Coming of the Chinese, Europeans, Indians and Africans Immigration was seen as a viable solution to the labour crisis anticipated after the complete emancipation of enslaved Africans. Immigration occurred before and after emancipation. Since abolition planters had sought alternatives sources of labour. Immigrants were sought from within and outside the Caribbean. Reasons for Immigration The British Crown had four aims for immigration schemes. These were: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Restore and expand the sugar economy. Create a steady supply of labourers. Ensured the ruling class in the colonies maintains control over the labour force. Keep wages low by having the immigrants compete for wages with the newly emancipated blacks. To increase the white population in order to reduce the overwhelming imbalance in the ratio between the whites and ex-slaves population. (v) The planters’ goal for the immigrants was not contrary to the Crown’s; they too wanted a consistent source of cheap labour. Opposition to immigrants came from planters living in colonies that did not have postemancipation labour issues such as those in the Leewards, Barbados and Belize. Push and Pull Factors for Immigration Push Factors: things which push immigrants away from their country. ⮚ ⮚ ⮚ ⮚ ⮚ Unemployment They needed land Famines in immigrants’ country Overpopulation Criminals wanted to escape. Pull Factors: Things that attracted them to the Caribbean. ⮚ Promise of higher wages ⮚ Jobs ⮚ Possibility of owning their own land ⮚ The good life that they expected in the Caribbean ⮚ The favourable terms of the contract (it gave them food, medical treatment, housing) EUROPEANS The planters attempted to use labourers from Europe; however, they soon discovered that this group was not suitable, not only because they were not use to the work or the climate but because they requested high wages. Source and Location The European labourers included mostly the poor, unemployed and prisoners. Many European immigrants came from Germany, England, Ireland, Scotland and Malta to the British colonies between 1835 to 1838. Between 1848 to 1859 immigrants came from France to the French colony of Martinique. In 1852 the French brought labourers to French Guiana [Cheyenne] and many of them were prisoners. Suriname received labourers from the Netherlands in 1860. Many labourers came to Cuba from Spain between 1882 and 1885. In Jamaica, planters imported Germans because they wanted then to occupy the highlands so the ex-slaves could not get land which would cause them to return to the planation for work. Quantity Martinique received 200 French and 300 Portuguese labourers by 1859. In 1860 Suriname received 348 Dutch farmers and by 1885 Cuba received 8000 Spanish labourers. Impact These labourers were unfavourable because they succumbed easily to diseases and many upon their arrival to the Caribbean refused to work alongside the Africans. The Europeans did not have a lot of economic impact because they came in small numbers. Immigration of Europeans continued despite their relative economic value because some colonial governments for example the French and the Spanish wanted to increase the population of whites. MADEIRANS The authorities in British Guiana were particularly anxious to acquire Madeirans for their socioeconomic benefit; they were reputed to be good workers and they were white which would not only lighten the population but increase the number of whites.. Source and Location The Portuguese labourers that came the West Indies in particular British Guiana did not come directly from Portugal, but they were from the Portuguese colony of Madeira. Quantity Between 1835 to 1881 about 30,000 were brought to the Caribbean; of this amount 1,000 went to Trinidad, 2,500 to Antigua. In addition about 2,100 went to St. Kitts-Nevis and the same amount going to St. Vincent. However, the largest quantity went to British Guiana. Impact Madeirans who survived eventually became quite prosperous; this is because of the privileges they enjoyed in the colonies. They did have to pay monthly tax for initial expenses and after their contract ended they were given credit by white merchants to open stores. As a result by 1842 there were 139 new shops in Georgetown of which 42 were owned by Portuguese; by the 1850’s the Portuguese controlled the retail trade in British Guiana. The Madeirans were also part of a social engineering scheme designed to maintain the status quo which ensured that blacks were at the bottom of the social ladder. Perception of Portuguese created resentment among the blacks which eventually led to antiPortuguese riots in Guiana. Riots broke out in 1848, 1856 and 1889 amidst allegations that Portuguese shop owners were overcharging blacks. LIBERATED AFRICANS Africa had already proven her worth as a source of consistent, reliable and cheap labour force. Therefore with emancipation the planters naturally wanted to return to this source. The Africans were expected to ensure that wages remained at a low rate and be direct competitors to the newly emancipated blacks. The British Government was reluctant at first to use Liberated Africans as immigrants because they felt that it would look like they are introducing a new form of slavery. Source and Location Africans were acquired from areas in West Africa such as Sierra Leone and Gambia. In addition attempts were made to acquire Africans from the USA and Canada. Quantity Between 1811 and 1860 6000 West Africans were brought to the Bahamas, and in 1838 500 were taken to Grenada as indenture. Trade in Africans stopped in 1871, but up to that point Guadeloupe received 6000; Martinique got 10,000 and French Guiana about 1,500. By 1847 Trinidad received about 1523 Africans from the USA and Canada; Jamaica during this period received approximately the same quantity of Africans from the USA and Canada. However, by 1848 Africans from these areas became to taper off. Impact Immigrants from West Africa discontinued by 1871 because they were not having the desired impact, especially as it relates to lowering costs. This is