Cooper Guided Notes
Chapter 1
Basic Characteristics of Science
Systematic approach for _______________ & __________________ knowledge about
the natural world
Purpose
–To achieve a thorough understanding of the phenomena under study
•ABA – __________________ important behaviors
–Seeks to discover the ______________ truths (not those held by certain
groups, organizations, etc.)
Three different types of investigations provide different levels of understanding:
–Description:
–Prediction:
–Control:
Each level contributes to the overall knowledge base in each field
Description
–Collection of facts about _____________ events that can be
________________, classified, & examined for possible relations with other
known facts
–Often suggests ______________ or questions for additional research
Prediction
–Relative _______________ that when one event occurs, another event will or
will not occur
–Based on repeated observation revealing _______________ between various
events
–Demonstrates ______________ between events
–No causal relationships can be interpreted
–Enables _________________
Control
Cooper Guided Notes
–Highest level of scientific understanding
–_________________ relations can be derived
•Specific change in one event (________________ variable)
•Can reliably be produced by specific manipulations of another event
(____________________ variable)
•And the change in the dependent variable was unlikely to be the
result of other extraneous factors (_________________ variables)
–Events can only really be “________________”
–Nearly impossible to factor out all other possible “causes”
Attitudes of Science
•Science as a _______________ of attitudes (Skinner, 1953)
•Definition of science lies within the ______________ of scientists, not the
_________________ or materials they use
•Only known as science due to an overriding idea of “scientific method”
–Fundamental assumptions about the nature of events
•Scientific attitudes that guide the work of all scientists include:
–Determinism
–Empiricism
–Experimentation
–Replication
–Parsimony
–Philosophic doubt
(DEERPP)
Determinism
•Assumption upon which science is ___________________
•Presumption that the universe is a ___________ and ___________ place in
which all phenomena occur as the result of other events
•Events do not just occur at will
•Events are related in ________________ ways
Empiricism
•Practice of ______________ _______________ of phenomena of interest
•What all scientific knowledge is built upon
Cooper Guided Notes
•“Objective” is the key to gaining a better understanding of what is being
studied
Experimentation
•Basic _________________ in most sciences
•Experiment:
–__________________________ comparison of some measure of the
phenomenon of interest (________________ variable) under two or
more different conditions in which only one factor at a time
(___________________ variable) differs from one condition to another
Replication
•The __________________ of experiments to determine the _______________
and usefulness of findings
•Includes the repetition of independent variable conditions within experiments
•Method for which ______________ are discovered
Parsimony
•The idea that __________________, logical explanations must be ruled out,
experimentally or conceptually, before more _______________ or abstract
explanations are considered
•Helps scientists fit findings within the field’s existing knowledge base
Philosophic Doubt
•The ______________________ questioning of the truthfulness and validity of
all scientific theory and knowledge
•Involves the use of scientific evidence before implementing a new practice,
then constantly ___________________ the effectiveness of the practice after
its implementation
A Definition of Science
•Science is…
–A ____________ approach to the understanding of natural phenomena…
–As evidenced by _______________, and control…
–That relies on _________________ as its fundamental assumption…
–__________________ as its prime directive…
–__________________ as its basic strategy…
Cooper Guided Notes
–__________________ as its necessary requirement for believability…
–__________________ as its conservative value…
–And _________________ _____________ as its guiding conscience.
Development of Applied Behavior Analysis
•Behavior analysis is comprised of three major branches
–Behaviorism
•_________________ of the science of behavior
–___________________ analysis of behavior (EAB)
•Basic research
–Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
•Development of a technology for __________________ behavior
•Can only be understood in the context of the ________________ &
basic research traditions & findings
•Psychology in the early 1900s was dominated by the study of states of
_________________________, images, & other mental processes
•Watson is recognized as moving the field of psychology in a new direction
–Argued that subject matter for psychology should be the study of
____________________ behavior, not states of mind or mental processes
–Early form of behaviorism known as __________-_____________ (S-R)
psychology (Watsonian behaviorism)
–Created foundation for the study of behavior as a natural science
•B.F. Skinner’s The Behavior of Organisms (1938/1966)
–Formally began the __________________ branch of behavior analysis
–Summarized his laboratory research from 1930-1937
–Discussed two types of behavior
•___________________
•___________________
Respondent behavior
–_____________________ behavior
–Ivan Pavlov (1927/1960)
–Respondents are _______________ (“brought out”) by stimuli that
immediately precede them
–Antecedent stimulus & response it elicits form a functional unit called
a ______________
–Involuntary responses
Cooper Guided Notes
–Occur whenever ___________________ stimulus is present
–S-R model
Operant behavior
–Behavior is shaped through the _________________________ that
immediately follow it
–Three-term contingency
–___-___-____ model
–Behaviors are influenced by stimulus changes that have followed the
behavior in the __________
Experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)
–Named as a new science by __________________
–Outlined specific methodology for its practice:
•The rate or __________________ of response is the most common
dependent variable
•____________________ or continuous measurement is made of carefully
defined response classes
•___________-___________ experimental comparisons are used instead
of designs comparing the behavior of experimental & control groups
•Visual analysis of _________________ data is preferred over
statistical inference
•A description of ________________ relations is valued over formal
theory testing
Skinner & colleagues conducted many laboratory experiments between the
1930s and 1950s
–Discovered & verified __________ principles of _______________
behavior
–Same principles continue to provide the empirical foundation for
behavior analysis today
B.F. Skinner
–Founder of ________________________ of behavior
–Wrote extensively
•Very influential in the guiding practice of the science of
behavior & in proposing the application of the principles of
behavior to new areas
•Walden Two (1948)
•Science and Human Behavior (1953)
Cooper Guided Notes
•About Behaviorism (1974)
–Philosophy of science became known as
______________ ____________________
Radical behaviorism
–Attempts to explain _____ behavior, including _________ behavior
(e.g., thinking & feeling)
________________ behaviorism
–Philosophical position that considers behavioral events that cannot
be __________ observed to be outside the realm of the science
Mentalism
–Approach to understanding behavior that assumes that a
___________ or “inner” dimension exists that differs from a behavioral
dimension & that phenomenon in this dimension either directly cause or
at least mediate some forms of behavior
–Relies on ________________ constructs and explanatory fictions
–Dominated Western intellectual thought & most psychological
theories (e.g., Descartes, Freud, Piaget)
–Relies on the premise of _______________________________ (e.g.,
“knowledge”)
•A fictitious variable that often is simply another name for the
observed behavior that contributes nothing to an
understanding for the variables responsible for developing (or
maintaining) the behavior
•__________________ view of the cause & effect
Structuralism
–Rejects all events that are not ___________________ defined by
objective assessment
–Restrict activities to ____________________ of behavior
–Makes no scientific manipulations; does not address causal questions
Methodological behaviorism
–Rejects all events that are not operationally defined by objective
assessment
•Deny existence of “________ ________________” or consider
them outside the realm of scientific account
Cooper Guided Notes
•_______________________ the existence of mental events but
do not consider them in the analysis of behavior
–Use scientific manipulations to search for _________________
relationships between events
–___________________ view since it ignores major areas of importance
•Skinner did not object to cognitive psychology’s concern with thoughts &
feelings (i.e., events taking place “inside the skin”)
•Referred to these as “private events”
•They are behavior to be analyzed with the same conceptual & experimental
tools used to analyze publicly observable behavior
Radical behaviorism (Skinner’s behaviorism) makes three assumptions about the nature of
private events
–Private events such as thoughts and feelings are ______________
–Behavior that takes place within the skin is distinguished from
other (“public”) behavior only by its ________________________
–Private behavior has no special properties & is influenced by (i.e., is a
function of) the same kinds of variables as publicly accessible behavior
Radical behaviorism (Skinner’s behaviorism)
–Includes & seeks to understand _______ human behavior
–Far-reaching & ___________________________
–Dramatic departure from other conceptual systems
Fuller (1949)
–One of the first studies to report the ________________ application
of operant behavior
–Participant: 18-year-old boy with profound mental retardation
–Arm-raising response was ___________________ by injecting a small
amount of a warm sugar-milk solution into participant’s mouth every
time he moved his right arm
Ayllon & Michael (1959)
–“The Psychiatric Nurse as a Behavioral Engineer”
–Formed the basis for branch of behavior analysis that would later be called
________________________________________ (______)
–Described techniques based on principles of behavior to improve the
functioning of chronic psychotic or mentally retarded residents
Cooper Guided Notes
1960s
–Researchers began to apply principles of behavior in an effort to
improve _____________________ important behavior
–Techniques for measuring behavior & controlling & manipulating
variables were sometimes unavailable, or __________________
–Little _____________________ was available
–No ready outlet for publishing studies
•Difficult to __________________ findings
Despite limitations in the 1960s many applications of behavior principles were
made
Application of behavior principles to _______________ is a major area of
impact
Provided the foundation for:
–behavioral approaches to curriculum design
–instructional methods
–classroom management
–generalization and maintenance of learning
1960s & 1970s
–Many new __________________ programs were developed in applied
behavior analysis
–________________ & _________________ conducted in these programs
made major contributions to the rapid growth of the field
1968
– Formal beginning of contemporary applied behavior analysis
–Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) began publication
–“Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis” (Baer, Wolf,
& Risley)
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA)
–First journal in U.S. to deal with ________________ problems & gave
researchers using methodology from the experimental analysis of behavior an
______________ for publishing their findings
Cooper Guided Notes
–Flagship journal of ABA
“Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis” (Baer, Wolf, & Risley)
–____________________________ of the new discipline (ABA)
–Defined the criteria for judging adequacy of _____________ &
_________________ in ABA & outlined the scope of work for those in
the science
–Most widely ________________ publication in ABA
–Remains standard description of the discipline
Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) recommended the following ____________ defining
__________________ for research or behavior change programs:
–Applied
–Behavioral
–Analytic
–Technological
–Conceptual
–Effective
–Generality
–BATCAGE
OR GETACAB
Applied
–Investigates ___________________ significant behaviors with
immediate importance to the participant(s)
–Examples include behaviors such as:
•Social
•Language
•Academic
•Daily living
•Self-care
•Vocational
•Recreation and/or leisure
Behavioral
–Precise measurement of the ________________ behavior in need of
improvement & documents that it was the __________________
behavior that changed
Cooper Guided Notes
•The behavior in need of improvement and it is a study of
behavior (not about behavior)
•The behavior must be _____________________
•Important to note whose behavior has changed
Analytic
–Demonstrates _________________________ control over the
occurrence and non-occurrence of the behavior (a functional relation is
demonstrated)
–__________________ & ___________________ relationships
Technological
–Written description of all procedures in the study is sufficiently
________________ and ________________ to enable others to replicate
it
–All operative procedures are identified and described in detail & clarity
–______________________ technology
Conceptually systematic
–Behavior change interventions are derived from ____________
principles of ________________
–Better enable research consumer to derive other similar procedures
from the same principle(s)
–Assist in ______________________ discipline into a system instead of
a “collection of tricks”
Effective
–Improves behavior sufficiently to produce __________________
results for the participant(s)
–Improvements in behavior must reach ____________ or
_____________ significance
–Extent to which changes in the target behavior(s) result in
______________ changes
Generality
–Produces behavior changes that last over _____________…
–Appear in other ____________________ (other than the one in which
intervention was implemented)
Cooper Guided Notes
–Or spread to other _____________________ (those not directly
treated by the intervention)
Additional Characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis
Offers society an approach toward solving problems that is:
–Accountable
–Public
–Doable
–Empowering
–Optimistic
Accountable
–Created by the focus on:
•_______________________ environmental variables that
reliably influence behavior
•Reliance on direct & ____________ measurement to detect
changes in behavior
–Detect successes and failures
–Allow changes to be made
Public
–______________, explicit, & _______________________
–Of value across a broad spectrum of fields
Doable
–Not prohibitively complicated or _____________________
–Variety of individuals are able to implement principles and
interventions
–Does involve more than learning to do some procedures
Empowering
–Provides practitioners with real ________ that work
–Raises ______________________
–Increases confidence for _____________ challenges
Optimistic
–Possibilities for _________ individual (Strain et al., 1992)
–Detect small ____________________
Cooper Guided Notes
–Positive outcomes yield a more optimistic attitude about future
successes
–Peer-reviewed ________________ provides many examples of success
Definition of Applied Behavior Analysis
Applied behavior analysis is:
–A ____________ approach to improving socially significant behavior…
–In which procedures derived from the principles of behavior are
_____________________ applied to improve _______________ significant
behavior…
–And to demonstrate ___________________ that the procedures employed
were responsible for the improvement in behavior
Six key components:
–Guided by attitudes of methods of _________________ inquiry
–All behavior change procedures are ______________ & implemented in a
systematic, ____________________ manner
–Only procedures _______________________ derived from the basic principles
of behavior are circumscribed by the field
–Focus is ____________ _______________ behavior
–Seeks to make meaningful improvement in important behavior
–Seeks to produce an analysis of the factors responsible for
___________________
Domains of Behavior Analytic Science
Four domains
–Behaviorism
–Experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)
–Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
–Professional practice
Behavior analysts may work in _______ or _______ of the four domains
Domains are interrelated & influence one another
Behaviorism
–Theoretical & __________________issues
Cooper Guided Notes
–Conceptual basis of behavior principles as they relate across many
spectrums
Experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)
–________________research
–Experiments in __________________ settings with both human participants
and _________________subjects
–Goal of discovering & clarifying fundamental principles of behavior
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
–_____________ research
–Experiments are aimed at discovering & clarifying _______________ relations
between socially significant behavior & its controlling variables
–Desire to contribute to further development of a ______________ &
___________________ technology of behavior change
Professional practice
–Providing behavior analytic services to ____________________
–Design, implement, & ________________ behavior change programs that
consist of behavior change tactics derived from fundamental principles of
behavior
•Discovered by ________________ researchers
•Experimentally validated for their effects on socially significant
behavior by ___________________ researchers
Chapter 2
Basic Concepts
Definition of Behavior
• “The behavior of an organism is that portion of an organism’s _________________ with
the ____________________ that is characterized by detectable displacement in space
through time of some part of the organism and that results in _________________
_________________ in at least one aspect of the environment” (Johnston & Pennypacker,
1980, 1993a)
Cooper Guided Notes
Behavior of an Organism
•Portion of the organism’s interaction with the ____________________
•_______________________ in space through time
–Temporal _________________
–Temporal extent
–________________________
•Results in a ___________________________________ in some aspect of the environment
Behavior or Response
•Behavior in reference to a larger set of __________________________________________
sharing certain
–_____________________ characteristics
–Functions
•Response
–Specific ____________________ of behavior
Descriptions of Behavior
Structural and functional
•Response _______________________
–Form
–Physical characteristics
•__________________
–Effects of behavior on ____________________
Response Class
•A group of responses with the _________________
_________________
–Each ____________________ in the group produces the same effect on the environment
Repertoire
•All ______________________ a person can do
•Set or collection of _______________________
______________ ________________ a person
has learned that are relevant to a particular setting or tasks
–_________________________ with respect to language skills, academic tasks, everyday
routines, recreation, & __________________ ________________ _________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Environment
•All behavior occurs within an ______________________________________
•______________________ cannot be emitted in an environmental void or vacuum
•Johnston & Pennypacker (1993a) definition
•Complex, dynamic universe of events that differ from ________________________________
_________________
•Stimulus
− “an _____________________________________ that affects an organism through its
receptor cells” (Michael, 2004, p. 7)
Description of Stimulus Events
•______________________
–Physical features
•Temporally
–Occur with respect to a _________________________________________________
•Functionally
–Effects on behavior
Stimulus Class
•Any group of ___________________ sharing a _______________________________________
of common elements in one or more of these dimensions
–Formal dimensions of stimuli
–Temporal ______________________ of stimuli
–Behavioral functions of _________________________________________
Formal Dimensions of Stimuli
•Descriptions, measurements, ______________________
–Based on size, color, ________________________, etc.
