Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of
Development
Sigmund Freud believed that children can gain
sexual gratification from any part of their
bodies, and during childhood, they go through
5 psychosexual stages that shape their adult
personality.
The Human Psyche
Freud proposed that the human psyche has
three components that function on different
levels of consciousness, and these
components also interact with each other to
generate behaviors.
Id
The Id is present at birth and represents
everything that we inherit from our parents. It
is the source of our desires and impulses, and
is the primary component of our personality.
This unconscious part of our psyche operates
on the pleasure principle and seeks instant
gratification, with no regard for consequences
or reality.
Ego
The Ego arises from the Id and is developed
as a result of our attempts to fulfill the Id’s
needs. It operates on the reality principle and
serves as a mediator that strives for a
compromise between what the Id wants and
what the outside world can grant it.
Freud used the Iceberg Metaphor to describe
the human mind. Like an iceberg, a big chunk
of our mind is beneath the surface.
Freud believed that the unconscious part of
our mind is a receptacle of ideas. We are not
aware of this aspect of our mind, but it
explains what we do what we do.
The Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud proposed that we go through a series of
psychosexual stages in predetermined
sequence during childhood. These stages
contain activities that revolve around a certain
erogenous zone – an area of our body that is
sensitive to stimulation.
According to Freud, by successfully moving
from one psychosexual stage to the next, we
develop a healthy personality. Failure to
resolve issues or getting stuck at any of the
psychosexual stages will result in a
problematic personality.
Superego
The Superego arises from the Ego and acts as
an internal representation of the moral values
of the environment. The Superego judges
what we should morally do or not do, and
guides us about the shoulds and should nots
of our lives. The Superego rewards us with
pride and positive feelings upon doing good,
and punishes us with feelings of guilt, shame
or fear for not abiding by values that we have
set for ourselves.
Oral Stage (0–1 year old)
During this psychosexual stage, a child
derives pleasure from oral activities, such as
sucking and tasting. Successful fulfillment of
the child’s feeding needs and proper weaning
will result in the establishment of trust.
The Iceberg Metaphor
According to Freud’s theory, the human
consciousness has a vertical architecture that
composes of three levels:
● Conscious mind
● Preconscious mind
● Unconscious mind
Anal Stage (2–3 years old)
The main source of gratification for a child
during this psychosexual stage is the ability to
control bladder and bowel movement. A
positive and appropriate experience revolving
around potty training encourages a sense of
competence, creativity and productivity. On the
Too much or too little gratification can bring
about an oral fixation when the child grows up
and can result in addictions such as drinking
alcohol, smoking, over eating, or nail biting.
contrary, anal fixations can translate into
obsession with perfection, extreme
cleanliness, and control or the opposite which
is messiness and disorganization in adulthood.
Phallic Stage (3–6 years old)
During this psychosexual stage, the
erogenous zone is the genitals.
Boys start to perceive their father as rivals for
their mother’s affections, while girls feel
similarly towards their mother. Freud used the
term “The Oedipus Complex” to describe boys’
attachment towards their mother, and Carl
Jung later coined the term “The Electra
Complex” to describe girls’ attachment
towards their father.
Fear of punishment leads to repression of
feelings toward the opposite sex parent, and
fixation at this stage may bring about sexual
deviancy or weak sexual identity.
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
During this psychosexual stage of
development, sexual urges are usually
repressed. Children spend most of their time
interacting with same sex peers, engaging in
hobbies and acquiring skills.
Adults who are fixated at this stage are
immature and have a hard time forming
meaningful relationships.
Genital Stage (Puberty onward)
During the last psychosexual stage, the
erogenous zone is genitals. Individuals’ sexual
urges are reawakened and are directed toward
opposite sex peers. However, unlike at the
phallic stage, the sexuality at the genital stage
is consensual.
People who completed the earlier stages
successfully become well-adjusted, caring and
secure individuals at this stage. While younger
children are mostly ruled by their id and focus
on their wants, individuals at this stage have
fully formed ego and superego. They can
balance their wants (id) with the reality (ego)
and ethics (superego).
Significance of Freud’s Psychosexual
Theory
One importance of Sigmund Freud’s
psychosexual theory is his emphasis on early
childhood experiences in the development of
personality and as an influence on later
behaviors.
The relationships that individuals cultivate,
their views about themselves and others, and
their level of adjustment and well-being as
adults are all influenced by the quality of
experiences that they have had during the
psychosexual stages.
