Syllabus Note Booklet – Kirrawee High
School Miss Kinnaird
Option F: Russia and the Soviet Union 1917–1941
Content Focus
Students investigate key features of the history of Russia and the Soviet Union 1917–1941.
The Historical concepts and skills content is to be integrated as appropriate.
Key features
● Bolshevik ideology in theory and practice
● competing visions for the Bolshevik Party and the USSR
● Bolshevik consolidation of power
● political and economic transformation
● social and cultural transformation
● nature and impact of Stalinism
● aims, nature and effectiveness of Soviet foreign policy
Content
Students investigate:
Survey
● Bolshevik consolidation of power, including:
– an overview of Bolshevik ideology, the October coup 1917 and early Soviet
government (ACHMH136)
– the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Civil War and the introduction of the New Economic
Policy (ACHMH136, ACHMH138)
Focus of study
● The Bolsheviks and the power struggle following the death of Lenin, including:
– the impact of the Bolshevik consolidation of power, including the creation of the
USSR (ACHMH138)
– power struggle between Stalin, Trotsky and other leading Bolshevik figures in the
1920s (ACHMH137)
– reasons for the emergence of Stalin as leader of the USSR by the late 1920s
(ACHMH137)
● The Soviet State under Stalin, including:
– the nature of the USSR under Stalin, including dictatorship and totalitarianism
(ACHMH138)
– economic transformation under Stalin and its impact on Soviet society, including
collectivisation and the five-year plans (ACHMH138)
– political transformation under Stalin: growth of the Party, use of terror, show trials,
gulags, propaganda and censorship (ACHMH138, ACHMH139)
– social and cultural change in the USSR under Stalin (ACHMH138)
● Soviet foreign policy, including:
– the nature of Soviet foreign policy 1917–1941
– the role of ideology in Soviet foreign policy 1917–1 941
an overview of Bolshevik ideology, the October coup 1917 and early Soviet
government (ACHMH136)
Bolshevik ideology
Brief period of revolution, keeping the party as a tightly disciplined elite group, enlisting
peasant support, and sparking world revolution. (Opposed to the Mensheviks, who believed
in eventual introduction of socialism and a broad base of membership).
Leninism is a political ideology developed by Russian Marxist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin
that proposes the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat led by a revolutionary
vanguard party, as the political prelude to the establishment of communism.
November coup 1917
The Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government on 6 November 1917, a coup
organized by Trotsky. No shots were fired as the Bolsheviks took over key buildings that
night. On 7 Nov, he Bolsheviks fired blanks at the Winter Palace from the battle cruiser
Aurora. The PG’s little defence was forced to surrender, and the PG was arrested with little
resistance.
Early Soviet government
Bolsheviks set up the Council of People’s Commissars (SOVNARCOM) and created the
Soviet Constitution in 1918, creating the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. At
first, there was a ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ where the government took stern measures
against counterrevolutionaries. There were less than a quarter of a million Communists, but
they were well organized and trained. The Politburo took most decisions and held most
power. The Cheka were the secret police, and caused great terror, executing 50,000 by the
end of 1918. The Constituent Assembly was allowed to meet once, but after the Social
Revolutionaries refused to recognise the Communists as Russia’s rulers, the doors were shut
and guarded by machine gunners, and it was never allowed to meet again.
Initial social and political reform
Bolsheviks needed to establish legitimacy to non-Russians and bordering regions Early
decrees:
8 Nov – land belonging to church, tsar, and nobles handed to peasants, and peace with
Germany
12 Nov – working day limited to 8 hours
14 Nov – workers insured against illness or accident
1 Dec – non-Bolshevik newspapers banned
11 Dec – opposition Cadet party banned
20 Dec – Cheka (secret police) established
27 Dec – factories under worker committee control, banks under Bolshevik government
control
31 Dec – marriage without priest and easier divorce
Composition of government debated – some believe it should be a mix due to mistrust of
Bolsheviks – Lenin and Trotsky against – Zinoviev and Kamenev pro (leading Bolsheviks) –
Lenin didn’t allow Mensheviks due to cooperation with provisional government, but allowed
left Social Revolutionaries as they represented peasants (Dec 1917 SRs joined Sovnarkom
with portfolios of agriculture and justice) Community support for Bolsheviks not unanimous
– arrests and newspaper closure to stifle criticism – state workers strike and refuse to work
Elections previously set up by provisional government goes ahead – take place Dec – all men
and women above 20 can vote. Votes: 40% SRs, 24% Bolsheviks. 14% nationalist, 5%
cadets. Bolsheviks postponed opening of assembly – protest movement by other parties –
cadet party banned, Baltic fleet and Bolsheviks intimidate assembly. Constituent Assembly
meets – 19 January assembly adjourned and when returning sailors blocked entrances
-
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Civil War and the introduction of the New Economic
Policy (ACHMH136, ACHMH138)
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Signed between Russia and Germany on 3 March 1918 to end Russia’s participation in WWI.