•Stimuli can be
–Social
–_______________________
Cooper Guided Notes
–Temporal Locus of Stimuli
•_______________________ is affected by stimulus changes that
–occur prior to (_____________________)
–Immediately after the behavior (_______________________)
•Antecedent
–Environmental conditions or stimulus changes that exist or occur
___________________________ the behavior
•Play a critical part in ___________________ and ____________________
•Learners do not need to be aware of antecedents for antecedents to
_____________________________________
•___________________________
–Stimulus change that follows a behavior of interest
•Especially those that are _____________________
•Relevant to current __________________________ states
•Influence on ______________________ behavior
–Other consequences have little effect
Temporal Locus of Stimuli – Big Idea
•Consequences _________________________________________ the antecedent conditions to
determine what is learned
–True, whether or not individual is aware of or systematically plans the
______________________
•It’s happening all around us!
_______________________ functions of stimulus changes
•Stimulus changes are best understood through a
______________________________________ of their effects on behavior
–________________________ control
–_____________________, or no apparent effect
Behavioral Functions of Stimulus Changes
•Stimulus changes
–An immediate but _______________________ effect of increasing or decreasing the current
____________________ of the behavior
–A delayed but relatively _______________________ effect in terms of the frequency of
that type of behavior in the future (Michael, 1995)
Stimulus Changes: Social & Nonsocial
Cooper Guided Notes
•See Table 2-1, pg. 28 in text (second edition text)
Respondent Behavior
•Behavior that is elicited by ____________________________________________
_____________________, brought out by the stimulus that ____________________ it
•Something in your eye elicits eye blink (__________________)
•Ready-made behaviors protect against ____________________ stimuli
•_________________________ relations
Reflex
•_________________________
Gradually ________________________ response strength
Respondent Conditioning
•Experimental demonstrations of ________________________________________
–Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
–Digestive systems of ____________________
–Animals _______________________ every time lab assistant opened the cage door to feed
them
•See Figure 2-1, pg. 31 in text (second edition text)
Operant Behavior
•Any behavior whose future frequency is determined primarily by its __________________
____________________ ____________________
–Selected
–____________________
–_______________________ by consequences
•Defined functionally, by its effects
Selection by Consequences
•All forms of life, from single cells to complex cultures, evolve as a result of
___________________ with respect to ___________________ (Pennypacker, 1994, pp. 12 13)
•_______________________
–Operates during the _____________________ of the individual
•__________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
–Natural selection in the _______________________of a species
Operant Conditioning
•Process and selective effects of _______________________ on behavior
•“Functional consequence”
–Stimulus change that ____________________ a given behavior in a relatively immediate
temporal sequence and alters the ___________________of that type of behavior in the
____________________
•“Strengthen” an _____________________
–Response more ____________________, more frequent (Skinner, 1953, p. 65)
•________________________ has taken place when
–Operant conditioning consists of an increase in _____________________
______________________
Type of Stimulus Change
•See Figure 2-2, pg. 37 in text (second edition text)
Operant Conditioning
•Consequences can only affect __________________________behavior
•Consequences select _______________________________________, no individual responses
•________________________ consequences have the greatest effect
•Consequences select any behavior
–______________________ and ________________________ are equal opportunity selectors
–Importance of ____________________ relations
•Operant conditioning occurs ____________________
Reinforcement
•Most important _______________________________________________________
•Key element to most ________________________________________programs
Reinforcement - Defined
•If behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus event and as a result the future
frequency of that type of behavior __________________ in similar conditions,
_____________________ has taken place
Cooper Guided Notes
Stimulus Changes Functioning as Reinforcers
•___________________ Reinforcement (Adding)
–A new stimulus added to the environment (or __________________ in intensity)
•____________________ Reinforcement (Withdrawing)
–An already present stimulus ____________________ from the environment (or reduced in
intensity)
•See Figure 2-2, pg. 37 in text
•See Figure 2-3, pg. 42 in text (second edition text)
Reinforcement – Big Ideas
•Always means an increase in ______________________________________
•The modifiers positive (adding) and negative (withdrawing)
–Describe the __________________ of stimulus change operation that best characterizes
the consequence
Punishment
•If behavior is followed ___________________
_______________ ________________ by a
stimulus event and as a result the future frequency of that type of behavior decreases in
similar conditions, _______________________ has taken place
Stimulus Changes Functioning as Punisher
•Positive Punishment (Adding)
–Punishment by _______________________ stimulation
–A __________________________________ added to the environment (or increased in
intensity)
–Type I
•Negative Punishment (Withdrawing)
–Punishment by contingent withdrawal of a ___________________________________
–An already present stimulus __________________ from the environment (or reduced in
intensity)
–Type II
•See Figure 2-2, pg. 37 in text
•See Figure 2-3, pg. 42 in text (second edition text)
Cooper Guided Notes
Punishment – Big Ideas
•Always means a ______________________ in response rate
•The modifiers positive (adding) and negative (withdrawing)
–Describe the ____________________ of stimulus change operation that best characterizes
the consequence
Principles and Behavior Change Tactics
•Principle of behavior
–Describes a functional relation between _____________________ and one or more of its
controlling ________________________ (b = fx)
•Thorough ______________________ across individual organisms, species, settings, behaviors
•Empirical _______________________ inferred from many experiments
•Describe how behavior works
•Reinforcement, punishment, ______________________
•_____________________________________________ tactic
–__________________________, technologically consistent method for changing behavior
that has been derived from one or more basic principles of behavior
•Sufficient generality across subjects, settings, and/or behaviors to warrant its
________________________ & _______________________
–Technological aspect of ______________________
Principles and Behavior Change Tactics – Big Idea
•Principles
–Describe how behavior ________________________
–Lawful relationship between behavior,
•An immediate consequence, and an ______________________________________ of the
behavior in the future under similar conditions
•Behavior change tactics
–Are how __________________ __________________ ____________________ put the
principles to work to help people learn and use ______________________
___________________ behaviors
What kinds of stimulus changes function as reinforcers and punishers?
•___________________________ reinforcement and punishment
–Function irrespective of prior __________________________________________
•__________________________ reinforcers and punishers
Cooper Guided Notes
–Function as such based on previous pairings with other _____________________ and
__________________________
Motivating Operations
•Function
–Alters the current value of ____________________________________________ as
reinforcement or punishment
•Satiation
•__________________________
Discriminated Operant
•Occurs more frequently under some antecedent conditions than it does under others
•__________________________ _______________________
–_______________________ rates of operant responding observed in the presence or absence
of antecedent stimuli
–Due to pairings (antecedent/consequence) in the past, antecedents acquire the ability to
_________________________ ____________________ _____________________
Three-Term Contingency
•____________________(A) – ___________________(B) – ___________________ (C)
–Basic unit of analysis in the analysis of _____________________________________
–All ABA procedures involve the _________________________of one or more components of
the three-term contingency
The Complexity of Human Behavior
•Highly complex variables governing ____________________________________
•Human capabilities
–Large repertoires of _____________________________________, verbal behavior
•Analysis of control complicated by
–Individual differences in __________________________________________________________
–Practical, _______________, logistical, etc., issues
Chapter 3
Selecting and Defining Target Behaviors (Tx)
Role of Assessment in Applied Behavior Analysis
– Methods to identify and define __________________for behavior change
Cooper Guided Notes
– Identify relevant factors that may inform or influence ______________________
Five Phases of Assessment
1. Screening
2. Defining problem or criteria for ________________________
3. Pinpointing target behaviors
4. _____________________________progress
5. Following-up
Pre-assessment Considerations
– Ethical considerations
• Authority
• ______________________________
• Resources
• Social ________________________
Assessment Methods
– ___________________ measures
• Interviews
• Checklists
– __________________ measures
• Tests
• Direct observation
Interviewing the Individual
– Identify list of potential target behaviors
• ________________ and __________________
• Avoid “why”
– Identify primary concerns
– Verified through further data collection
• Direct __________________________
• Use of questionnaires or self-monitoring
Interviewing Significant Others
– Develop behavioral descriptions
• What, when, how
• Avoid “why”
• Move from _____________________ to _________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
– Determine participation
Checklists
– Descriptions of _____________________behaviors and conditions under which each should
occur
– Alone or with interview
– Typically, Likert-scale assessments
– Ask about ____________________ and _____________________________
• Child Behavior Checklist
• Adaptive Behavior Scale - School
• Adaptive Behavior Scale - Residential and Community
Standardized Tests
– _________________________________________ administration
• Compares performance to specified criteria
• Norm-referenced
– Limitations
• Do not specify target behaviors
• Do not provide ____________________________________ of behavior
• Licensing requirements
Direct Observation
– Direct and repeated
– _____________________________ environment
– Identifies potential target behaviors
– ___________________________method
Anecdotal observation
Features of ABC recording
– Descriptive
– Temporally sequenced
– Description of behavior ______________________________
• Full attention, 20 - 30 min
– Observations only, no ______________________________________
– Repeat over several days
Ecological Assessment
– Data on ___________________________ and ______________________________
• Physical features
• Interactions with others
Cooper Guided Notes
• Home
• Reinforcement history
– Evaluate amount of descriptive data required to ____________________ current need
Reactivity
– Effects of __________________________ on ______________________ being assessed
• Obtrusive assessment great impact
• Self-monitoring most obtrusive
– Reduce reactivity
• _________________________________________ methods
• Repeat observations
• Take effects into account
Assessing Social Significance
– Consider whose behavior is being assessed and why
• Unacceptable to change behavior _______________________________
__________________ ______________________ ______________________
– To what extent will proposed change improve the person’s life?
Habilitation
– Degree to which a person’s behavior repertoire __________________________ short and
long term _______________________ and ____________________________ short and long
term ______________________________________
– Use to assess meaningfulness of behavior change
Determining Habilitation
–
–
–
–
–
–
Relevance of behavior __________________________ intervention
Prerequisite skills
Increased access
Impact on behavior of ___________________________
Behavior cusp
Pivotal Behavior
Behavior Cusp
– Behaviors that open person’s world to new ____________________________
• Crawling, reading
– Socially valid
– Generativeness
– Competes with inappropriate responses
Cooper Guided Notes
– Degree that others are ______________________________________
Pivotal Behaviors
– Once learned produces changes in other _____________________________ behaviors
• Self-initiation, joint attention
– Advantages for both interventionist and client
Determining Habilitation
– Age appropriateness
• Normalization
• Philosophy of achieving greatest possible _____________________________ of people
with disabilities into society
– Replacement behaviors
• Cannot eliminate or reduce a behavior without teaching a
_______________________________________
Determining Habilitation
– Actual target goal or indirectly related
• ____________________________ vs. work _____________________________
– Talk v. Behavior of interest
▪ Primary importance is ___________________________ behavior
– Focus on behavior, not ________________ product
• Weight loss or exercise and diet?
Prioritizing Target Behaviors:
1. ____________________________ to health or safety
2. Frequency
– Opportunities to ______________new behavior
– Occurrence of problem
3. Longevity
4. Potential for higher rates of _____________________________
5. Importance
– Skill development
– Independence
6. Reduction of negative attention
7. Reinforcement for significant others
– Social validity
– Exercise caution when considering
8. Likelihood of success
– _______________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
– Practitioner’s experience
– Environmental variables
– Available resources
9. Cost-benefit
– Costs include client’s _______________________ and _______________________
Target Behavior Ranking Matrix
– Numerical __________________________ of potential target behaviors
– Increase client, parent, and staff participation
• Resolve conflict
• Build consensus
Sample Ranking Matrix
Behaviors
Does this behavior pose a
danger?