Despite being one of the most complex and
controversial theories of child development,
we cannot discount the important ideas that
Freud has contributed to the field of
psychology and human development.
Erikson's Stages of Development
Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who
developed one of the most popular and
influential theories of development. While his
theory was impacted by psychoanalyst
Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory
centered on psychosocial development rather
than psychosexual development.
The stages that make up his theory are as
follows:
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth
to 18 months)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years
from three to five)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school
years from six to 11)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years
from 12 to 18)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult
years from 18 to 40)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle
age from 40 to 65)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood
from 65 to death)
Let's take a closer look at the background and
different stages that make up Erikson's
psychosocial theory.
conflict that serves as a turning point in
development.
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered
on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these
times, the potential for personal growth is high
but so is the potential for failure.
If people successfully deal with the conflict,
they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest
of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with
these conflicts, they may not develop the
essential skills needed for a strong sense of
self.
Mastery Leads to Ego Strength
Erikson also believed that a sense of
competence motivates behaviors and actions.
Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned
with becoming competent in an area of life.
Overview of Erikson's Stages of
Development
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development entail? Much like
Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that
personality developed in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages,
however, Erikson's theory described the
impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social
interaction and relationships played a role in
the development and growth of human beings.
Erikson's theory was based on what is known
as the epigenetic principle. This principle
suggests that people grow in a sequence that
occurs over time and in the context of a larger
community.
Conflict During Each Stage
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the
preceding stages and paves the way for
following periods of development. In each
stage, Erikson believed people experience a
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel
a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the
stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that
aspect of development.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development occurs between
birth and 1 year of age and is the most
fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is
utterly dependent, developing trust is based on
the dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly
dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything they need to survive including food,
love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and
love, the child will come to feel that they
cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their
life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child
will feel safe and secure in the world.2
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally
unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings
of mistrust in the children under their care.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a
belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial
development, children develop a sense of trust
when caregivers provide reliability, care, and
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100%
trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking
a balance between the two opposing sides.
When this happens, children acquire hope,
which Erikson described as an openness to
experience tempered by some wariness that
danger may be present.
developing a greater sense of personal
control.
The Role of Independence
At this point in development, children are just
starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own
and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and
gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.2
Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that
children need to develop a sense of personal
control over physical skills and a sense of
independence. Potty training plays an
important role in helping children develop this
sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training
was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than
that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning
to control one's bodily functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of
independence. Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for
their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of
psychosocial development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame
and doubt.
Subsequent work by researchers including
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth
demonstrated the importance of trust in
forming healthy attachments during childhood
and adulthood.
Finding Balance
Children who successfully complete this stage
feel secure and confident, while those who do
not are left with a sense of inadequacy and
self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a
balance between autonomy and shame and
doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that
children can act with intention, within reason
and limits.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development
takes place during the preschool years. At this
point in psychosocial development, children
begin to assert their power and control over
the world through directing play and other
social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel
capable and able to lead others. Those who
fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense
of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of
psychosocial development is that children
need to begin asserting control and power
over the environment. Success in this stage
leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try
to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative
and a willingness to work with others is
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose
emerges.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place
during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social
interactions, children begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and
academic demands. Success leads to a sense
of competence, while failure results in feelings
of inferiority.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and
commended by parents and teachers develop
a feeling of competence and belief in their
skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or
peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of
psychosocial development leads to the
strength known as competence, in which
children develop a belief in their abilities to
handle the tasks set before them.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during
the often turbulent teenage years. This stage
plays an essential role in developing a sense
of personal identity which will continue to
influence behavior and development for the
rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal identity. Success
leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while
failure leads to role confusion and a weak
sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore their
independence and develop a sense of self.2
Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
self and feelings of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they
are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person's
behavior. Completing this stage successfully
leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an
ability to live by society's standards and
expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of
psychosocial development was important, he
placed a particular emphasis on the
development of ego identity. Ego identity is the
conscious sense of self that we develop
through social interaction and becomes a
central focus during the identity versus
confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity
constantly changes due to new experiences
and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others. As we have new
experiences, we also take on challenges that
can help or hinder the development of identity.