Caused Soviet to split into 3 factions: Bolsheviks (wanted peace), Left Communists
(revolutionary war), and Mensheviks (wanted neither).Russia lost a lot of land, became cut
off from the Black Sea, and paid six thousand million marks.
Lost 30% of population and agricultural land, 50% of industrial undertakings and 90% of
coal mines.
Civil War
Began early 1918 as many threatened governments existence by 1920 major counterrevolutionary groups were brought forward and defeated. Trotsky commanded Red Army
March 1918 – recruited old imperial army . Trotsky firm and ruthless discipline upon red
army – inspiration to fight due to revolutionary fervour and fear of execution – tasked with
reconquering areas that had breakdowns of central authority. ‘Whites’ – liberals, monarchists,
disgruntled socialists, ex-officers, foreign powers, 40 000 ex-prisoners of war, Russian
citizens fighting against Bolsheviks.
British and French support of whites preservation of eastern front in war against Germany.
Large quantities of war supplies provided (official reason given for British occupation of
Murmansk, and French of Odessa) Lenin repudiate all foreign debts and froze foreign assets
(French had given extensive loans to tsar and believed if gov restored payment back would
occur) also for imperialistic reasons – America wanted to be closer to Japan
1919 resources collected ‘everything for the front’ 1921 Soviet government reconquered
most of the territories previously owned. Lack of support of the masses for people of small
towns and villages there was little to choose between brutality and terror on both sides
New Economic Policy
Economic recovery failed – 70% of Russia’s industrial capacity was geared to the war –
change to peacetime production too difficult – large-scale factory closures and redundancies
Workers leave cities to join Red Army or go back to villages – Petrograd lost 60% of
workforce by April 1918 and the urban proletariat decreased from 3.6 million in January
1917 to 1.4 million 1919. Basic economic problem remained – balance in trading goods of
farmers sending excess food in return for manufactured goods ceased due to lack off excess
food. Peasants deliberately withheld grain to drive up prices
March 1918 civil war – harsh economic measured imposed ‘war communism’ – aims
redistribute wealth, and help civil war by keeping towns and red army supplied with food and
weapons Large factories taken over by government & production planned Strict worker
discipline & protestors shot Peasants hand over surplus food or shot Food rationed Free
enterprise illegal
War communism – led to revolt – peasants slaughtered own cattle and refused to sow land.
Harvest of 1918 was tenth of 1916 – 344 peasant revolts 1919 – as civil war ended revolts
intensified – Tambov region 20000person revolt Famine widespread 1921 – typhoid and
cholera epidemic Proletariat began to oppose Bolshevik powers – in 1918 Bolsheviks were
defeated in some soviet elections – polls ruled invalid – Kronstadt sailors from Petrograd
naval base mutinied supporting workers – put forward demands of new elections, freedom of
speech, press, assembly for trade unions, political prisoners, fairer rationing, and freedom of
land
In response – Lenin sent Trotsky and war general Tukhachevsky to supress revolt 28 Feb - 18
March – Red Army sent across Gulf of Finland to attack naval base – with Cheka units
shooting those who showed reluctance to advance Defenders of Kronstadt – 1500 died and
2500 captured – prisoners shot in small groups by Cheka Civil war and revolts caused Lenin
to reverse War Communism to introduce New Economic Policy – key sections of economy
state owned but small businesses may retain private profits and peasants could sell crop
surplus, rain requisitioning replaced with tax
Historians debate significance of policy change – left view: war communism was temporary
diversion from the mixed economy, thus pro market socialism of NEP was real face of
Leninism as opposed to Stalinism – right view: true policy was war communism which was
only abandoned by force. Figes (1996) – war communism policy couldn’t have been only
temporary as it was kept for a year after the defeat of the Whites
the impact of the Bolshevik consolidation of power, including the creation of the USSR
(ACHMH138)
By early 1920s, the ban on factionalism and the civil war had centralised power. Party leader
power increased, and ordinary member influence decreased. Isaac Deutscher: ‘The leading
bodies of the party were now top-heavy...’