#1
#2
#3
01234 01234 01234
How long-standing is this problem 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
or deficit?
Will changing this behavior
produce higher rate of
reinforcement?
01234 01234 01234
How likely is success in changing
this behavior?
01234 01234 01234
Defining Target Behaviors
– Role and Importance of Definitions
• Definitions required for __________________________________
• Replication required to determine usefulness of data in other situations
• Necessary for research
Importance of Definitions to Practitioner
– Accurate, on-going evaluation requires explicit definition of behavior
– ______________________________________________definition
• Complete information
– Accurate and believable evaluation of effectiveness
Cooper Guided Notes
Two Types of Definitions
– _____________________________-based
• Designated according to effect on the environment
– ______________________________-based
• Identifies the shape or form of the behavior
Reasons to Use Function-based Definitions
– Includes all members of ___________________________________________
– The function of behavior is most important feature
– Simpler and more concise definitions
• Easier to measure accurately and reliably
Other Uses
– When ___________________________________________ is not within control of behavior
analyst
• Logistical, ethical, or safety reasons
• e.g., Function of elopement is a lost child
– In these cases, function-based definition by proxy
• More restrictive definition that keeps behavior within control of analyst
Reasons to Use Topography-based Definitions
– Behavior analyst does not have direct, reliable, or easy access to functional outcomes
– Cannot rely on function of behavior because each occurrence does not produce relevant
outcome
Other Uses
– When the relevant outcome is sometimes produced by undesirable variations of the
response class
• e.g., A basketball player scores with a sloppy shot from the free throw line
– Definition should encompass ________ __________________ ___________ that produce
relevant outcomes
Writing Target Behavior Definitions
– A________________________________________
– C________________________________________
– C_________________________
– Inclusions
– Exclusions
Cooper Guided Notes
Characteristics of Good Definitions
– Objective
• Refer only to the ___________________________
– Clear
• Readable and ______________________________
– Complete
• Delineate ___________________________________ of definition
Purpose of Good Definitions
–
–
–
–
Precise and concise description
_______________________________________ observation
Accurate recording
Agreement and _____________________________________
Testing a Definition
– Can you count number of occurrences?
• Should answer “___________”
– Will a stranger know what to look for based on definition alone?
• Should answer “___________”
– Can you break the target behavior down to smaller, more specific components?
• Should answer “_________”
Setting Criteria for Behavior Change
– Selected because of ____________________ to clients
o Increase, maintain, generalize desirable behaviors
o Decrease undesirable behaviors
– Valued and meaningful behaviors have _______________________ _______________
Set Criteria Before Modifying
– Setting criteria as important as defining
– Range of _______________________________________________
– Must identify optimum range prior to modifying
– Must know when to ___________________________ treatment
– Eliminate disagreements on effectiveness
Two Approaches for Setting Criteria
– Assess performance of highly __________________________________ people
– Experimentally manipulate different ________________________
______________________ to determine optimal results
Cooper Guided Notes
Chapter 4
Measuring Behavior (Bx)
Definition of Measurement
• The process of applying quantitative labels to observed properties of events
using a standard _____________________________________________
Researchers Need Measurement
• How scientists operationalize __________________
-Without__________________, science is guesswork and
opinion
• Applied behavior analysts measure _________________ to answer questions
-Basis for talking about behavior
Practitioners Need Measurement
• To evaluate __________________________________________
-Before and after treatment
-___________________ treatment
• To guide ________________________________
• To ____________________________________
-Continue ineffective treatment
-Discontinue effective treatment
Benefits of Measurement
• Optimize effectiveness
• ______________________________________ of treatments
• Identify and end use of pseudoscience
• ______________________
• Meet _______________________________________
Measurable Dimensions of Behavior
• Dimensions are ________________________________ that can be measured
• Three fundamental properties
-Repeatability or ____________________: behavior can be
counted
-Temporal extent: ____________________
-____________________________________: when behavior
occurs
Cooper Guided Notes
Measures Based on Repeatability
• Count
-Number of ____________________ emitted during an
____________________ period
• Reported as _____________________________________
• Measures of count alone do not provide sufficient information for analysis
• Rate/Frequency
-Ratio of __________________ per observation period
• More meaningful than count alone
• Include ________________________________ for reference
• Rate of correct and incorrect responses helpful in ___________________________
• Reported as number per standard _________________________________________
Guidelines for Using Rate
• Take ____________________ of response into account
• Useful measure for __________________________________
• Not appropriate for responses within ______________________________________
• Not appropriate for _______________________________ over extended period
Measures Based on Repeatability
• ______________________
-Measure of the change in rate of ________________ per unit
of time
• Reported using ________________________________ Chart
• Captures ___________________ acceleration and deceleration
Measures Based on Temporal Extent
• ____________________
-The amount of __________________ a behavior occurs
• Total duration of session
• Duration of each ________________________
• ____________________ in standard time units
• Count and duration measures provide ____________________________________ of
same behavior
Measures Based on Temporal Locus
• Response ____________________
-Measure of elapsed time between __________ ____________
________________ and initiation of response
Cooper Guided Notes
•
•
•
•
Typically reported as _______________, _______________, and range
________________ _______________
-Amount of time that elapses between two consecutives
instances of a ______________________________
Direct measure of temporal locus and related to ____________
Reported as mean, median, and __________________
Derivative Measures
• ___________________
-A ratio formed by combining the same dimensional qualities
-Expresses ___________________ quantity
• Proportion of correct to incorrect
• Proportion of ___________________ intervals when behavior occurred
Considerations for Using Percentage
• Often misunderstood, used incorrectly
• Most accurate with divisor of ________________________________________
• Percentage may be misleading
• __________________ use because has no dimensional quantity
• Sets artificial limits on behavior change
Derivative Measures
• Trials-to-criterion
-Measure of the number of _________________
________________ needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance
• Other measures can be used to determine ____________________ (e.g., rate)
• Typically, calculated post facto
• Used to compare ____________________
Definitional Measures
• _______________________
-The physical form or shape of a behavior
• ____________________ dimension
• Malleable by _____________________
• Not a fundamental quality of behavior
• Magnitude
-The ____________ or ______________ with which a response is emitted
• Important parameter for some response classes
-e.g., _________________________________
• Not a fundamental quality of behavior
Cooper Guided Notes
Procedures for Measuring Behavior
• Typically involve one or a combination of these three:
-___________________ recording
-_____________________
-Time ____________________ methods
Event Recording
•
•
Procedures for detecting and recording the
__________________________________________ a behavior is observed
__________________ include:
-Wrist counters, digital counters, masking tape, paper clips, etc.
Considerations for Event Recording
• Easy to do
• Behavior must have discrete _____________________________________________
• __________________ must not be too high
• Inappropriate for behaviors with ___________________________________
Timing
•
•
•
Procedures to measure duration, __________________________, and
__________________ time
Duration:
-Computer systems, stopwatch, wall clocks, tape recorder
Response latency and interresponse time
-___________________________ of duration between events
of interest
Time Sampling
•
•
Variety of methods for observing and recording behavior during
__________________ or at specific moments in time
__________________ is divided into intervals, presence or _________________ of
behavior recorded for each interval
Time Sampling: Whole-Interval Recording
•
•
•
•
•
Used to measure ___________________ behavior
_________________ intervals (5-15 seconds)
At end of interval, record if behavior occurred throughout
Risk of ______________________
Reported as ____________________ of intervals when behavior occurred
Cooper Guided Notes
Time Sampling: Partial-Interval Recording
•
•
•
•
At end of interval record if behavior occurred at any time during interval
___________________________________ scored as one
-Does not capture ___________________
Allows recording of multiple behaviors
Reported as percentage of intervals when behavior occurred
Time Sampling: Momentary Time Sampling
•
•
•
•
Record whether the behavior is occurring at the ______________ of the interval
Does not require undivided attention
_________________ much behavior
-Best for continuous behavior
Reported as percentage of intervals when ________________________________
Time Sampling: Planned Activity Check
•
•
Variation of momentary ________________________________
-Measures behavior of individuals within a group
At end of interval, measure number of students __________________ in target
activity
Guidelines for Time Sampling
• Use a __________________________________ to signal beginning and end of
observation
-Increase __________________
-Not distracted by watching a stopwatch
• _________________ a response for every interval (e.g., yes or no)
-Prevents losing your place with blank intervals
Time Sampling Artifactual Variability
• ___________________ is something that appears to exist because of the way it
is examined or measured
• Time sampling provides estimate of __________________________________
• ___________________________________ produce different results
• Differences produce ______________________ in data
Measuring Behavior by Permanent Product
• Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring its effects on the
__________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
•
•
Ex post facto
All previous procedures can be applied to permanent __________________
measurement
• Products can be _________________ or ___________________
Advantages of Permanent Product Recording
• Practitioner free to do other tasks
• Possible measurement of otherwise _____________________ behavior
• More ____________________, complete, continuous
• Easier ____________________________________ (IOA, treatment integrity)
• Measurement of complex behavior
Determining Appropriate Use
• Is real-time measurement needed?
-_______________________________________________
decisions required
• Can behavior be measured by __________________________________?
-Each occurrence must produce same product
-Product can only be produced by ________________
________________
• Will a contrived product affect the behavior?
-____________________ effects
• ____________________ to obtain and measure the permanent product?
-_____________________, cost and effort of generating the
product
Computer-Assisted Measurement
• Data collection and _________________________________ combined
-Multiple systems available
-____________________ and easy to use
-Laptops, hand-held computers, PDAs
• Simultaneous recording of ___________________________________ across multiple
dimensions
Cooper Guided Notes
Chapter 5
Improving and Assessing the Quality
Of
Behavior Measurements
Indicators of Trustworthy Measurement
•_________________________
–Directly measures a _____________________________________ behavior
–Measures a dimension of the behavior relevant to the question
–Ensures the data are _______________________
•Accuracy
–Observed values match the ___________________________________ of an event
•__________________________
–Measurement yields the same values across _______________________ measurement of
the same event
Threats to Measurement Validity
•________________________ measurement
–Measuring a behavior other than the behavior of interest
–Requires ____________________ be made about the relationship between those behaviors
–Must provide evidence that the behavior measured is
________________________________________ to behavior of interest
•Measuring a dimension that is ________________________or ill-suited to the reason for
measuring behavior
•Measurement ________________________
Measurement Artifacts
•_______________________ data that result from the way behavior is measured:
–__________________________ measurement
–Poorly scheduled __________________________
–Insensitive or limiting ______________________________________________
Threats to Measurement Accuracy and Reliability
•__________________________error
•____________________________________________ measurement systems
Cooper Guided Notes
–Cumbersome
–Difficult to use
–________________________
•Inadequate ________________________ training
–Explicit and systematic
–Careful selection
–Train to _______________________ standard
–On-going training to minimize observer ________________________
•Unintended influences on observers
–Observer __________________________ of what the data should look like
–Observer reactivity when observer is aware that others are ________________________
the data
–Measurement ________________________
–Feedback to observers about how their data relate to the ______________________ of
intervention
Assessing the Accuracy and Reliability of Behavioral Measurement
•First, design a good measurement _______________________
•Second, ________________________ observers carefully
•Third, evaluate extent to which data are _________________________ and reliable
–Measure the measurement system
Assessing the Accuracy of Measurement
•_________________________ means the observed values match the true values of an
event
•No one wants to base research conclusions or treatment decisions on faulty data
Four purposes of accuracy assessment:
–Determine if data are good enough to make __________________________
–Discovery and ________________________of measurement errors
–Reveal _______________________ _______________________ of measurement error
–Assure consumers that data are accurate
Accuracy Assessment Procedures
•Measurement is accurate when observed values match ___________________ values
–Accuracy determined by calculating ___________________________ of each data point with
its true value
Cooper Guided Notes
–Process for determining true value must differ from measurement procedures
–_________________________________________________ should be reported in research
Assessing the Reliability of Measurement
•Measurement is __________________________ when it yields the same values across
repeated measures of the same event
–Not the same as accuracy
–Reliable application of measurement system is important
–Requires __________________________________________________ for re-measurement
–Low reliability signals ________________________ data
Using Interobserver Agreement to Assess Behavioral Measurement
The degree to which two or more independent observers report the ___________________
values for the _______________________ events
Benefits of Interobserver Agreement (IOA)
•Determine _________________________ of new observers
•Detect observer drift
•Judge ________________________ of definitions and system
•__________________________ believability of data
Requisites for IOA
•Observers must:
–Use the ______________________ observation code and measurement system
–Observe and _______________________ the same participants and events
–Observe and record __________________________of one another
Methods for Calculating IOA
•__________________________ of agreement is most common
•_______________________________________________ methods compare:
–Total count recorded by each observer
–________________________ count-per-interval
–Exact count-per-interval
–________________-________________-___________________
•Timing recording methods:
–Total _________________________IOA
–Mean duration-per-occurrence IOA
Cooper Guided Notes
•_________________________-per-response
•Mean IRT-per-response
•______________________ recording and _____________________ sampling:
–Interval-by-interval IOA (Point by point)
–Scored-interval IOA
–________________________-interval IOA
Considerations in IOA
•During each _________________________ and _______________________ of a study
•Distributed across days of the week, time of day, settings, observers
•Minimum of _____________________ of sessions, preferably 25-30%
•More frequent with complex systems
•Obtain and report IOA at the same levels at which researchers will report and discuss in
study results
–For each _________________________
–For each participant
–In each phase of _________________________or __________________________
•More conservative methods should be used
•Methods that will overestimate actual agreement should be _______________________
•If in doubt, can report more than one calculation
•Believability of data increases as __________________________ approaches 100%
•History of using 80% agreement as acceptable benchmark
–Depends upon the _____________________________ of the measurement system
•Reporting IOA