because it cost a lot more to acquire Africans than to acquire Chinese and especially Indians. Attempts to get Africans from closer regions were not successful either because the Africans from the USA and Canada returned home after 1848 because they found plantation labour too hard and the wages too low. The few who stayed after 1848 found jobs as artisans or other non-agricultural work. CHINESE China was among the first places that planters attempted to recruit labourers because it was a poor country, which means there were many people who would see the hard labour in the Caribbean as an opportunity for better life. By the 19th century the population of China was 350 million. Source and Location It was in 1852 that large scale immigration of Chinese began especially from the Potuguese colony of Macao. The immigrants consisted mostly of Chinese men who were convicts and prisoners of war. As the scheme progressed families were recruited from Canton. Quantity Cuba abolished its slave trade in 1845 and slavery continued to 1886; however, to offset the impact of the ending of the slave trade in 1847 600 Chinese were brought to Cuba. Between 1848 to 1874 Cuba acquired 124,813 Chinese labourers. In the British colonies the first batch of Chinese amounting to 507 went to Jamaica between 1845 and 1847. When the scheme began in earnest in 1852 in The British colonies about 20,000 Chinese came to the West Indies from that period to 1893. Of that amount about 12,000 went to British Guiana, 5000 to Jamaica and 2,500 to Trinidad. Impact The fact that no Chinese women were initially brought to the colonies created tension and eventually led to many running away, producing inadequate work or committing acts of violence. Later as Chinese families were recruited this did not alleviate the situation as these individuals were mostly small farmers and market gardeners who were not prepared for the rigours of plantation life. The scheme eventually concluded because it was cheaper to acquire Indians. The Chinese who remained in the British colonies after their contract became shop keepers. In Cuba where the majority of Chinese indentured went, many continued to labour on plantations for their contracted eight years for 12 hours per day. However, the mortality rate for Chinese ranged from 2.2% to as high as 19% in a given year over the period. Problems With Chinese Immigration/ Reason Chinese Immigration Failed 1. 2. 3. 4. Opposition from the Chinese Government Immigration caused division or negatively affected Chinese family structure. Chinese immigration was more expensive than other schemes Britain had no control over the Chinese immigration scheme since China was an independent country. The Chinese government imposed a lot of restrictions on the scheme. 5. Agents used deception in recruiting immigrants. 6. The Chinese abandoned estate labour to establish shops EAST INDIANS By the 19th century the population of India was 250 million and it was a colony of Britain. Socioeconomic conditions of India ensured that her population would become a source for cheap and plentiful labour for the West Indies. In 1838 the first shipment of Indians came; of the 414, 18 died on enroute and another 98 died within five years of being in the Caribbean. Of the total number only 60 remained in the Caribbean after their contract was up. The high mortality rate resulted in the suspension of Indian indenture until 1844 while an investigation was conducted. Indians were considered to be the most successful group despite the initial ‘hiccups’; this is because they were: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) hardworking accustomed to agricultural labour easy to transfer them to the colonies as they were British colonists many were eager to leave India during the period due to famine, increasing povery, high taxes and general bad conditions created by the presence of the Raj [British authorities in India] restriction created by the caste system along with difficulties widows had in remarrying. Source and Location Immigration of Indians in the British colonies began in earnest in 1845. Indians were recruited in the villages, districts and the crowded cities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Lucknow, Bengal and Bihar, where people were poor and unemployed. In India were officials known as Emigration Agent, they were located mainly in Calcutta and they would provide recruiters with licenses to recruit a specific number of labourers. Once enough labourers signed on they were taken to the depot in Calcutta; when there was enough labourers to fill a ship they would board ships in either Calcutta or Madras to the Caribbean. The journey to the Caribbean lasted an average of 20 weeks on sailing ships and about 13 weeks for a steamer. Only about 350 immigrants were expected to be on any one vessel, however overcrowding was common. As a result despite the presence of medical personnels on these vessels immigrants acquired diseases such as fevers, measles, meningitis and mumps. Quantity Between 1838 and 1917, Jamaica received 21,500 Indians, St. Lucia received 1550, St. Vincent got 1,820 and Grenada received 2,570 Indians. However, Trinidad got 145,000 and British Guiana received 238,000 Indians. Living and Working Conditions Immigrants were expected to work for five years, for 9 hours per day. They were not to leave the plantations without permission; they were to live on estates in barracks previously used by Africans. Planters were to provide general maintenance and medical care; however the cost of food was deducted from the approximately 25 cents per day wages. The labourers were expected to work for another five years before they could acquire free or partial paid return passage to India. The harsh living and working conditions experiences bt eat Indians made some person sate that it was a “new system of slavery”. Impact The Indians were the most successful of all the immigrant groups. However, the fact that only one female came for every three male created jealousy and infidelity. This eventually led to several murders in the Indian communities