Three new party bodies were created: Politburo (key decisions), Orgburo (overseeing party
efficiency), and Secretariat (record-keeping, allocating jobs and membership)
the Secretariat was important as it controlled who was in power. David Christian: ‘...the
Secretariat’s control of the apparat... gave it control of all key positions in Soviet society.'
Trotsky disagreed with the Party’s bureaucratization, believing the Secretariat had too much
power. Trotsky: ‘The bureaucratization of the Party... has developed to unheard-of
proportions Party workers... assuming that the secretarial hierarchy... creates Party opinion
and Party decisions.’
Democratic centralism was replaced by bureaucracy, which was of great benefit to Stalin due
to his role in the Secretariat.
Creation of the USSR
In post-revolutionary Russia, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is established,
comprising a confederation of Russia, Belorussia, Ukraine, and the Transcaucasian
Federation divided in 1936 into the Georgian, Azerbaijan, and Armenian republics). Also
known as the Soviet Union, the new communist state was the successor to the Russian
Empire and the first country in the world to be based on Marxist socialism.
During the Russian Revolution of 1917 and subsequent three-year Russian Civil War, the
Bolshevik Party under Vladimir Lenin dominated the soviet forces, a coalition of workers’
and soldiers’ committees that called for the establishment of a socialist state in the former
Russian Empire. In the USSR, all levels of government were controlled by the Communist
Party, and the party’s politburo, with its increasingly powerful general secretary, effectively
ruled the country. Soviet industry was owned and managed by the state, and agricultural land
was divided into state-run collective farms.
In the decades after it was established, the Russian-dominated Soviet Union grew into one of
the world’s most powerful and influential states and eventually encompassed 15 republics–
Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Belorussia, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. In 1991, the
Soviet Union was dissolved following the collapse of its communist government.
-
power struggle between Stalin, Trotsky and other leading Bolshevik figures in the
1920s (ACHMH137)
Power struggle between Stalin, Trotsky and other figures in the 1920s
After Lenin’s death in 1924, the main Bolshevik leaders were Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev,
Bukharin and Stalin.
it was believed that Trotsky would take power because he was the best known communist
leader (e.g. due to the 1905 Soviet, 1917 revolution, the Civil War).
Stalin was described as ‘the Party’s most eminent mediocrity’ by Trotsky and ‘the least
prominent figure in the Politburo’ by R. Medvedev.
In Lenin’s last will and testament, Trotsky was praised as ‘the most capable man in the
present C.C.’ while Stalin was condemned as ‘...too rude... intolerable as a SecretaryGeneral.’
Reasons for the emergence of Stalin as a leader by the late 1920s
Stalin understood the significance of the Party becoming more hierarchical and bureaucratic,
and used this to manoeuvre himself into powerful positions. He also took on tedious but
important roles that no one else would.
Powerful positions:
Commissar of Nationalities (time spent in regional areas allowed him to build up contacts
and support across Russia)
Head of the Commissariat of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate (oversaw workings of
entire government)
General-Secretary (in charge of promotions, demotions and party appointments)
Zinoviev and Kamenev saw themselves sharing leadership with Stalin, so they defended him,
saying he had improved since the testament was written. Trotsky’s reputation was
destroyed—his disagreement with the Party’s bureaucratic and dictatorial methods and want
for a democratic party/free discussion was interpreted as a threat to party unity, and he was ill
and absent from Lenin’s funeral.