Why Identity Is Important
Our personal identity gives each of us an
integrated and cohesive sense of self that
endures through our lives. Our sense of
personal identity is shaped by our experiences
and interactions with others, and it is this
identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs,
and behaviors as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate, loving
relationships with other people. Success leads
to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the
period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships.2
Erikson believed it was vital that people
develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this
step will form relationships that are enduring
and secure.
Building On Earlier Stages
Remember that each step builds on skills
learned in previous steps. Erikson believed
that a strong sense of personal identity was
important for developing intimate relationships.
Studies have demonstrated that those with a
poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to struggler
with emotional isolation, loneliness, and
depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in
the virtue known as love. It is marked by the
ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships
with other people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things that will
outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other
people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our
lives, focusing on our career and family. Those
who are successful during this phase will feel
that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community.2Those
who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive
and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is
handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow
into adults, and developing a sense of unity
with your life partner are important
accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old
age and is focused on reflecting back on life.2
At this point in development, people look back
on the events of their lives and determine if
they are happy with the life that they lived or if
they regret the things they did or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many others
because it addressed development throughout
the entire lifespan, including old age. Older
adults need to look back on life and feel a
sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage
leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure
results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events
of their lives and take stock. Those who look
back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel
satisfied and ready to face the end of their
lives with a sense of peace. Those who look
back and only feel regret will instead feel
fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they should
have.​
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage
will feel that their life has been wasted and
may experience many regrets. The person will
be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their
accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means
looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will
attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson's
Theory
Erikson's theory also has its limitations and
attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of
experiences are necessary to successfully
complete each stage? How does a person
move from one stage to the next?
Criticism
One major weakness of psychosocial theory is
that the exact mechanisms for resolving
conflicts and moving from one stage to the
next are not well described or developed. The
theory fails to detail exactly what type of
experiences are necessary at each stage in
order to successfully resolve the conflicts and
move to the next stage.
Support
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is
that it provides a broad framework from which
to view development throughout the entire
lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the
social nature of human beings and the
important influence that social relationships
have on development.
Researchers have found evidence supporting
Erikson's ideas about identity and have further
identified different sub-stages of identity
formation.4Some research also suggests that
people who form strong personal identities
during adolescence are better capable of
forming intimate relationships during early
adulthood. Other research suggests, however,
that identity formation and development
continues well into adulthood.5
Why Was Erikson's Theory Important?
The theory was significant because it
addressed development throughout a person's
life, not just during childhood. It also stressed
the importance of social relationships in
shaping personality and growth at each point
in development.
Understanding Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial development describes how a
person's personality develops, and how social
skills are learned from infancy through
adulthood. In the 1950s, psychologist Erik
Erikson published his theory about the eight
stages of psychosocial development. Erikson
believed that during each stage, a person
experiences a "psychosocial crisis" that either
has a positive or negative effect on that
person's personality.
The Principles of Psychosocial Development
According to Erikson, an individual's
personality and social skills develop in eight
stages, which cover the entire life span. At
each stage, a person is faced with a
psychosocial crisis—critical issues—that need
to be resolved. The person's personality is
shaped by the way they respond to each of
these crises. If they react positively, a new
virtue (moral behavior) is gained.
The Stages of Psychosocial Development
The eight stages of psychosocial
development are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development, trust vs. mistrust,
begins at birth and lasts until around 18
months of age. During this stage, the infant is
completely dependent on their caregiver to
meet their needs. With consistent care, the
infant learns to trust and feel secure. The
virtue gained in this stage is "hope."
Success in stage 1 helps a person be able to
trust others in future relationships, as well as
trust in their own ability to deal with
challenging situations later in life. When an
infant's needs aren't met in this stage, they can
become anxious and untrusting.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame
Stage 2, autonomy vs. shame, occurs from 18
months to around 3 years of age. During this
stage, children's physical skills grow while they
explore their environment and learn to be
more independent.
Children react positively during stage 2 when
caregivers allow them to work on developing
independence within a safe environment. The
virtue gained in this stage is "will."
If the child is overly criticized or lives in a
controlling environment, they can feel shame
and doubt their abilities to take care of
themselves.3
Stage 2 Skills
Examples of skills learned in stage 2 of
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
include potty training, getting dressed, and
brushing teeth. This stage also includes
physical skills such as running and jumping.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 3, initiative vs. guilt, occurs during the
early school-age years of a child's life. During
this stage, a child learns to initiate social
interactions and play activities with other
children. Children also ask lots of questions in
this stage.