–Narrative form
–___________________________
–Graphs
•In all formats, report how, when, and how often IOA was _____________________
Assessing the Quality of Measurement
•Indicators of the quality of data include:
–_______________________________
–Accuracy
–Reliability
•Can report multiple indices to assess ________________________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Chapter 6
Constructing and Interpreting Graphic Displays
Of
Behavioral Data
Direct and Repeated Measurement of Behavior
• Data
– ________________with which the behavior analyst works
– Results of ________________________________
– Empirical basis for decision making
– ___________________
o These data _______
•
•
Consecutive measures, over time
Data series vs. graphic display
Number Correct
Condition A
Condition B
12
15
13
•
14
21
24
Percentage of correct responses
– 70, 72, 71, 87, 90, 85, 73
Graphic Display
Cooper Guided Notes
Graphic Display
Purpose & Benefits of Graphic Display
• Graphic displays
– Primary function _________________________
– Display relationships between dependent variable and independent variable
– ____________________________of data collected
– Facilitates accurate _______________________________
• Benefits
– Immediate access to record of behavior
– Variations prompt exploration
– Provides ____________________________________________
– Relatively easy to learn, no predetermined level for determining
_________________________of change, no mathematical properties required
– Conservative method
– Encourages _________________________________ judgment & interpretation
– Effective source of feedback
Fundamental Properties of Behavior Change
• ___________________
•
___________________
•
___________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Types of Graphs Utilized in ABA:
• Line graph
• Bar graphs
• Cumulative record
• Semilogarithmic charts
• Standard Celeration Chart
• Scatterplots
Line Graph
• Based on the Cartesian plane
•
Two-dimensional area formed by ____________________________________
•
Points on the plane represent relationships
•
_____________________ of the dependent variable when the independent variable
was in effect
•
Comparison of data points reveals the presence or absence of changes in
______________, _________________________, and/or variability
Cooper Guided Notes
Parts of a Line Graph
Cooper Guided Notes
Parts of a Line Graph
• Horizontal axis
• Vertical axis
• Condition change lines
• Condition labels
• Phase and condition
• Data points
• Data path
• Figure caption
Line Graph - Variations
• Two or more dimensions of the same behavior
• Two or more different behaviors
• Measure of the same behavior under different conditions
• Changing values of the independent variable
• Same behavior of two or more participants
Bar Graph
• Based on the Cartesian plane
• No distinct data points representing ____________________________________
___________________through time
– Functions
• Displaying and comparing discrete sets of data that ___________
____________related by a common underlying dimension by which the
horizontal axis can be scaled
• Visual summary of participant or group performance during different
experimental conditions
• Provides efficient summary of data
• ___________________________ allow for analysis of variability & trends in
behavior
Cooper Guided Notes
Sample Bar Graph
Cooper Guided Notes
Cumulative Record
• Developed by Skinner
• Primary means of data collection in EAB
• Cumulative recorder
– Experimental subject draws its own graph
• Shows the ______________ ________ __________________on the ordinate against
time on the abscissa
– Number of responses recorded and added to the
______________________________________ of responses recorded during
previous observations
• Cumulative
• Y-Axis (vertical axis)
– Represents the total number of responses recorded since the
______________of data collection
• Display
– __________________________________of responses at any given point in time
• Relative rates of response
– The __________________the slope, the ________________the response rate
• Overall response rate
• Local response rate
Types of Graphs Utilized in ABA
Cumulative Record
Cooper Guided Notes
Cumulative Record
• When to use cumulative graph over a noncumulative graph
– Progress toward a specific goal can be measured in __________________
• e.g., Number of new words learned, quarters saved
–
Graph is used as _______________________feedback
• Total progress and relative rate of performance easily detected
– Target behavior can only occur _______________per observation period
• Yes/No
– Intricate details between ________________ & _______________________
variables are of interest
• e.g., Within session analyses
Equal-interval Graphs
• Distance between any ________ ______________________ points on each axis is always
the same
• Increase/decrease in performance expressed by ______________distances on the y-axis
• Distance between sessions, days, etc., expressed by equal _____________ on the x-axis
Semilogarithmic Charts
• Ratio or multiply-divide charts
• One axis is _________________proportionally
• _______________response rate 4 to 8 same as 50 to 100
• All behavior changes of _______________________________________are shown by equal
vertical distances on the vertical axis
Standard Celeration Chart
• Developed by Ogden Lindsley
• Standardized method for
– Charting & analyzing how ____________________of behavior
______________________ over time
• Four standard charts
– Difference in ________________ on horizontal axis
▪ Daily chart (140 calendar days)
▪ Weekly chart
▪ Monthly chart
▪ Yearly chart
• What’s standard about the standard celeration chart?
– Consistent display of ____________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Celeration
• Linear measure of _______________________________ across time
• A factor by which frequency ________________ or ________________________per unit of
time
• Acceleration – accelerating performance
• Deceleration – decelerating performance
Standard Chart
• ________________,  10 cycles (vertical axis)
– 1 per 24 hrs
– 1,000 per minute
– Bottom left to top right corner
▪ Slope of 34° - celeration value _________
Standard Celeration Chart & Precision Teaching
Precision Teaching
• Instructional _________________ - _____________________ system
• Developed for use with standard celeration chart
• Position
– Learning best measured as a ____________________ in _______________
_______________
– Learning most often occurs through _______________________________ changes in
behavior
– Past changes can ____________________________ future learning
▪ Chart uses estimations for most ____________________ values
Scatterplot
• Shows relative distribution of individual measures in a ________________ set
• Data points are _______________________
• Depicts changes in value on one axis _________________ ___________changes in value on
the other axis
• Patterns suggest certain ____________________________________
• Sometimes used to discover the ___________________________ distribution of the
target behavior
Cooper Guided Notes
SCATTERPLOT
Individual: ______________________________________ Behavior: _____________________________________________
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
/
SCORING: Zero in box
= No occurrences
Slash in box
= < 5 occurrences
Filled in box
=>5
occurrences
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------DAY/DATE
TIME
Activity/Location
Comments
8:00-8:30
8:30-9:00
9:00-9:30
9:30-10:00
10:00-10:30
10:30-11:00
11:00-11:30
11:30-12:00
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Constructing Line Graphs
• An effective graph presents data
– A____________________________
– C____________________________
– C________________
– Makes visual analysis as easy as possible
– Does not create ______________________ or _______________ interpretation
Constructing Line Graphs—Drawing, scaling, & labeling axes
• Use a balanced ratio between the ______________________ and ___________________ of
the axes
• Relative length of the vertical axis to horizontal axis
– Suggestions
▪ 5:8; 3:4; 1:1.6 ratio y-axis to x-axis
• Horizontal axis
– Mark equal intervals
– Left to right chronological succession of equal time periods or response opportunities
– Use regularly spaced _______________________________
– Use a scale break to represent discontinuities in the progression of time
• Scaling of vertical axis
– Most ___________________________________ feature of the graph
– Mark the origin at _____________________
– Mark the ________________________________________ of values represented in the
data set
▪ If relatively small changes in performance are socially significant, y-axis
should reflect a _________________________ of values
– Labeling vertical axis
▪ Brief label, printed, centered to the left and parallel to the vertical axis
Cooper Guided Notes
Constructing Line Graphs – LABEL THE PARTS OF THE GRAPH BELOW
Cooper Guided Notes
Constructing Line Graphs—Data Points & Data Paths
• Place each data point in the ________________ coordinate of the horizontal and vertical
axis
– If graphing by hand, use a graph paper with appropriately spaced _____________
___________________
• Use_________________, easily discernable symbols
– Use a different symbol for each ________________ of ________________
• Draw data paths using a __________________________ line
• The center of each data point in a given data set should be in the center of the next
data point in the same set
• DO NOT CONNECT DATA POINTS IF…
– Points fall on either side of a _____________________________________________ line
– A significant span of time passed and behavior was
___________________________________________
– There was a discontinuity in time in the horizontal axis (e.g., school vacation)
– Data were not collected, lost, etc.
– It is follow-up or post-check data
▪ Unless intersession time span same as original experiment
• Data points fall beyond the values described by the vertical axis
• Use different styles of lines for ______________________ data paths on the same graph
• Clearly _________________________ what each data path represents
– Use arrows or a legend
Constructing Line Graphs–Figure Caption & Printing
• Figure caption
– Printed below the ____________________________________
– Concise, complete ___________________________ of figure
– Direct viewers’ attention to features of the graph that may be
__________________
▪ e.g., scale changes
– Describe the meaning of any ___________________________________
– Print graphs in one color - ____________________
Constructing Graphs – Using Computer Software
• Use with caution
– Check the range of scales available
– Check the accuracy of data point plotting
– Check the precision of data paths
• Further information
– Carr & Burkholder (1998)
Cooper Guided Notes
– Silvestri (2003)
▪ www.prenhall.com/cooper
Interpreting Graphically Displayed Behavioral Data
• Visual analysis
– Did behavior change in a meaningful way?
– If so, to what extent can that change in behavior be attributed to
the_________________ ________________________________?
• Identification of
– Variability
– Level
– Trend
“It is impossible to interpret graphic data without being influenced by various
characteristics of the graph itself.” Johnson & Pennypacker, 1993b, p. 320
•
•
Read the graph
– Figure caption
– Condition & axis labels
– Location of numerical value & relative significance of scale breaks
____________________________________________ each data path
– Are data paths properly connected?
– Is the graph distorted?
Visual Analysis
• Within conditions
– _______________________ of data points
– Nature & extent of _______________________________in the data
– Absolute & relative _________________________ of the behavioral measure
– Direction & degree of any _____________________ in the data
• Between conditions
– Level
– Mean or median level lines
– Trend
– Stability/Variability
▪ Across similar conditions
Level
•
•
•
_________________ on the vertical axis around which a series of data points converge
Stability
– When data points fall at or near a specific level
Mean or median lines
– Added to represent overall average or typical performance
Cooper Guided Notes
– Use with caution—can obscure important variability
Trend
•
•
•
•
Overall direction taken by the data path
Direction
– Increasing, decreasing, or _________________________ trend
Degree
– ___________________________ or steep
Extent of variability
– Trend line or line of progress
– Freehand, least-squares regression equation, or split-middle line of progress
Variability/Stability
•
Frequency and degree to which ________________________________________________ of
behavior yield different outcomes
• High degree of variability
Little or no control over the ________________________ influencing behavior
Chapter 7
Analyzing Behavior Change:
Basic Assumptions and Strategies
Concepts & Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Behavior
o D_______________________
o Empiricism
o Experimentation
o P_______________________
o Philosophic doubt
“The overall goal of science is to achieve an understanding of
the phenomena under study.”
o In applied behavior analysis, the phenomena of interest is ______________________
___________________________ behavior
o Science enables various degrees of understanding at three levels
▪ D__________________________________
▪ P__________________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
▪
Control
Experimental Control: The Path to and Goal of Behavior Analysis:
o Experimental control (defined)
▪ A ____________________________________change in behavior (dependent
variable) can be reliably produced by the _____________________________
_________________________________of some aspect of the person’s environment
(independent variable)
o Experimental analysis (defined)
▪ Experimentally determining the effects of __________________________________
manipulation on __________________________ and demonstrating that those
effects can be __________________________produced
▪ Can be achieved when
o A reliable ________________________________________ between behavior
and some specified aspect of the environment has been demonstrated
convincingly
o Internal validity
▪ The extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in
_____________________________ are a _______________________of the
independent variable and not the result of ___________________________ or
unknown variables
▪ Studies without high a high degree of internal validity
o Yield no meaningful statements about ___________________relations
o Lack ___________________________
▪
Confounding variables are those variables known or suspected to exert an
______________________________ ________________________on the dependent
variable
o The effects of confounding variables must be
___________________________ and ______________________ to
demonstrate experimental control
“The goal of experimental design is to eliminate as many uncontrolled variables as possible
and to hold constant the influence of all other variables except the independent variable,
which is purposefully manipulated to determine its effects.”
Behavior: Defining Features and Assumptions That Guide Its Analysis:
Defining features
o Behavior is an ______________________________ phenomenon
o Behavior is a _______________________________phenomenon
Cooper Guided Notes
Assumptions
o Behavior is _______________________________
o Behavioral variability is _____________________to the organism
Behavior is an individual phenomenon
o Behavior: a person’s ______________________________________________
o Groups of people do not behave
o Experimental strategy of ABA is based on ___________________________
(______________________________________ ) methods of analysis
Behavior is a dynamic, continuous phenomenon
o Changes over time
o Requires __________________________________ measurement over time
▪ Complete _________________ of behavior as it occurs in context
▪ Systematic ________________ measurement is the “hallmark” of ABA
Behavior is determined
o The occurrence of any event is determined by the
____________________________________________ it holds to other events
o Behavior is a ______________________________ phenomenon
Behavioral variability is extrinsic to the organism
o Variability is the result of _____________________________influence, such as
▪ The independent variable under investigation
▪ Some ______________________________ aspect of the experiment
▪ Uncontrolled or unknown factor __________________ of the experiment
Behavioral Variability
Most commonly held assumptions in psychology and other social/behavioral sciences
o The assumption of _______________________________ variability
o An intrinsic characteristic of the ______________________________
o Distributed _________________________among individuals in any given population
o Methodological implications
o Attempting to _____________________________________________or investigate
variability is a waste of time
o By _________________________________ the performance of individual subjects
within large groups, the random nature of variability can be statistically controlled
or ____________________________ out
Cooper Guided Notes
Behavioral Variability
Assumptions of Behavior Analysts
o Behavioral variability is the result of an _______________________________ influence
o Methodological implications
o Experimental ____________________________ of the factors suspected of
causing variability
o Search for _______________________ factors
o In practice
o Applied behavior analysts seek treatment variables
__________________enough to overcome variability
Components of Experiments in ABA
At least one
Subject or participant
_____________________________ (dependent variable)
Setting
Treatment or intervention condition (_________________________variable)
A system for _____________________the behavior and ongoing
________________________of the data
o Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable,
if any, can be detected
o
o
o
o
o
Experimental Design
Research Question
o “a brief but specific statement of what the researcher wants to
____________________from conducting the experiment” (Johnston & Pennypacker,
1993b, p. 366)
o What are the effects of the_________________________________ variable on the
___________________________________variable and for what ___________________& in
what setting?