and the victims were usually women. Economically the introduction of immigrants saw an increase in output of sugar in British Guiana and Trinidad. Conclusion It is difficult to assess if the immigrants solved the labour issues in the colonies or directly impacted the growth and or restoration of the sugar industries. Evidence shows that some colonies that received immigrants saw an increase in sugar output, while colonies such as Jamaica saw a decline. In addition colonies such as Barbados which did not have many immigrants because they had no labour issue saw an increase in production. Some immigrant groups who went to some colonies were so small in quantity that they were eventually incorporated into the society or they kept to themselves and they therefore had no social impact. Others like the Chinese and the Portuguese started retail businesses or became merchants. Many of the groups did not mix with the established groups and thus facilitated the creation of plural societies in the Caribbean, where there is one society however, several ethnic groups co-exist independent of each other. This is evident in Trinidad and British Guiana with the blacks and the Indians; these two groups have different cultural practices, in terms of religion, food and general lifestyle. Effects of Immigration ECONOMIC EFFECTS 1. There was an increase in the supply of labour. Their coming definitely solved the labour shortage problem. 2. There was a decrease in the wages offered to workers on the estates. This helped to cut the cost of production dramatically since wages was two thirds of the cost of production. 3. Sugar production increased particularly in Trinidad and British Guiana. 4. A number of immigrants remained and worked on the estates after their contract expired. They did both skilled and unskilled jobs. 5. It is said that the Indian immigrants encouraged the use of mechanization. 6. This improvement in the sugar industry slowed down the diversification of the Caribbean economy. British West Indian planters had turned to immigration as a tool for reviving the sugar industry. The hope was that with the steady supply of labour, planters could focus on increasing their output. Immigration, however, did not have its desired impact, especially in a colony as Jamaica. In territories such as Trinidad and British Guiana, we cannot assume that immigration saved their sugar industry. For instance, they introduced mechanization and placed more lands under sugarcane cultivation. These other factors could readily be counted as factors that saved their sugar industries. Barbados could be used as another example. Up to 1848, they had seen an increase in their output by 250 per cent. However, by the end of the 19th century, this had declined. We cannot assume that it was because Barbados was not using immigrant labour that its output declined. During the period, Barbados was plagued by problems such as soil exhaustion and inadequate mechanization. The overall conclusion must be that immigration did not cause increased sugar production in the British West Indies, as many other factors could have been responsible. SOCIAL EFFECTS 1. Indians were felt to be inferior and they could only find work in poorly paid jobs. They could not settle in the towns, but lived in the countryside and formed an active peasant class. The employment of Indians mainly as field workers led to the employment of blacks in better jobs, for example, the police force. 2. The ex-slaves despised the Indians and refused to work alongside them in the fields. They were described as ‘’heathens’’ because of their speech and clothing. Indians also despised the blacks because of their alleged low moral standards. 3. Immigration led to the expansion of social services, for example, medical facilities and a large police force. 4. Caribbean societies became plural societies or multi-ethnic societies. In other words, there are people in the Caribbean who are citizens of the same country, but who belong to different racial groups, different ancestral cultures, different religions or all of these. CULTURAL EFFECTS 1. Family- Indians brought their firm family structure in which all relations supported each other. The idea of extended family, which included several generations, was very strong. All males over 16 years were members of a family council. They made all decisions of the family, for example, marriage, religious ceremonies and expenditure. 2. Religion- Hinduism- Hindus worshipped several gods of which Brahma was the most important. He was the supreme god or creator. They believed that when people die, their souls are reborn in a new body. The Hindus had very strict divisions in the society; this was known as the caste system. Each person belonged to a special group or caste. The Brahmins or the religious leaders were at the top of the society and the Hindus in the Caribbean continued to follow them as their leaders. Islam- The Indians who came were also Muslims. They believed in one God, called Allah. They followed the teachings of the Quran. 3. Festivals- Divali or Festival of lights was celebrated by the Hindus. They told stories, shared gifts and decorated their windows and doors with lights and candles. Hosein- A Muslim festival. Small temples, made from paper and bamboo, were decorated and carried in a procession through the streets, while there was dancing to the beats of drums. 4. The Indians normally segregated themselves deliberately in the educational institution. Oftentimes, they were unwilling to send their children to school, since they feared they would be converted to Christianity. It was not until the late 1870s when separate schools for Indian children were established, mainly by the Canadian Presbyterian Mission to the Indians, that Indian children went to school and language barriers began to crumble. Indian integration in the Caribbean was not very easy, since many of them spoke the Hindi language and this served as a language barrier. 5. New culinary skills were introduced, the use of curry, and new kinds of food, for example, roti. Chinese foods were also introduced.