If the child is overly-controlled or made to feel
that their questions are annoying, the child can
develop feelings of guilt. However, when a
child is successful in this stage, the virtue
gained is a sense of "purpose."3
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 4 of Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development typically occurs between the
ages of 5 and 12 years. The psychosocial
crisis in this stage is industry vs. inferiority.
During this stage, a child is learning how to
read and write. Children in this stage also put
a higher amount of importance on what their
peers think about them, and start to take pride
in their accomplishments.
The virtue gained when a child is successful in
stage 4 is "competence." If a child responds
negatively to this psychosocial crisis, it can
lead to feelings of inferiority and low
self-esteem.
Personality: Erikson vs. Freud
While Erikson believed that personality is
developed throughout the life span,
neurologist Sigmund Freud based his theories
of personality development on the belief that
an adult's personality is primarily determined
by early childhood experiences.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
Stage 5 occurs during the teenage years,
between the ages of 12 to 18. At this stage,
the psychosocial crisis is identity vs.
confusion. During stage 5, teens are trying to
"find themselves" and are searching for a
sense of identity.
The virtue that can be gained in stage 5 is
"fidelity," or faithfulness. In stage 5, teens also
learn how to accept other people who are
different than themselves.
According to Erikson, if a person responds
negatively to the crisis in stage 5, it can lead to
role confusion—uncertainty about themselves
and how they fit into society.3
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
The psychosocial crisis in stage 6, intimacy vs.
isolation, occurs in young adulthood (ages 18
to 40 years). The main focus in this stage is
developing intimate relationships, and the
virtue to be gained is "love."
People who are not successful in stage 6 can
feel alone and isolated. In some cases, this
can lead to depression.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson's seventh level of psychosocial
development occurs during middle
age—between 40 to 65 years of age. The
crisis at this stage is generativity vs.
stagnation.
Generativity is a person's way of "leaving a
mark" on the world by giving back to society.
This can include mentoring the younger
generation, being successful at work, and
positively impacting the community. The virtue
that can be gained in stage 7 is "care."
When a person is not successful in stage 7, it
leads to stagnation. This can cause the person
to feel useless and disconnected from their
community.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final stage in Erikson's psychosocial
theory of development is integrity vs. despair.
This stage begins around age 65 years and
continues for the remainder of a person's life.
During this stage, a person reflects on their life
and their accomplishments and comes to
terms with the fact that death is unavoidable.
According to Erikson, if a person does not feel
their life was productive, or if a person has
guilt over things that occurred in the past, it
can lead to feelings of despair. If a person is
successful in stage 8, the virtue to be gained is
"wisdom."
It is common for people in stage 8 to
experience alternating periods of integrity and
despair. The ultimate goal is to achieve
balance.
According to this Jean Piaget theory, children
are not capable of performing certain tasks or
understanding certain concepts until they
reach a particular Piaget stage.
In addition, Piaget believed that children move
from one stage to the next after extensive
exposure to relevant stimuli and experiences.
With these experiences, both physical and
cognitive, they are ready to master new skills,
which are essential for children to move
through the Piaget stages.
The Four Jean Piaget Stages of
Development
Criticisms of Erikson's Theory
There are several criticisms of Erikson's
psychosocial theory of development. Some
critics believe that Erikson was too focused on
the idea that these stages need to be
completed sequentially, and only occur in the
age ranges he suggests.
Other critics point out that Erikson used the
European or American "male experience" as a
template for all humans when he designed his
stages of development.5
In addition, Erikson does not provide
information about what types of experiences
have to occur for a person to be successful in
resolving the psychosocial crises at each
stage of development.
The Jean Piaget Stages of Cognitive
Development
In the 1960s and 1970s, as Freudian and
Jungian psychology were rapidly being
replaced by more empirical methods of
studying human behavior, a Swiss philosopher
and psychologist named Jean Piaget
(1896-1980) offered a new theory of cognitive
development.
The Jean Piaget theory of cognitive
development suggests that regardless of
culture, the cognitive development of children
follows a predetermined order of stages, which
are widely known as the Jean Piaget stages of
cognitive development.
Sensorimotor Stage
Age Range: Birth to 2 years old
According to the Piaget theory, children like to
explore at the sensorimotor stage. They want
to watch, hear, taste, touch things around
them. They learn about their environment by
sensation: watching, grasping, sucking and
manipulating objects they can get their eyes
and hands on. They generally don’t appear to
be thinking about what they do.