Subject(s)
o In single-subject research the subject is employed as his or her own ______________
o Measures of the subject’s behavior during each phase of the study provide
the basis for comparing experimental variables as they are
_______________________or _________________________________in
subsequent conditions
Behavior(s)
o Dependent variable(s)
o Reasons for multiple dependent measures
Cooper Guided Notes
o Provide data patterns that can serve as controls for
__________________________ & ___________________________ the effects of
an independent variable
o Assess the presence and the extent of the independent variable’s effects on
behaviors other than the response class to which it was directly applied
o Determine whether changes in the behavior of a person other than the
subject occur during the course of an experiment & if such changes can explain
_________________________________in the subject’s behavior
Setting
“Control the environment and you will see order in behavior.”
(Skinner, 1967, p. 399)
o Control two sets of environmental variables to demonstrate
_____________________________________________
Independent variable
o Presenting, withdrawing, or varying its value
Extraneous variables
o Prevent ________________________environmental variation
Measurement System and Ongoing Visual Analysis
o Observation & recording procedures must be conducted in a
______________________________ manner
o Standardization involves every aspect of the ________________________system
o Definition of the target behavior to scheduling of observations
o Behavior analysts must develop skills in the detection of changes in the
__________________, ___________________, and degree of ___________________ in
behavioral data
Intervention or Treatment: Independent Variable
Independent variable (defined)
o The particular aspect of the environment that the experimenter
________________________ to find out whether the it affects the subject’s behavior
o The researcher controls or manipulates this variable independent of the subject’s
behavior or any other event
Experimental Design
Experimental design (defined)
o The particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that _______________________
______________________________ of the effects of the presence and absence of the
independent variable can be made
Cooper Guided Notes
Nonparametric study
o Independent variable is either presented or absent during a time period or phase of the
study
Parametric study
o The _________________ of the independent variable is manipulated
o Seeks to discover the differential effects of a range of values
Fundamental Rule
_______________________________________ one _________________ at a time
o Experimenter can attribute any measured changes to a ____________________
independent variable
o If investigating the effects of a “treatment package”
o Ensure that the _________________________________________is
presented or withdrawn each time a manipulation occurs
Some Additional Rules
o Do not get locked into textbook “designs”
o Often require a priori assumptions about the nature of the functional
relations one seeks to investigate
o May be __________________________________to unanticipated changes in behavior
o Select & combine _________________________ ____________________ that best fit
the research questions
Steady State Strategy & Baseline Logic
“A pattern of responding that exhibits relatively little variation in its measured dimensional
quantities over a period of time”
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a, p. 199)
o Provides the basis for baseline logic
Steady state strategy
o ____________________________ exposure of a given subject to a given condition while
trying to eliminate or control ____________________________influences on behavior &
obtaining a __________________________pattern of responding __________________
introducing the next condition
Baseline logic
o P________________________________
o V________________________________
o R________________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Nature & Function of Baseline Data
o Serves as a _________________________condition
o Does not imply the absence of intervention
o Absence of a ___________________________independent variable
o Why?
o To establish a baseline level of responding to use the subject’s performance in
the absence of the independent variable as an
_______________________________ _____________ for detecting change
o Applied benefits of establishing a baseline level of responding
o To obtain _____________________________ of antecedent-behaviorconsequent correlations for the ______________________________of an
effective treatment
o Valuable guidance in setting initial ________________________ for
reinforcement
o Baseline data may reveal the behavior targeted for change does not
______________________________intervention
Types of Baseline Data Patterns
o Stable baseline
o See Figure 7-1(A), pg. 168 in text (second edition)
o Ascending baseline
o See Figure 7-1(B & C), pg. 168 in text (second edition)
o Variable baseline
o See Figure 7-1(D), pg. 168 in text (second edition)
Prediction
“The anticipated outcome of a presently known or future measurement. It is the most
elegant use of quantification upon which validation of all scientific and technological activity
rests.” (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1980)
o Prediction
o See Figure 7-2, pg. 169 in text (second edition)
Affirmation of the Consequent
o Affirmation of the consequent
o _____________________________ logic
o “if the independent variable were not applied, the behavior, as
indicated by the baseline data path, would not change”
o If-A-then-B statement
Cooper Guided Notes
Chapter 8
Reversal and Alternating Treatment Designs
Reversal Design
•Repeated ___________________ of ___________________ in given setting
•Requires at least 3 consecutive phases:
–Initial _____________________ (A)
–Intervention (B)
–__________________ to baseline (A)
A-B-A-B Reversal
•A-B-A-B preferred over ____________________ as stronger demonstration
•Most powerful within-subject design for demonstrating a _____________________
______________________ between an environmental manipulation and a behavior
Operation and Logic of Reversal Design
•Involves ____________________, verification, and _____________________
•Independent variable is responsible for behavior change if repetition of baseline and
treatment phases approximate the __________________________________________
Variations of the A-B-A-B Design
•Repeated ______________________
•B-A-B reversal design
•Multiple ______________________ reversal designs
•NCR reversal technique
•_________________________ reversal technique
•DRI/DRA reversal technique
Repeated Reversals
•A-B-A-B-A-B
•__________________________present more convincing demonstration of functional relation
•Possible, however, to become ________________________
B-A-B Reversal Design
•Doesn’t enable assessment of effects on ______________________________ level
Cooper Guided Notes
•Possible _____________________ effects
•May be appropriate with dangerous behaviors
•_____________________ of withholding effective treatment
Multiple Treatment Reversal Designs
•To compare effects of _______________ or __________________ experimental conditions
with each other or baseline
•Can make design decisions based on ________________________________________ of data
•Vulnerable to sequence effects
•i.e., A-B-A-B-C-B-C, A-B-C-B-C-B-C
NCR Reversal Technique
•___________________________ reversal
•Demonstrates effects of _______________________________________________
•Useful when not possible to eliminate activity used as contingent reinforcement
•Deliver NCR on _____________________ or ______________________ schedule independent of
the behavior
DRO/DRI/DRA Reversals
•DRO: Deliver reinforcement following any behavior other than the ________________
behavior
•____________________: Reinforcement following behavior that’s incompatible with target
behavior
•DRA: Following an __________________________ behavior other than the target behavior
•Shows effectiveness of ________________________ reinforcement
The Appropriateness of the Reversal Design
•Advantages:
–Clear demonstration of functional relationship
–________________________ amount of behavior change
–Shows need to program for __________________________
•Disadvantages:
–_________________________
–Social, educational, and _____________________ concerns
Irreversibility
Cooper Guided Notes
•Reversal design not appropriate when independent variable cannot be
________________________
•Level of behavior from earlier phase cannot be reproduced again under the
____________________________________________
•If suspected, consider DRO or DRI/DRA as controls or multiple baseline designs
Withdrawing Effective Interventions
•Social concerns
–Get _______________________________________ of everyone involved
•Educational and clinical issues
–Reversal phases can be very ______________________
–For ethical reasons, withdrawal of intervention may not be appropriate in
_______________________ situations
Alternating Treatments Design
•Efficient for _________________________________________ of 2 or more treatments
•Also known as:
–Multi-element baseline design
–Multiple schedule design
–Concurrent schedule design
–Simultaneous treatment design
Operation and Logic of Alternating Treatments Design
•Alternated in a variety of ways
•A _________________________________________________ is often associated with each
treatment
•Involves prediction, verification, and __________________________
•Experimental _________________________ demonstrated with different levels of response
in different treatments
•Allows for quick comparison
•Stress importance of evaluating ____________________________ treatments
Variations of Alternating Treatments Design
•Single phase without no-treatment control condition
•Single phase with one no-treatment control condition
•Two phase with __________________________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
•Three phase with baseline and final _______________________________________________
phase
Without No-Treatment Control Condition
•See Figure 8.12, pg. 192 in text (second edition)
With No-Treatment Control Condition
•See Figure 8.10, pg. 190 in text (second edition)
Two Phase with Initial Baseline
•See Figure 8.13, pg. 193 in text (second edition)
With Baseline and Final Best Treatment Phase
•See Figure 8.14, pg. 194 in text (second edition)
Advantages of Alternating Treatments Design
•Does not require treatment ___________________________
•Speed of comparison
•Minimizes _______________________ problem
•Minimizes sequence effects
•Can be used with unstable data
•Can be used to assess ___________________________ of effects
•___________________________ can begin immediately
Disadvantages of Alternating Treatments Design
•Multiple treatment _____________________________
•Unnatural nature of rapidly alternating treatments
•________________________ ________________________ (max. of 4 conditions)
•Selection of treatments – should be significantly ________________________ from one
another
Verification
o Verification of a previously ____________________________level of baseline responding by
termination or withdrawal of the treatment variable
o See Figure 7-4, pg. 172 in text (second edition)
Cooper Guided Notes
Replication
“Replication is the essence of believability.”
(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968, p. 95)
o Replication of the experimental effect accomplished by
_________________________________ the treatment variable
o See Figure 7-5, pg. 173 in text (second edition)
Chapter 9
Multiple Baseline and Changing Criterion Designs
Multiple Baseline Design
•Most widely used for evaluating __________________________________________
•Highly flexible
•Do not have to ____________________ treatment variable
in ABA
Operation and Logic
•Alternative to ________________________________________ when target behavior is likely
to be irreversible or when impractical or unethical to reverse conditions
•3 basic forms:
–Multiple baseline across __________________________
–Multiple baseline across _________________________
–Multiple baseline across __________________________
Prediction, Verification, and Replication
•Apply independent variable to Behavior 1 when you can confidently ____________________
that the behavior would remain the same in constant conditions
•If Behaviors 2 and 3 __________________________________________ after the
application of the IV to Behavior 1, this verifies the prediction
•If the IV changes Behavior 2 like it did Behavior 1, the effect of the IV has been
_________________________
•The more _________________________, the more convincing the demonstration; most
commonly 3-5 tiers
Cooper Guided Notes
Multiple Baseline Across Behaviors
•Two or more ____________________________________________________ of same subject
•Each subject serves as his/her own _________________________
•After steady state baseline responding, independent variable is applied to 1st behavior,
while other behaviors are kept in ________________________ ________________________
•When steady state responding is reached for 1st behavior, then IV is applied to next
behavior
Multiple Baseline Across Settings
•A single behavior is targeted in two or more different ____________________ or
_______________________
•After _________________________________________baseline responding, independent
variable is applied to 1st setting, while other settings are kept in baseline conditions
•When steady state responding is reached for 1st setting, then IV is applied to
________________________________________________
Multiple Baseline Across Subjects
•One ___________________________________________ for 2 or more subjects in the same
setting
•After steady state baseline responding, independent variable is applied to 1st subject, while
other subjects are kept in baseline conditions
•When steady state responding is reached for 1st subject, then IV is applied to next subject
•Most widely used ________________________________________________________________
Variations of Multiple Baselines
•Alternative tactics for pursuing a multiple baseline analysis:
–_____________________________________________design
–___________________________ multiple baseline design
•When extended baseline measurement is unnecessary, impractical, too costly, or unavailable
Multiple Probe Design
•Analyzes relation between independent variable and acquisition of ______________________
_________________________
•Instead of simultaneous baselines, probes provide basis for determining if
____________________________________________ has occurred prior to intervention
Cooper Guided Notes
•Appropriate for analyzing a _____________________ program
Delayed Multiple Baseline Design
•Initial baseline and intervention begin, and subsequent baselines are added in a delayed or
_______________________ fashion
•Effective when reversal design is not possible, limited resources preclude a full-scale design,
and when a new behavior, subject, or setting becomes available
•Limitations: ______________________________________________ and can mask
interdependence of dependent variables
Assumptions and Guidelines
Select independent, yet ________________________________________ baselines
•Behaviors are functionally independent of one another
•Behaviors share enough similarity that they will change with the application of the same
_________________________________________
Select ______________________ and plausibly related multiple baselines
•Behaviors must be measured concurrently
•All relevant variables that influence one behavior must have opportunity to influence other
behaviors
Do not apply the independent variable to the
______________________________________________ too soon
Vary significantly the _______________________ of multiple baselines
•The more baseline phases differ in length, the _________________________ the design
Intervene on ____________________________________________ baseline first
•If possible, application of independent variable should be made in order of greatest
stability
Multiple Baseline Design Advantages
•Does not require ________________________ of an effective treatment
•Ideal for multiple ______________________________________________ sought by many
practitioners
•Useful in assessing occurrence of ___________________________ of behavior change
•Relatively easy to conceptualize
Limitations
•Does not demonstrate _________________________________________________
•Provides more information about effectiveness of treatment variable than
____________________ of target behavior
Cooper Guided Notes
•Can require treatment being withheld for some behaviors/settings/subjects for a long
time
•Required __________________________ and ____________________________
Changing Criterion Design
•Used to evaluate effects of a treatment that is applied in a ________________________
______________________ to a single target behavior
•Initial baseline phase followed by series of treatment phases that serve as baseline for
______________________ _______________________ of the next phase
Operation and Logic
•Prediction, __________________________, and verification
•Variation of the multiple baseline design
•Show repeated production of _____________________________________________ of
behavior as function of manipulations of independent variable
•_____________________________ of the design
Guidelines for Use
•Requires careful manipulation of 3 design factors:
–_______________________ of phases
–magnitude of _____________________________________________
–_______________________ of criterion changes
Length of Phases
•Each phase serves as __________________________ for next phase, so must be long enough
to achieve stable responding
•_______________________ to change target behaviors, therefore, require longer phases
•Should vary considerably to increase design’s __________________________
Magnitude of Criterion Changes
•Varying size of changes gives more convincing demonstration of ______________________
____________________
•Must be large enough to be ______________________, but not so large as to be
