152𝑔 = 𝑥
𝑥 = 0.00152𝑔
Density =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑚3)
0.00152
0.000001
= 1520𝑘𝑔𝑚3
4.7 DENSITY TEST FOR WHITE TEXCOTE
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.310𝑔
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 = 0.168𝑔
0.310𝑔 − 0.168𝑔 = 0.142𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑘𝑔
1𝑔 = 0.01𝑘𝑔
0.142𝑔 = 𝑥
𝑥 = 0.00142𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
0.00142𝑘𝑔
0.000001𝑚𝑐
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑚3 )
= 1420𝑘𝑔𝑚3
TABLE 4.0 CALCULATED VALUE FOR DENSITY
TYPE OF PAINT
DENSITY
White emulsion paint
1440𝑘𝑔𝑚3
Blue emulsion paint
1500𝑘𝑔𝑚3
White texcote paint
1420𝑘𝑔𝑚3
Blue emulsion paint
1520𝑘𝑔𝑚3
From the calculated density of the paint produced, their density values fell within the specific ranges.
The white emulsion paint produced have a density value of 1440𝑘𝑔𝑚3, the blue emulsion paint have
a density value of 1500𝑘𝑔𝑚3, the white texcote paint produced have a density value of 1420𝑘𝑔𝑚3
and the blue texcote paint produced have a density value of1520𝑘𝑔𝑚3 respectively. From the
calculated density value of the paint produced, it was observed that blue emulsion and blue texcote
have the highest density value. The density of paint doesn’t signify anything. Differences in paint density
are largely due to differences in the pigments used. Lead is a lot denser than titanium or zinc. Their oxides are
all used to make white paint which do have different properties one of which is density.
TABLE 4.1 OPACITY TEST
PAINT PRODUCT
OPAQUE
White emulsion paint
Good/Acceptable
Blue emulsion paint
Good/Acceptable
White texcoat paint
Good/Acceptable
Blue texcoat paint
Good/Acceptable
From the Table 4.1 above when carrying out the opacity test, there are different ways in performing the opacity
test. The light ray’s method was used to determine the opacity of this project work. When applying the paint
on the substrate, the first and foremost observation is to check how effective the paint is on the applied
substrate. The paint on the substrate was allowed to dry and pass through a luminous Led light. It was observed
that the light was unable to pass through it, but rather it refracted it forming a scattered rays of light. Which
signify 100% opacity.
Opacity is a simple phenomenon that results from the complex interplay of various component pigments,
extenders, dispersants, mineral fillers and parameters, such as pigment dispersion, film thickness in coating
formulation. There is difference between transparency, opacity and translucency;
Transparency is the quality of seeing through something or being permeable to light. It's easy enough to
understand why this definition would apply both in paint or dye and materials such as glass, water, and Perspex
where you can see objects on the other side.
Transparency can be broken down into two types: transparent (where some light passes through) or translucent
(where more than some but not all light passes through).
Opacity can also be broken down into two types: opaque (where none of the light passes through) or translucent
(where some but not all light passes). As you might have guessed, translucency is a term used to describe a
material where a proportion of light does pass through, e.g., stained glass, frosted glass and normal glass.
Opacity is considered so as to allow artists to build up layers quickly so that depth and detail can be added to
their work before they've run out of time, or photographers who need a reasonably large amount of light passed
through to create a certain effect. Either way, artists will want their paints to be as opaque as possible so that
details, textures and tones are seen clearly.
4.8 DETERMINATION OF pH PAINT VALUEASTMD
The pH value of the paint was determine according to the ASTMD. 100ml of the paint sample was measured
into a measuring cylinder; microcomputer/Digital pH meter was used in determining the pH value of the paint.
The pH meter was first standardized using buffer solution. The pH meter was then inserted into the paint
sample in the measuring cylinder, the pH value displayed on the meter was recorded as shown in the Table
4.2 below
Table 4.2 Results of pH determine and calculated density
TYPE OF PAINT
pH VALUE
White Emulsion paint
7.77
Blue Emulsion paint
7.27
White Texcote paint
7.0
Blue Texcote paint
7.35
From Table 4.0 The pH value, Blue texcote paint has highest pH of 7.77, followed by blue emulsion paint
7.27, white emulsion paint 7.5 and white texcote 7.0.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 CONCLUSION
It was concluded that the formulation of paint is based on trial and error but there are still some parameters
that controls it, parameters like pigment volume concentration and the pigment to binder ratio. The quality of
product highly depends on the selection of materials and the formulation adopted by the manufacturer with the
process of production used so that the product conforms to standard and also good mixing of the constituents.
The process involved in paint production, qualities and performances of emulsion paint in particular are largely
dependent on the properties of its constituents and the ratios of these constitutions include pigments, pigment
extenders, additives and vehicles. Failure to make proper formation before production causes deterioration.
Emulsion paint production from available materials must meet the present need for a high standard of
performance so as to cater satisfactorily for the needs of the society, at a particular point in time and to
demonstrate a credible record of an ability to challenge external and future influences.
In conclusion, texcote paint can be produced at the optimum composition. texcote is dictated by factors such
as degree of pigment dispersion and the quantity of binders etc. Texcoat is a product with diverse qualities that
makes it a preferred choice for people wanting a long lasting beautiful look for their homes and offices. The
long lasting velvety or smooth texture of texcoat helps in enhancing the beauty of any building and hence adds
value due to the their weatherproof, energy saving, Minimal Maintenance. The paints produced is sparingly
soluble in water and is not corrosive to human skin.
5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS
To improve on the result, the paint quality product, which was affected by low speed of the mixer used it in
recommend that large scale producers should use high speed motor fixed firmly on the frame work structure
so that the batch does not shake when in operation end of which the height of the impelled or rotor can be
varied at any depth in the container in order to achieve a uniform homogenous mixture.
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