As infants become toddlers, children enjoy
their rapidly improving abilities to move around
and take in new experiences. They focus on
making sense of the world by linking their
experiences to their actions.
Piaget further divided the sensorimotor stage
into six substages, each sighted with at the
establishment of a new skill.
Reflexes (0 – 1 month): Understanding of
environment is attained through reflexes such
as sucking and crying.
Primary Circular Reactions (1 – 4 months):
New schemas and sensations are combined,
allowing children to engage in pleasurable
actions deliberately, such as sucking their
thumb.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4 – 8
months): Children are now aware that their
actions influence their environment and
purposefully perform actions in order to
achieve desired results. For example, they
push a key on a toy piano to make a sound.
Coordination of Reactions (8 – 12 months):
Children explore their environment and often
imitate the behavior of others.
Tertiary Circular Reactions – (12 – 18
months): Children begin to experiment and try
out new behavior.
Early Representational Thought (18 – 24
months): Children begin to recognize and
appreciate symbols that represent objects or
events. They use simple language to catalog
objects, e.g. “doggie”, “horsey”.
see. They can imagine people or objects that
don’t exist (such as a lizard with wings) more
readily than younger children, and they like to
make up their own games.
During the late sensorimotor stage, children
begin to learn the concept of object
permanence. In other words, they know that
an object will continue to exist even if they can
no longer see it.
By the time they reach the concrete
operational stage, children can understand
much more complex abstract concepts, such
as time, space, and quantity. They can apply
these concepts to concrete situations, but they
still have trouble thinking about them
independently of those situations.
The practical knowledge developed during the
sensorimotor stage will form the basis for
children’s ability to form mental
representations of objects in later Piaget
stages.
Preoperational Stage
Age Range: 2-7 years old
At the preoperational stage, children
understand object permanence very well.
However, they still don’t get the concept of
conservation. They don’t understand that
changing an object’s appearance doesn’t
change its properties or quantity.
In the experiment, Piaget poured the exact
same amount of water into two identical
glasses and asked the children whether the
glasses contained the same amount of water.
The children said that both glasses contained
the same amount of water. Piaget then poured
the water in one glass into a tall, narrow
beaker and repeated the question. This time,
the children said there was more water in the
cylinder because it was taller.
Concrete Operational Stage
Age Range: 7-11 years old
Piaget pointed out that at this stage, children’s
ideas about time and space are sometimes
inconsistent. They can learn rules fairly easily,
but they may have trouble understanding the
logical implications of those rules in unusual
situations.
Around age two, children enter what Piaget
called the preoperational stage where they
learn how to think abstractly, understand
symbolic concepts, and use language in more
sophisticated ways. They learn to use words to
describe people, their feelings and their
environments.
In addition, at the concrete operational stage,
children are able to use inductive logic – the
type of reasoning that starts from a specific
idea and leads to a generalization. They can
also distinguish facts from fantasies, as well as
formulate judgements about cause and effect.
Now that children can express themselves
better, they become insatiably curious and
begin to ask questions about everything they
Another important child development
milestone at this stage is the idea of
reversibility – children understand that some
objects can be altered and then shaped back
to their original shape. For example, a deflated
balloon can be filled with air again to become
an inflated balloon.
Formal Operational Stage
Age Range: 11 years old and older
At the final stage of the Jean Piaget stages of
cognitive development, children are capable of
more abstract, hypothetical, and theoretical
reasoning. They are no longer bound to
observable and physical events. They can
approach and resolve problems systematically
by formulating hypotheses and methodically
testing them out.
Children can now apply their reasoning to a
variety of situations including counterfactual
“if-then” situations, meaning in situations
where the “if” is known to be untrue. For
example “if dogs were reptiles, they would
have cold blood.” They can accept this as valid
reasoning, even though the premise is
obviously false.
As children grow older, formal logic becomes
possible and verbal explanations of concepts
are usually sufficient without demonstration.
They can consider possible outcomes and
consequences of their actions without actually
performing them. In addition, strategy-based
games become more enjoyable, whereas rote
games like “chutes-and-ladders” become too
repetitive and boring for them.
The Jean Piaget theory of cognitive
development has been the subject of some
criticism over the years, particularly from
cross-cultural psychologists who question
whether the Piaget stages are unique to
Western children.