__________________________
•Smaller changes can be used with very stable levels of responding
•Larger changes required to demonstrate behavior change in presence of
_____________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Number of Criterion Changes
•The ________________________
___________________________ the behavior changes to
meet new criteria, the more convincing the demonstration of experimental control
•Interrelated with phase length and ______________________ of criterion changes
•If _______________________ _________________________ for study, the greater the
number of phases, the shorter each phase can be
Appropriateness of Changing Criterion Design
•Does not require reversal of improved behavior
•Only ________________________________________________________________ is required
•Only for use with behaviors that are already in student’s _________________________ and
lend themselves to stepwise modification
•Not appropriate for ______________________ behaviors
•Best suited for evaluating effect of instructional techniques on stepwise changes in rate,
frequency, accuracy, ________________________, or ________________________ of single
target behavior
Chapter 10
Planning and Evaluating Applied
Behavior Analysis Research
Importance of Individual Subject
•Enables applied behavior analysts to _____________________ and ____________________
effective interventions for socially significant behaviors
•Contrasted with groups-comparison approach
Groups-Comparison Experiment
•________________________ selected pool of subjects from relevant population
•Divided into experimental and ______________________ groups
•Pretest, application of independent variable to ____________________________ group, and
posttest
Cooper Guided Notes
Group Data Not Representative of Individual Performance
•Individuals within a group could stay the same or decrease, while the improvement of
others could make it appear as overall average improvement
•To be most useful, treatment must be understood at an
_____________________________________________
Group Data Masks Variability
•Hides ________________________ that occurs within and between subjects
•__________________________ control should not be a substitute for
__________________________ control
•To control effects of any variable, must either hold it constant or manipulate it as an
independent variable
Absence of Intrasubject Replication
•Power of __________________________ effects with individuals is lost
•Many applied situations in which overall performance of group is socially significant
•When group results don’t represent individuals, should supplement the data with
______________________________________________
Importance of Flexibility in Design
•An effective researcher must actively design each experiment so that it achieves its own
unique design
•Good experimental design is any independent variable manipulation that produces data
that convincingly addresses the __________________________________________________
•The book presents ________________________________________________ in design form
Experimental Designs
•Often designs entail a _________________________ of analytic tactics
•Component analysis of elements
•Infinite number of possible designs with different combinations
•Most effective use ________________________ __________________________ of data from
individuals to employ baseline logic of prediction, verification, and replication
Cooper Guided Notes
Internal Validity
•Experiments that demonstrate clear functional relations have high degree of
_________________________________________________
•________________________________________________ refers to all relevant variables
•Steady state responding as evidence
•_______________________________ variables are threats to internal validity
Subject Confounds
•_____________________________: changes in subject over course of experiment
•Repeated measurement controls and detects uncontrolled variables
Setting Confounds
•Studies in __________________________________________________ are more prone to
confounding variables than in controlled laboratories
•If change in setting occurs, should then hold new conditions constant until
____________________________________________________________________ is observed
Measurement Confounds
•______________________________________________ or bias
•Keeping observers naive to expected outcomes can reduce observer bias
•Must maintain ___________________________________________________ long enough for
reactive effects to run their course and then obtain stable responding
•Could use _____________________________________________ except when practice effects
would be expected
Independent Variable Confounds
•__________________________ control separates effects produced by subject’s perceived
expectations
•Double-blind control _________________________
_______________________ by subject
expectations, teacher and parent expectations, differential treatment by others, and
observer bias
Treatment Integrity
•Similar to procedural fidelity
•Extent to which the independent variable is implemented or carried out as planned
•Low ________________________________________________ makes it very difficult to
confidently interpret experimental results
Cooper Guided Notes
•____________________________________________________: when application of independent
variable in later phases differs from original application
Precise Operational Definition
•A high level of treatment integrity requires a complete, precise
_______________________________________________ of treatment procedures
•Define in 4 dimensions: verbal, physical, spatial, and __________________________
Simplify, Standardize, and Automate
•Simple, precise treatments are more likely to be ___________________________ delivered
•Simple, easy-to-implement techniques are more likely to be used and
_____________________________________________
•Experimenters should ___________________________ as many aspects as possible and
practical
•If possible, without compromise, could use an automated device to deliver independent
variable
Training and Practice
•________________________ or provide practice for individual who will conduct the
experimental sessions
•Could provide a detailed script, ________________________________________________,
modeling, or performance feedback
Assessing Treatment Integrity
•Collect treatment integrity data to measure how the actual __________________________
of the conditions matches the ___________________________________________________
•Observation and calibration give the researcher the ongoing ability to use retraining and
practice to ensure high ____________________________________________________
•__________________________, eliminate, or identify the influence of as many potentially
confounding variables as possible
Social Validity
•Includes the __________________________________________________ of the target
behavior, the appropriateness of the procedures, and the social importance of the results
•Usually assessed by asking direct and indirect consumers
•Consumer ___________________________
Cooper Guided Notes
Social Importance of Behavior Change Goals
•To determine socially valid goals:
–___________________________ the performance of persons considered competent
–Experimentally ___________________________ different levels of performance to determine
which produces optimal results
Social Importance of Interventions
•_________________________________________________ and questionnaires for obtaining
consumers’ opinions on acceptability of interventions
•Examples:
–Intervention Rating Profile
–Treatment __________________________ Rating Form
Social Importance of Behavior Changes
•Methods for assessing outcomes:
–Compare subject’s performance to a _____________________________________________
–Use _________________________ assessment instrument
–Ask consumers to rate ____________________________________________ of performance
–Ask experts to evaluate subject’s performance
–Test subject’s new performance in ______________________________________________
Normative Sample
•Not limited to posttreatment comparisons
•Compare subject’s behavior to _____________________________________________ of
behavior of normative sample to provide ongoing measure of improvement and how much is
still needed
Consumers and Experts
•Most frequently used method for assessing social validity is to ask consumers
•_________________________ can be called upon to judge the social validity of some behavior
changes
Standardized and Real-World Tests
•Example of standardized test: Self-Injury Trauma Scale (SITS)
•_____________________________________________________ in the natural environment
provides direct assessment of social validity
Cooper Guided Notes
•Also exposes subject to naturally occurring reinforcement, which may promote
_________________________ and ____________________________
External Validity
•Degree to which a functional relation in an experiment will hold under
_______________________________________________
•A matter of _____________________, not all-or-nothing
•Those with greater degrees of generality make greater contribution to applied behavior
analysis
External Validity and Groups-Design Research
•There is nothing in the results of a groups-design experiment that can have
_______________________ ___________________________
•Unable to provide data that lead to improved practice in education
•Groups-design is effective in ___________________________ evaluations
External Validity and Applied Behavior Analysis
•___________________________ of findings in ABA is assessed, established, and specified
through replication of experiments
•Two major types of scientific replication: ________________________and
_______________________
Direct Replication
•Duplicates exactly the conditions of an earlier experiment
•____________________________ direct replication: uses same subject to establish reliability
of functional relation
•Intersubject direct replication uses different but similar subjects to determine
______________________
Systematic Replication
•Researcher purposefully varies one or more aspects of ________________________
____________________________
•Can demonstrate ___________________________ and external validity of earlier findings
•Can alter any aspect: subjects, setting, administration of independent variable, or target
behaviors
Cooper Guided Notes
Evaluating Applied Behavior Analysis Research
•Questions to ask in evaluating the quality of research in applied behavior analysis fall
under 4 categories:
–Internal validity
–____________________________________________________
–External validity
–Scientific and _________________________________________________
Internal Validity
•Must decide whether ______________________________________________________ has
been demonstrated
•Requires close examination of measurement system,
_______________________________________________, and the researcher’s control of
potential confounds
Evaluating Internal Validity
•Definition and ___________________________ of dependent variable
•Graphic display
•Meaningfulness of ________________________________________________________
•Experimental design
•____________________________________________________ and interpretation
Visual Analysis and Interpretation
•Factors that favor visual analysis over tests of statistical significance in ABA:
–Want to see ______________________________________________ behavior change, not
statistically significant
–Good for identifying variables that produce strong, large, and reliable effects
–Accepting statistical analysis as evidence of
______________________________________________ may cause researcher not to experiment
further
–Tests of statistical significance may cause data sets to conform, losing
__________________________ in design
Errors
•Type I error: when researcher concludes that _________________________
______________________ had effect on dependent variable, when it did not
Cooper Guided Notes
•Type II error: when researcher concludes that independent variable did not have effect on
dependent variable, when it did
•____________________________________________________ leads to less Type I and more
Type II errors
•Statistical analysis leads to more Type I and less Type II errors
Social Validity
•Independent variable should be assessed in terms of its effects on dependent variable, as
well as social acceptability, complexity, _____________________________, and
__________________________
•Consider ___________________________ and generalization of behavior change in evaluation
of a study
External Validity
•To effectively judge external validity, compare a study’s results with those of other
relevant ________________________________________________________
Theoretical Significance and Conceptual Sense
•Evaluate a study in terms of its scientific merit
•Look at its _______________________ to the advancement of the
_______________________
•“Knowledgeable reproducibility”
Need for More Thorough Analyses
•Need for more ___________________________
__________________________ of the
principles that underlie successful demonstrations of behavior change
•Readers should consider the technological ___________________________, the
___________________________ of results, and the level of conceptual
______________________ in experimental reports
Chapter 11
Positive Reinforcement
Definition
•Stimulus
•Contingent on a response
Cooper Guided Notes
• Which
the
of the response
• The future increase in the response is a critical feature in defining reinforcement
Reinforcement Is Not a Circular Concept
• Circular Reasoning
– Faulty logic in which the name used to describe the
is also
mistaken for the
of the phenomenon
– Example: Johnny has trouble learning to read (effect). Therefore, he has a
learning disability (phenomenon). How do I know he has a learning
disability? Because he can’t read (effect now translated into cause)
• Sometimes, people refer to “reinforcement” as a circular concept—it is not!
• Example: Robbie’s studying behavior increased when he earned points for studying.
– Cause (earning points) and effect (increased study behavior) are different
– Points can be manipulated as an independent variable to observe effects on
studying
The Role of Antecedent Stimuli
• Caveat #1: Reinforcement does not
• The temporal relation between
variables
Responses
Consequences
is important!
• These antecedent variables become
(SDs)
• Thus, the response is more likely to occur in the future in the presence of these
stimuli
–
–
–
The Discriminated Operant
• Caveat #2: Reinforcement depends on
• The SD will only signal the response if the individual is
• Motivating Operations (MOs)
– Alter the reinforcing
– Alter the
reinforced by those stimuli
Motivating Operations
, and thus
of responses
Cooper Guided Notes
•
–
–
Usually involves
–
–
Usually involves having
•
(EO)
the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer
to the stimulus (deprivation)
(AO)
the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer
to the stimulus (satiation)
The Four-term Contingency
The consideration of MOs are important in relation to the three-term contingent
Questions About Reinforcement
• Does a person have to be aware that a response is being reinforced for it to increase?
– NO!
.
• Are certain behaviors susceptible to reinforcement and others are not?
– NO! The only relevant property is the
between the
and the
.
Immediacy of Reinforcement
• It is critical that the consequence is delivered
following the
target response
• Problems with delays to reinforcement
– Other
occur during the
– The behavior temporarily closest to the
of the
will be strengthened
Delayed Reinforcement
• Does not necessarily reinforce the target behavior; rather
• Instructional Control/Rule Following
it
– Rule:
of a
– Can allow delayed consequences to influence behavior
“Rule-governed Behavior”
• Indicators
– No
apparent
– Response-consequence delay
– Large increase in frequency of the behavior occurs following one instance of
reinforcement
Cooper Guided Notes
– No consequence for the behavior exists (including no automatic
reinforcement), but rule does
Superstitious Behavior
• Occurs when reinforcement “
” follows a behavior that
did not produce the reinforcement
– Sports players who equate putting on a certain pair of socks with winning a
game (leading to the “lucky socks” idea)
– A teacher consoling a child who is hurt may reinforce crying and/or hurting
oneself
Automatic Reinforcement
• Reinforcement that occurs
delivering it
•
produces the reinforcement
• Examples
– Wiggling your leg during a boring lecture to stimulate yourself and stay
awake
• Note: This does not mean the behaviors are automatic (i.e., “reflexive”), rather
that the consequences are delivered automatically
Reinforcers by Origin
•
(AKA primary or unlearned
reinforcers)
– Function as reinforcers due to
– Do not require any
to become reinforcers
– Examples: Food, water, oxygen, warmth, sexual stimulation, human touch
•
(AKA secondary or learned
reinforcers)
– Neutral stimuli that begin to function as reinforcers as a result of
(either conditioned or
unconditioned)
– Can also condition reinforcers through verbal analog conditioning
– Examples: Yellow paper, stickers, tokens
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers
• A type of conditioned reinforcer that has been paired with many
• Do not depend on a specific EO to be effective
• Examples: tokens, money, points
Cooper Guided Notes
Reinforcers by Formal Properties
•Edible reinforcers (
•Sensory reinforcers (
•Tangible reinforcers (
•Activity reinforcers (
•Social reinforcers (
)
)
)
)
)
•SEATS
Identifying Potential Reinforcers
• It is important to identify reinforcers
– Staff, parents, teachers, and even children themselves who report what
they believe to be reinforcers
• Two strategies to use in tandem
– Stimulus Preference Assessments
– Reinforcer Assessments
Caveats Regarding Preference/Reinforcement Assessments
• Preference
–
• Preference assessments do not identify the reinforcing effects of stimuli
– Just because people prefer paper towels to hot-air hand dryers in public
restrooms doesn’t mean they’ll work to earn paper towels.