Regardless of the criticism, the Piaget theory
has proven to be invaluable and formed the
basis for a number of other famous
psychological ideas, including Kohlberg’s
theory of moral development.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Based on Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development, American psychologist
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) developed
his own theory of moral development in
children. According to Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development, there are 6 stages of
moral development, known as Kohlberg’s
stages of moral development.
One of Kohlberg’s best known experiments is
known as the Heinz Dilemma. In this
experiment, Kohlberg presented a story about
a man named Heinz:
Heinz’s wife had a form rare cancer and was
dying. A doctor told Heinz that a local chemist
had invented a new drug that might save his
wife. Heinz was very happy to hear this and
went to talk to the chemist. When Heinz saw
the price tag of the new drug, he was
devastated because there was no way he
could afford the drug. Heinz also knew that the
price was ten times of the cost of the drug so
the chemist was making a big buck from this
drug.
Heinz tried his best to borrow money from his
friends and family, but the money was still not
enough. He went back to the chemist and
begged the chemist to lower the price. The
chemist refused to do that. Heniz knew that his
wife would die without this new drug, so he
broke into the chemist’s office that night and
stole the drug.
After telling Heinz’s story to children in various
age groups, Kohlberg asked them what Heinz
should do. Based on the children’s responses,
Kohlberg classified their moral reasoning into
three levels, each of which contains two
distinct substages:
Pre-conventional Level
● Obedience
● Self-interest
Conventional Level
● Conformity
● Law and order
Post-conventional Level
● Social contract orientation
● Universal human ethics
Age ranges are considerably more vague in
the Kohlberg’s stages than in the Piaget
stages, as children vary quite significantly in
their rate of moral development.
The Pre-conventional Level
The pre-conventional stage is associated with
the first two Kohlberg’s stages of moral
development: Obedience and Self-interest.
At this level, children are only interested in
securing their own benefits. This is their idea
of morality. They begin by avoiding
punishment, and quickly learn that they may
secure other benefits by pleasing others. No
other ethical concepts are available to children
this young.
When being asked what Heinz should do,
children at this level of moral development
may answer:
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
it’s bad to steal.
● He should steal the drug because the
chemist is charging too much.
● He should steal the drug because he’ll
feel good that he saves his wife.
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
he’ll end up in prison.
These Kohlberg stages are parallel to Piaget’s
sensorimotor stage – for children whose
conceptual framework don’t extend beyond
their own senses and movements, the moral
concepts of right and wrong would be difficult
to develop.
The Conventional Level
According to Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development, the conventional level is
associated with Conformity and Law and
Order. This is the stage at which children learn
about rules and authority. They learn that there
are certain “conventions” that govern how they
should and should not behave, and learn to
obey them.
At this stage, no distinction is drawn between
moral principles and legal principles. What is
right is what is handed down by authority, and
disobeying the rules is always by definition
“bad.”
When being asked what Heinz should do,
children at this level of moral development
may answer:
● He should steal the drug because he
is a good husband, and a good
husband would do anything to save
his wife.
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
he’s not a criminal.
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
it’s illegal to steal.
● He should steal the drug to save his
wife and after that, he should go to
prison for the crime.
Kohlberg believed that some people stay at
this stage of moral reasoning for their whole
lives, deriving moral principles from social or
religious authority figures and never thinking
about morality for themselves.
The Post-conventional Level
The post-conventional level is associated with
these Kohlberg’s stages of moral
development: Social contract orientation and
Universal human ethics.
At this level, children have learned that there is
a difference between what is right and what is
wrong from a moral perspective, and what is
right and what is wrong according to rules.
Although they often overlap, there are still
times when breaking a rule is the right thing to
do.
When being asked what Heinz should do,
children at this level of moral development
may answer:
● He should steal the drug because
everyone has a right to live, regardless
of the law.
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
the chemist deserves to get paid for
his effort to develop the drug.
● He should steal the drug because
saving life is more important than
anything else.
● He shouldn’t steal the drug because
others also have to pay for the drug.
It’s only fair that he pays for it as well.
Comparisons of Kohlberg’s Stages of
Moral Development and Piaget’s Stages of
Cognitive Development
Although Kohlberg’s stages of moral
development aren’t direct parallels of Piaget’s
stages of cognitive development, Kohlberg
was inspired by Piaget’s work. By comparing
these two theories, you can get a sense of
how our concepts of the world around us (our
descriptive concepts) influence our sense of
what we ought to do in that world (our
normative concepts).
than others. This, of course, presupposes
certain moral assumptions, and so from a
philosophical perspective Kohlberg’s argument
is circular.