Stimulus Preference Assessments
•Identify
–Stimuli a person prefers
–Relevant preference values
–Conditions under which these preferences hold true
•Three Categories
–Asking about stimulus preferences
–Observing the target person under free-operant conditions
–Presenting various stimuli in a series of trial-based observations
Asking About Stimulus Preferences
• Ask the Target Person
–
•
–
What would you like to work for?
Cooper Guided Notes
•
How would you like to work for stickers?
•
Would you rather work for things to eat or things to do?
•
Put these items/activities in order from which you’d like to work for
most to which you’d like to work for least.
–
–
•
– When you are finished working, you can play with Battleship, checkers, or
the computer
•
– Ask caregivers to identify preferred stimuli
• A relatively uncomplicated procedure
• Problems
– Verbal reports may not correspond to actual behavior
– High number of false positives and low number of false negatives
Free-Operant Observation
•
and
what activities the target
person engages in when he/she has unrestricted choice of activities
• No
• All stimuli available within sight and reach
• Items are never removed
• Can be contrived or naturalistic
Contrived Free-Operant Observation
• Just prior to observation, provide learner with noncontingent exposure to each
item (for sampling purposes)
• Place all items in view and within reach
• Observe for a set period of time and record the duration of time target person
engages with each stimulus item
Naturalistic Free-Operant Observation
• Conducted in everyday environments as unobtrusively as possible (e.g., during
recess)
• Observe for a set period of time and record the duration of time target person
engages with each stimulus item/activity
Cooper Guided Notes
Advantages of Free-Operant Assessments
• Less time-consuming than some trial-based methods of preference assessment.
• Less likely to produce problem behavior because preferred stimuli are never
removed.
Trial-based Methods
• General Procedure
– Present selected stimuli to children in a series of trials
– Measure
(e.g., eye gaze, hand reach),
(e.g., touch/hold), and/or
(e.g.,
interacting with stimulus)
– Can categorize as high, medium, and low preference
• Many variations for procedure
Trial-based Method 1:
Single Stimulus Presentation
• Present stimuli,
, in random order and record target
person’s reaction to it
• Well suited for individuals who have difficulty selecting among two or more stimuli
Trial-based Method 2:
Paired Stimuli Presentation
• Sometimes called “
• Present
” method
and ask the target
person to choose one
• Each stimulus is matched to every other stimulus in the set
• Rank order from high, medium, and low preference
Trial-based Method 3:
Multiple Stimulus Presentation
• Extension of the paired-stimuli presentation
• Present an array of
together
• Two major variations:
– With replacement
• Stimulus selected
in array in subsequent trials
– Without replacement
• Selected stimulus
in subsequent trials (takes
about half the time to complete the procedure, and it is still fairly
accurate)
Cooper Guided Notes
• Begin trial with: Which one do you want the most?
• Repeat several times
Guidelines for Selecting and Using Stimulus Preference Assessments
• Monitor target person’s
to be aware of EOs that may
affect results
• Balance cost-benefits of procedures (
vs.
)
• Balance rankings vs. no rankings with shifts of preference
• When time is limited, use
• When possible, combine data from multiple assessment procedures
Reinforcer Assessment
• A direct, data-based method in which
– One or more stimuli are presented
– Contingent on a target response, and
– Observing whether an increase in responding occurs
• Allows you to verify/confirm whether a stimulus functions as a reinforcer
Concurrent Schedule Reinforcer Assessment
• Pit two stimuli against each other and observe which produces the
• Allows you to determine differences between
and
reinforcement effects
Multiple Schedule Reinforcer Assessment
• Two or more component schedules of reinforcement for a single response with only
one component schedule in effect at a given time
• An SD signals the presence of each component schedule and is present while that
component is in effect
Progressive-Ratio Schedule Reinforcer Assessment
• Preferences may change when
• Progressive-ratio schedules provide a framework for assessing relative
effectiveness of a stimulus as reinforcement as response requirements increase
• Response requirements are systematically increased over time until responding
declines
Control Procedures for Positive Reinforcement
• When evaluating the effects of reinforcement in an ABAB reversal design:
Cooper Guided Notes
“the ideal control procedure…eliminates the contingent relation between the
occurrence of the target response and the presentation of the stimulus
while controlling for the effects of stimulus presentation alone” (Thompson
& Iwata, 2003, p. 259).
• Perhaps a
is the appropriate control
(A) condition as a comparison for the positive reinforcement (B) condition.
–
• DRO may be another appropriate control procedure
– May produce a reversal more quickly than the NCR schedule
• DRA could be used as a control procedure to reinforce another alternative response
• Limitations of DRO/DRA as controls
– Introduce
that were not present in original
experimental arrangement
– Reversals may be due to
•
between target
response and reinforcer
•
for absence of
the target response or for the occurrence of a competing response
Twelve Guidelines for Using Reinforcement Effectively
1.
2.
3.
4.
Choose reinforcers relevant to current or creatable
Maintain
Use
reinforcers of sufficient
Set an
for reinforcement
-criterion should be less than or equal to
5. Explain the
and provide
to
respond
6. Deliver the reinforcer
following behavior
7. Reinforce
of the behavior initially
8. Use
rather than
reinforcement contingencies
9. Gradually increase
delay
10. Use
reinforcers
11. Use
and
12. Shift from
to
reinforcers
Cooper Guided Notes
Chapter 12
Negative Reinforcement
Definition
•Stimulus ____________________ (terminated, reduced, or postponed)
•______________________ on a response
•Which results in an ______________________ in the future probability of that
response
Escape Contingency
•Includes 4 terms
–Establishing operation
•___________________ event in the presence of which escape is
reinforcing
•An aversive stimulus
–A discrimintive stimulus (____)
–A response
–The ____________________ (termination of the EO)
Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement
•How they are similar:
–Both produce an ____________________ in responding via a
______________________ change
•How they are different:
–The type of stimulus change that _________________the behavior
•Positive reinforcement produces a stimulus that was absent prior to
responding
•Negative reinforcement ___________________ a stimulus that was
present prior to response
A difficulty…
•Sometimes it can be difficult to determine whether the stimulus change was
___________________ or ______________________
–Turning up the heat
•Adds heat
•Removes cold
–Free time contingent on work completion
Cooper Guided Notes
•Adds preferred activities
•Removes work
A solution…
•Michael (1975) suggested the _________________ is not important
•Instead, define ________________________ features
–______________ the stimulus change
–______________ the stimulus change
•This may provide a more complete, functional understanding of the relationship
between the behavior and environment
Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
•Often confused because:
–“Positive” and “Negative” are __________________
•But “positive” refers to presentation of the stimulus and “negative”
refers to the __________________ of the stimulus
–Both involve _______________________ events
•But in negative reinforcement, the aversive event is present
________ to the target behavior and in punishment, the aversive
event is presented contingent on the target behavior
And the effect on behavior is ________________ (negative
reinforcement produces an increase in responding; punishment produces
a decrease in responding
Escape and Avoidance Contingencies
•Characteristics of Negative Reinforcement
•Any response (socially appropriate or inappropriate) can be
____________________________ by negative reinforcement
–All are adaptive because they allow the individual to interact effectively
with the environment
•A variety of ______________ can serve as negative reinforcers
–Unconditioned
Cooper Guided Notes
–Conditioned
•Negative reinforcement can be
–_________________________________ (delivered by another person)
–_______________________ (produced directly by the person’s response)
Factors Influencing Effectiveness
•As with positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement is ___________ effective
when
–It is delivered ________________ following the target behavior
–The __________________ of reinforcement is large
–It is delivered _________________________
–Reinforcement is _____________________ for competing (nontarget)
responses
Ethical Considerations
•Like positive reinforcement, ethical issues arise from the ________________ of the
______ that may need to be in place to motivate the occurrence of the behavior
–The presence of particularly aversive antecedent stimuli may be
______________________
These stimuli may generate __________________ competing behaviors
Chapter 13
Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
•
Continuous reinforcement (CRF)
o “Provides reinforcement for __________ occurrence of behavior”
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (INT)
• Intermittent reinforcement
o “Intermittent reinforcement is used to ______________ established
behaviors”
o “INT is necessary for _____________ of naturally occurring reinforcement”
Cooper Guided Notes
Ratio Schedules
• “Require a number of _____________ before one response produces ______________.”
Interval Schedules
• “Require an elapse of ________________ before a response produces _____________.”
Fixed Schedules
• “Response ratio or time requirement remains ________________.”
Variable Schedules
• “Response ratio or time requirement can _________________ from one reinforced
response to another.”
Fixed Ratio (FR)
• “Requires completion of a number of ______________ to produce a ____________.”
• Schedule Effects
o Consistency of Performance
▪ “Post _________________ pause follows reinforcement.”
▪ “Long ratio requirements produce _______________ pauses.”
▪ “Small ratios produce ____________ pauses.”
o Rate of Response
▪ “FR schedules often produce ________________ rates of response.”
▪ “The _____________ the ratio requirement, the higher the rate of
__________.”
▪ “Rate of response _______________ if the ratio requirements are too
large.”
Variable Ratio (VR)
• “Requires the completion of a _____________ number of ___________.”
• “Average number of responses.”
• Variable Ratio Schedule Effects
o VR schedule tends to produce a _________ _________ of responding.
o The larger the ratio requirement, the ___________ the rate of response.
• Tic Tac Toe VR Procedure
• VR Procedure using a classroom lottery
o “Teachers have used the classroom lottery with a variety of ___________
accomplishments.”
• VR Procedure using a desk calendar
o “Students can use the desk calendar base to program ______ schedules for
most _______________ areas.”
Cooper Guided Notes
Fixed Interval Schedules (FI)
• “Reinforcement for the first correct response following a _________ duration of
time.”
• “FI schedules are relatively ____________ to use in applied settings.”
• FI Schedule Effects
o “FI typically produces a ______________ _______________ pause.”
• Rate of Responding
o “FI schedules tend to produce a __________ to __________ rate of response.”
Variable Interval (VI)
• “Provides reinforcement for the ____________ correct response following the elapse
of variable durations of ___________.”
• VI Schedule Effects
o VI schedules tend to produce a ______________, stable ________ of response.
• Rate of Responding
o VI schedules of reinforcement tend to produce _________ to _________ rates
of response.
Schedule Thinning
• “gradually ___________ response ratio or the duration of time”
• “use of __________________ to clearly communicate the schedule of reinforcement”
• Ratio Strain
o “can result from ____________ increases in ratio requirements when moving
from denser to thinner reinforcement schedules.”
o “Common characteristics associated with ratio strain include ___________,
aggression, and ___________ pauses in responding.”
Schedules of Differential Reinforcement of Rates of Responding
• “Differential reinforcement provides an _____________ for behavior
problems associated with rate of response.”
• “DRH stands for ‘Differential Reinforcement of ___________ Rates’.”
• “DRL stands for ‘Differential Reinforcement of ___________ Rates’.”
• “IRT … inter-_____________ time.”
• “DRH full-session provides reinforcement if the ___________ number of
responses during the session meet or _________ a number criterion.”
Cooper Guided Notes
Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates
• “reinforcement of responses at the _______ of a predetermined __________ interval.”
Progressive Schedules of Reinforcement
• “systematically ______________ each successive reinforcement opportunity
independent of the participant’s behavior.”
• Progressive schedules for reinforcer assessment
o “effects obtained during typical reinforcer assessments may have
____________ generality to treatment efficacy.”
Compound Schedules of Reinforcement (conc)
• “Combine the elements of continuous reinforcement, the four intermittent schedules
of reinforcement (_____, _____, _____, _____), differential reinforcement of various
rates of responding (_____, DRL), and _____________ (CRF) to form compound
schedules of reinforcement.”
• Concurrent Schedules
o “Occurs when (a) _____ or more contingencies of reinforcement (b) operate in
independently and _____________ (c) for two or more __________.”
o “Applied Behavior Analysts have used ____________ schedules for improving
vocational, academic, and social skills.”
• Concurrent Performances
o “Concurrent schedules usually produce __________ response patterns.”
• Matching Law
o “Rate of responding typically is ________________ to the rate of
reinforcement received from each choice alternative.”
Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement (mult)
• “Presents _______ or more basic schedules of reinforcement.”
• “occur ____________ and independently.”
Chained Schedules
• Differs from a multiple schedule in three ways
o Chain schedule occur in a specific _____________.
o Behavior may be the ___________ for all elements of the chain, or different
_____________ may be required for different elements.
o Conditioned reinforcement for responding in the second element in a chain is
the ____________ of the third element.
Non discriminative Schedules of Reinforcement
• Mixed Schedules (mix)
o “Has no _____________ stimuli correlated with the independent schedules.”
Cooper Guided Notes
•
Tandem Schedules (tand)
o “Similar to the chained schedule but does not use a ___________ stimuli with
the elements in the chain.”
Schedules Combining the Number of Responses and Time
• Alternative Schedule (alt)
o “Provides _____________ whenever the requirement of either a ratio schedule
or an interval schedule is met regardless of which one is met first.”
• Conjunctive Schedules (conj)
o “The first response following the _____________ of the time interval
produces reinforcement if a certain number of ____________ have been
completed.”
Applied Research with Intermittent Schedules
• “Schedule effects have not been documented clearly in ____________ settings.”
• “Applied behavior analysts should use __________ in extrapolating these effects to
applied settings.”
Applied Research with Compound Schedules
• “Applied researchers have seldom ___________ the effects of compound
reinforcement schedules.”