Furthermore, there are also some studies that
indicate that children as young as six years old
can attain vague concepts of universal ethical
principles – they may be able to distinguish
between a rule that says “no hitting” (universal
and moral) and one that says “kids must sit in
a circle during story-time” (conventional,
arbitrary, and non-moral).
Since Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
questions whether even teenagers can attain
this level of moral reasoning, these studies
throw considerable doubt on his conclusions.
The best conjecture, however, may be that
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
describe not a one-way process of
psychological growth for an individual, but a
categorization of different types of moral
values, which may be developed and
prioritized differently for different individuals
and moral cultures.
What is the Havighurst Developmental
Tasks Theory?
Although many theorists are responsible for
contributing to the Developmental Tasks
Theory, it was Robert Havighurst who
elaborated on this development theory in the
most systematic and extensive manner.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
Like Piaget, Kohlberg has come under fire in
recent years from cross-cultural psychologists
who believe that Kohlberg’s theory is simply a
codification of Western (post-modern Western
liberal, to be precise) notions of justice and
morality. Other moral and political cultures may
not believe in certain principles.
These critics argue that Kohlberg’s stages of
moral development are Kohlberg’s attempt to
make his own moral beliefs appear to be
psychological facts. Kohlberg’s theory of moral
development also seems to have a troubling
normative aspect – that is, it seems to suggest
that certain kinds of moral reasoning are better
The main assertion of the Havighurst
developmental tasks theory is that
development is continuous throughout a
person’s entire lifespan, occurring in stages. A
person moves from one stage to the next by
means of successful resolution of problems or
performance of certain developmental tasks.
These tasks are typically encountered by most
people in the culture where that person
belongs.
According to the Havighurst developmental
tasks theory, when people successfully
accomplish the developmental tasks at a
stage, they feel pride and satisfaction. They
also earn the approval of their community or
society. This success provides a sound
foundation that allows these people to
accomplish the tasks that they will encounter
at later Havighurst developmental stages.
demonstrate maturation at a level that is most
conducive to learning and successfully
performing the developmental tasks at these
stages.
Conversely, when people fail to accomplish the
developmental tasks at a stage, they’re often
unhappy and are not accorded the desired
approval by society. This results in the
subsequent experience of difficulty when faced
with succeeding developmental tasks at later
Havighurst developmental stages.
Psychological Influences
Psychological factors that emerge from a
person’s maturing personality and psyche are
embodied in his/her personal values and
goals. These values and goals are another
source of some developmental tasks such as
establishing one’s self-concept, developing
relationships with peers of both sexes and
adjusting to retirement or to the loss of a
spouse.
The Bio-Psychosocial Model of
Development
Robert Havighurst proposed a
bio-psychosocial model of development.
According to Havighurst’s Developmental
Tasks Theory, the developmental tasks at each
stage are influenced by a person’s biology
(physiological maturation and genetic
makeup), his/her psychology (personal values
and goals), as well as his/her sociology
(specific culture to which the individual
belongs).
Biological Influences
Some Havighurst developmental tasks are
evolved out of the biological characteristics of
humans and are faced similarly by people of
any culture.
An example of this happens in child
development – learning how to walk for
infants. Being a skill that depends on
maturation and genetically determined factors,
the mechanics involved in learning how to
walk are virtually the same and occur at
generally the same time for children from all
cultures.
Other developmental tasks in child
development that stem from biological
mechanisms include learning to talk,
exercising control over bodily functions, as
well as learning skills typically utilized in
children’s games, to name a few.
Havighurst pointed out the importance of
sensitive stages which he considered to be the
ideal teachable moments during child
development. At these stages, children
Social Influences
There are other developmental tasks that arise
from the unique cultural standards of a given
society. These tasks may be observed in
different forms in varying societies or,
alternatively, may be observed is some
cultures but not in others.
For example, someone who belongs to an
agricultural community might make the
preparations for an occupation such as
becoming a farmer at an early age. Members
of an industrialized society, on the other hand,
require longer and more specialized
preparation for an occupation. Therefore, they
tend to embark on this developmental task
later in life.
Other culturally-based developmental tasks
include achieving gender-appropriate roles
and becoming a responsible citizen.
The Havighurst Developmental Stages
Robert Havighurst proposed a list of common
critical developmental tasks, categorized into
six stages of development. The table below
shows a partial list of Havighurst
developmental tasks.
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of
Cognitive Development
In early 20th century, a Russian psychologist
named Lev Vygotsky developed a theory of
cognitive development in children known as
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of
Cognitive Development.
The main assertion of the Vygotsky theory is
that cognitive development in early childhood
is advanced through social interaction with
other people, particularly those who are more
skilled. In other words, unlike Piaget’s theory,
Vygotsky proposed that social learning comes
before cognitive development in children, and
that children construct knowledge actively.
●
●
The child can receive instructions from
the MKO during the learning process.
The MKO can offer temporary support
(scaffolding) to the child during the
learning proces
For example, a five-year-old child knows how
to ride a tricycle, but can’t ride a bicycle (with
two wheels) unless his grandfather holds onto
the back of her bike. According to Vygotsky’s
theory, this child is in the zone of proximal
development for riding bicycle.
With her grandfather’s help, this little girl
learns to balance her bike. After some
practising, she can ride the bike on her own.
Vygotsky’s Concept of Zone of Proximal
Development
Lev Vygotsky is most recognized for his
concept of Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) pertaining to the cognitive development
in children.
Vygotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal
Development underscores Vygotsky’s
conviction that social influences, particularly
getting instructions from someone, are of
immense importance on the cognitive
development in early childhood.
According to the Vygotsky theory of cognitive
development, children who are in the zone of
proximal development for a particular task can
almost perform the task independently, but not
quite there yet. With a little help from certain
people, they’ll be able to perform the task
successfully.
According to Vygotsky’s theory, as children are
given instructions or shown how to perform
certain tasks, they organize the new
information received in their existing mental
schemas. They use this information as guides
on how to perform these tasks and eventually
learn to perform them independently.
Vygotsky’s Concept of More
Knowledgeable Other
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes
that children learn through social interaction
that include collaborative and cooperative
dialogue with someone who is more skilled in
tasks they’re trying to learn. Vygotsky called
these people with higher skill level the More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO). MKO could be
teachers, parents, tutors and even peers.
Some factors that are essential in helping a
child in the zone of proximal development:
● The presence of someone who has
better skills in the task that the child is
trying to learn. This “someone” is
known as a “More Knowledgeable
Other”(MKO), which we will discuss
below.
In our example of the five-year-old girl learning
to ride a bike, her grandfather not only holds
onto the back of the bike, but also verbally
teaches her how to balance her bike. From the
little girl’s point of view, her grandfather is what
Vygotsky would call a More Knowledgeable
Other.
Vygotsky’s Concept of Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely
related to the concept of the Zone of Proximal
Development. Scaffolding refers to the
temporary support given to a child by a More
Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to
perform a task until such time that the child
can perform this task independently.
According to the Vygotsky theory, scaffolding
entails changing the quality and quantity of
support provided to a child in the course of a
teaching session. The MKO adjusts the level
of guidance in order to fit the student’s current
level of performance.
For novel tasks, the MKO may utilize direct
instruction. As the child gains more familiarity
with the task and becomes more skilled at it,
the MKO may then provide less guidance.
To illustrate Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding
using our example of the five-year-old learning
to ride a bike:
The little girl’s grandfather (MKO) may begin
by holding onto the back of her bike the whole
time that she is on the bike. As the little girl
gains more experience, her grandfather may
release his hold intermittently. Eventually the
girl’s grandfather only grabs the bike when he
needs to correct her balance. When the girl
finally masters the skill, her grandfather no
longer needs to hold onto her bike anymore,
and the scaffolds can be removed.
A major contribution of Vygotsky’s theory of
cognitive development in children is the
acknowledgement of the social component in
both cognitive and psychosocial development.
Due to Vygotsky’s proffered ideas, research
attention has been shifted from the individual
onto larger interactional units such as parent
and child, teacher and student, brother and
sister, etc.
The Vygotsky theory also called attention to
the variability of cultural realities, stating that
the cognitive development of children who are
in one culture or subculture, such as middle
class Asian Americans, may be totally different
from children who are from other cultures.
Therefore, it would not be fitting to compare
the developmental milestones of children from
one culture to those of children from other
cultures.