Applied Research with Adjunctive Schedules
• “Adjunctive behaviors such as doodling, smoking, idle talking, drinking may increase as
a _________ effect of other behaviors maintained by a schedule of ______________.”
• Lerman, Iwata, Zarcone, and Ringdahl’s (1994) article is the only research on
adjunctive behavior published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis from 1968
through ___________.”
• “The condition under which adjunctive behaviors are ___________ and ___________ is
a major area for future research in applied behavior analysis.”
Chapter 14
Punishment by Stimulus Presentation
Introduction
Learning from the ________________ that produce pain or discomfort, or the loss of
reinforcers, has survival value for the individual and for the species.
Cooper Guided Notes
________________ teaches us not to repeat responses that cause us harm
Punishment is:
Poorly ________________
Frequently ________________
Controversial
As a principle of behavior, punishment is not about ________________the person.
Punishment is a:
________________ -________________ contingency that suppresses the future
frequency of similar responses.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Operations & Defining Effect of Punishment
Punishment has occurred when a response is ________________ immediately by a
stimulus change that ________________ the future frequency of similar responses
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Operations & Defining Effect of Punishment
Punishment is defined neither by the actions of the person delivering the
consequences, nor by the nature of those ________________.
A ________________ in the future frequency of the occurrence of the behavior must
be observed before a consequence-based intervention qualifies as punishment.
Cooper Guided Notes
Positive Punishment
Presentation of a stimulus (or an increase in the intensity of an already present
stimulus) immediately following a behavior that results in a ________________ in the
frequency of the behavior.
Positive Punishment & Negative Punishment
Negative Punishment
The termination of an already present stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of an
already present stimulus) immediately following a behavior that results in a
________________ in the future frequency of the behavior.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Positive Punishment & Negative Punishment
For a stimulus change to function as ________________ punishment, which amounts
to the removal of a positive reinforcer, a “motivating operation for the reinforcer
must be in effect, otherwise removing it will not constitute punishment.”
(Michael, 2004, p.36)
Positive & negative punishment are sometimes identified as:
Type ____ Punishment
Type ____ Punishment
Because aversive events are associated with positive punishment and with negative
reinforcement, the umbrella term ________________ control is often used to describe
intervention involving either or both of these two principles.
The three-term contingency for punishment
Cooper Guided Notes
(1) In a particular stimulus situation (S), (2) some kinds of behavior (R), when
followed immediately by (3) certain stimulus changes (SP), show a
________________future frequency of occurrence in the same or in similar situations.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Discriminative Effects of Punishment
If ________________occurs only in some stimulus conditions and not in others, the
suppressive effects of punishment will be most prevalent under those conditions.
The symbol adopted by Cooper, Heron, and Heward for the discriminative stimulus
for punishment is ________________.
SDp
A stimulus condition in the presence of which a response has a lower
probability of occurrence than it does in its absence as a result of responsecontingent ________________ delivery in the presence of the stimulus.
Recovery from Punishment
When punishment is ________________, its suppressive effects on responding are
usually not permanent.
Sometimes the rate of responding after punishment is discontinued will not only
recover but also briefly ________________ the level at which it was occurring prior to
punishment.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Recovery from Punishment
Permanent response suppression may occur when complete suppression of behavior to
a zero rate of responding has been achieved with ________________ punishment.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers
Cooper Guided Notes
A punisher is a stimulus change that immediately ________________ the occurrence
of a behavior and ________________ the future frequency of that type of behavior.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers
An unconditioned punisher is a stimulus whose ________________ functions as
punishment without having been paired with any other punishers.
Product of the evolutionary history of a species (phylogeny); all biologically intact
members of a species are more or less susceptible to punishment by the same
unconditioned punishers.
Unlike unconditioned reinforcers, under most conditions many unconditioned punishers
will ________________ any behavior that precedes their onset.
A conditioned punisher is a stimulus change that functions as ________________as a
result of a person’s conditioning history.
Acquires the capability to function as a punisher through stimulus-stimulus pairing
with one or more unconditioned or conditioned punishers.
If the conditioned punisher is repeatedly presented without the punisher(s) with
which it was initially paired, its effectiveness as punishment will ________________
until it is no longer a punisher.
Verbal analog conditioning
Previously ________________stimuli can also become conditioned punishers for humans
without direct physical pairing with another punisher.
A stimulus change that has been paired with numerous forms of unconditioned and
conditioned punishers becomes a ________________ conditioned punisher.
________________ conditioned punishers are free from the control of specific
motivating conditions and will function as punishment under most conditions.
Cooper Guided Notes
- IMPORTANT point Punishers, like reinforcers, are not defined by their physical properties, but by their
________________.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Punishment
________________ of punishment
Intensity of punishment
Schedule or frequency of punishment
________________ of reinforcement for the target behavior
Availability of reinforcement for an ________________ behavior.
Immediacy
Maximum suppressive effects are obtained when the onset of the punisher occurs as
________________ as possible after the occurrence of a target ________________.
Intensity
The more ________________ the punishing stimulus is the greater it will reduce
future responding.
Schedule
The greater the proportion of ________________ that are followed by the punisher,
the greater the response reduction.
Continuous Punishment = response suppression, but allows for rapid
________________when the punishment contingency is removed.
Reinforcement for the Target Behavior
The effectiveness of ________________ is modulated by the reinforcement
contingencies maintaining the problem behavior.
Cooper Guided Notes
To the extent that ________________ maintaining the problem behavior can be
reduced or eliminated, punishment will be more apparent.
Reinforcement for Alternative Behaviors
Milleson (1967) stated:
If punishment is employed in an attempt to eliminate certain behavior, then
whatever reinforcement the undesirable behavior had led to must be made available
via a more ________________ behavior.
Definitions & Nature of Punishment
Possible Side Effects and Problems with Punishment
Elicitation of undesirable ________________ response and aggression
Escape and ________________
Increased rate of the ________________ behavior under nonpunishment
Modeling undesirable behavior
Not teaching the learner what to do
Overusing punishment because of the ________________ reinforcement it provides
the punishing agent.
Elicitation of undesirable ________________ response and aggression.
Punishment, especially ________________ punishment in the form of aversive
stimulation, may evoke aggressive behavior with respondent and operant components.
Elicitation of undesirable ________________ response and aggression.
________________ behavior following punishment that occurs because it has enabled
the person to escape the aversive stimulation in the past is referred to as
________________ aggression.
Escape and Avoidance
Cooper Guided Notes
Natural reactions to ________________ stimulation
As the intensity of the punisher ________________, so does the likelihood of escape
and ________________.
Can be minimized by providing alternative responses that come into contact with
reinforcement and avoid the ________________.
Behavioral Contrast
Change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or ________________
the rate of responding on that component is accompanied by a change in the
response rate in the opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the
schedule.
Punishment may involve undesirable modeling
Punishment tactics may model ________________ behaviors.
Two decades of research have found strong correlation between young children’s
exposure to harsh and excessive ________________ and antisocial behavior and
conduct disorders as adolescents and adults.
(Patterson, 1982; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992; Sprague & Walker, 2000).
Negative Reinforcement of the Punishing Agent’s Behavior
Punishment reinforces the ________________.
Punishment tends to terminate the punished behavior quickly. The punisher’s
behavior tends to be ________________reinforced by the immediate cessation of the
punished behavior.
Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions:
Reprimands
The delivery of verbal reprimands following the occurrence of misbehavior is an
example of attempted ________________ punishment.
Reprimands given repeatedly may lead to the subject _____________ to the stimulus.
Cooper Guided Notes
Response Blocking
Physically intervening as soon as the person begins to emit the problem behavior to
prevent or “________________” the completion of the response has been shown to be
effective in ________________the frequency of some problem behaviors.
Suppressive effects of ________________blocking may be due to punishment or to
extinction.
Response Blocking
________________blocking as a treatment intervention must be approached with
great care.
Side effects such as ________________and resistance to the response blocking
procedure have occurred in some studies.
Contingent Exercise
An intervention in which a person is required to ________________a response that is
not topographically related to the ________________behavior.
Overcorrection
A behavior change tactic based on ________________ punishment in which, contingent
on the problem behavior, the learner is required to engage in effortful behavior that
is directly or logically related to the problem.
Two Forms:
________________and Positive Practice
Overcorrection
Restitutional Overcorrection
Contingent on the problem behavior, the learner is required to repair or return the
________________ to its original state and then to engage in additional behavior to
bring the environment to a condition vastly better than it was in prior to the
misbehavior.
Overcorrection
Positive Practice Overcorrection
Cooper Guided Notes
Contingent on an occurrence of the target behavior the learner is required to
________________ a correct form of the behavior, or a behavior
________________with the problem, a specified number of times.
Contingent Electric Stimulation
Forty-six studies have demonstrated that contingent electric ________________can
be a safe and highly effective method for ________________chronic and lifethreatening self-injurious behavior (SIB).
Self-Injurious Behavior ________________System (SIBIS)
One of the most rigorously researched and carefully applied procedures for
implementing punishment by electric stimulation for self-inflicted blows to the head
or face.
Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
Select Effective and Appropriate Punishers
Punishment as part of a behavior change program has ________________to do with
retribution.
1.
Punishment is not about ________________.
2.
When punishers are threatened and not delivered, the child learns that your
verbal threats are not associated with the actual punishing behavior.
Conduct Punisher Assessments
Parallels process to a reinforcer assessment (Ch. 11).
Advantages:
1. The sooner an effective punisher can be identified, the sooner it can be applied to
treat the ________________behavior.
2. Data from ________________assessments might reveal the magnitude or
intensity of punisher necessary for behavioral suppression. Allows practitioners to
determine the smallest intensity of punisher that is still effective.
Cooper Guided Notes
Consider Using Varied Punishers
Varying the form of the ________________stimulus enhanced the punishing effect.
It appears that by presenting a varied format of commonly used punishers,
inappropriate behaviors may further ________________without the use of more
intrusive punishment procedures.
Use the Least Intensity of Punishment That Is Effective
Ethical guidelines and the doctrine of the least ________________ alternative
demand that the most effective, but least intrusive, form of punishment be used
initially.
Questions to answer when deciding on a form of punishment:
Will this form of punishment ________________the behavior?
Will this form of punishment be ________________from application to application?
Use the Least Intensity of Punishment That Is Effective
Punishment is ________________ effective when the stimulus is delivered at its
optimum level initially than when its intensity is gradually increased over time.
Experience the Punishment Personally
Practitioners should ________________ any punisher personally before the treatment
begins.
Doing so reminds the practitioner that the technique produces physical discomfort.
Deliver the Punisher Immediately
Every instance of the inappropriate behavior should be ________________.
Punishment affects most the behavior that ________________precedes the onset of
punishment.
Deliver the Punisher at the Beginning of the Response Chain
Cooper Guided Notes
As much as practical, punishment should occur ________________in the behavioral
sequence rather than later.
Deliver the Punisher Unemotionally
Punishment should be delivered in a business-like, matter-of-fact manner.
________________ statements such as, “I told you so.” “Now, you’ve gone and done
it.” and “What do you have to say for yourself?”
All you want to do is ________________ behavior, not make people atone for their
sins.
Punish Each Instance of the Behavior
Punishment is most ________________when the punisher follows each instance of the
behavior.
Provide Response Prompts and Reinforcement for Alternative Behavior
________________is most effective when the learner can make other responses for
reinforcement.
The more ________________the learners obtain by emitting appropriate behavior,
the less motivated they will be to emit the problem behavior.
Watch for Side Effects of Punishment
The ________________of one inappropriate behavior may lead to the increased
expression of another or the complete suppression of all other behaviors.
Decreasing episodes of self-injurious behavior may produce ________________levels of
verbal noncompliance.
Expand observations to include collateral or parallel behaviors.
Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively
Record, Graph and Evaluate Data Daily
Cooper Guided Notes
Data collection in the ________________session or two of a punishment based
intervention is especially ________________.
Graphing the frequency of the target behavior before, during, and after the
presentation of the punisher establishes the ________________of punishment.
Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment
Right to Safe and Humane Treatment
The first ethical canon and responsibility for any human services program is to do no
________________.
Least Restrictive Alternative
The less intrusive procedures should be tried and found to be ineffective
________________more intrusive procedures are implemented.
Interventions can be viewed as falling along a continuum of restrictiveness from
________________to most.
A procedure’s overall level of restrictiveness is a combined function of its absolute
level of restrictiveness, the amount of time required to produce a clinically acceptable
outcome, and the ________________ associated with delayed intervention.
Right to Effective Treatment
Failing to use a punishment procedure that research has shown to
________________self-destructive behavior similar to the client’s is unethical
because it withholds a potentially effective treatment and may maintain a
dangerous or uncomfortable state for the person.
Developing and Using a Punishment Policy Can Provide Procedural Safeguards
Follow a written policy statement.
Consult local, state, or professional association policy statement regarding the use of
________________.
Cooper Guided Notes
Concluding Perspectives
Recognizing Punishment's Natural and Necessary Role in Learning
Behavior analysts should ________________shy away from punishment.
Positive and negative punishment contingencies occur naturally as a part of everyday
life.
Punishment Is a Natural Part of Life
________________happens!
Whether punishment is socially mediated, planned or unplanned, or conducted by
sophisticated practitioners, Vollmer believed that a science of behavior should study
________________.
More Research on Punishment Is Needed
Many recommendations for punishment are derived from basic research conducted
more than ________________ years ago.
Interventions Featuring Positive Punishment Should Be Treated as Default Technologies
Iwata (1988) recommended that punishment-based intervention involving the
contingent application of aversive stimulation, such as SIBIS, be treated as
________________ technologies.
A ________________ technology is one that a practitioner turns to when other
methods have ________________.