Trotsky was seen as too powerful to be Lenin’s heir, and his power base lay among ordinary
party members outside of the organisation.
Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Stalin formed a Triumvirate/Troika (group of 3) united against
Trotsky. ‘Scissor Crisis’ of 1923 caused by a fall in agricultural prices along with a rise in the
prices of manufactured goods. Troika advocated for priority to recovery of peasant sector,
financing the growth of industry from the growing prosperity of the peasants and from their
increased purchasing of products – left opposition led by Trotsky argued priority for
proletariat
Struggle between Trotsky and Stalin addressed the direction for the party and the aftermath
of the revolution – Trotsky and followers argued the party was becoming anti-democratic and
survival of revolution depended on the so-called ‘permanent revolution’. Stalin rejected this
and accused him of factionalism, which was specifically prohibited by Lenin. Stalin also
advocated ‘socialism in one country’ – strengthening communism within Soviet Union rather
than applying Marxist idea of unity of workers around the world – 14th Party Congress of
1925 supported ‘socialism in one country’ and Trotsky was forced to resign as Commissar
for War.
Other issue – NEP & peasants – Zinoviev and Kamenev: NEP introduced as temporary
measure and its continuation would lead to restoration of capitalism – proper socialist policy
is to industrialise – Bukharin argued for long-term preservation of NEP and claimed that even
Lenin realised it would take many years for the peasants to accept cooperative farming –
Stalin sided with Bukharin. 1927 – the left (now an alliance between Zinoviev, Kamenev, and
Trotsky) made protests about foreign policy – each side portray other as departing from
Lenin’s policies - Part meeting Nov 1927 Stalin denounced them as anti-Leninist and accused
them of factionalism – their expulsion from the party followed Trotsky refused to recant but
others were allowed back in with an apology .January 1928 Trotsky arrested and sent into
exile to Alma-Ata in Soviet Central Asia
Stalin Tackles right wing:
With left-wing opponents removed, Stalin disagreed over agricultural policy with the rightwing faction – reversing previous stand, Stalin now advocated rapidly collectivising
agriculture and developing heavy industry – expressed determination to eliminate the Kulaks.
Bukharin stood by his earlier defence of NEP. Stalin had sufficient support by April 1929 and
the right wing was defeated
Timeline
1923 – Stalin purged Party membership of ‘lukewarm members’
1924 – influx of new members through ‘Lenin Enrolment’, meaning Stalin-admitted
members outnumbered old Bolsheviks, Troika formed, Trotsky’s mistakes (criticised cult of
Lenin, criticised Stalin, and failed to attend Lenin’s funeral)
1925 – Zinoviev and Kamenev sided with Trotsky regarding NEP, Stalin moved to support
moderate Rightists, At Party Congress all left-wing motions were defeated, Zinoviev and
Kamenev were removed from Moscow and Leningrad Soviets, Stalin increased size of
Politburo, Stalin and Bukharin controlled Politburo after Zinoviev and Kamenev demise
1927 – Zinoviev and Kamenev denounced as ‘traitors to the revolution’ and along with
Trotsky, expelled from the party, Stalin abandoned Bukharin’s economic policy, arguing that
industrialisation should take precedent over agriculture
Kulaks – ‘capitalist’ class of peasant invented by the Bolsheviks
‘Extraordinary Measures’ introduced to keep Kulaks in line – Article 107 of criminal code
concealing grain a crime, all grain hoards liable to confiscation, soldiers sent into countryside
to find grain, Stalin declares war on ‘internal enemies’ as a result of the sabotage at Shakty
Mines, Bukharin denounced Stalin as a tyrant
-
reasons for the emergence of Stalin as leader of the USSR by the late 1920s
(ACHMH137)
Reasons for emergence
He was a tireless worker and his early career was supported by LeninmHis skills in politics
and administration were highly relevant to the tasks of the 1920s .His economic and political
pragmatism enabled him to outmanoeuvre first the Left and then the Right, while always
staying with the majority of the Politburo .He was ruthless in his treatment of his opponents
.His opponents played into his hands and underestimated the threat he posed until ut was too
late to act effectively against him. He manipulated events to create a sense of crisis, so his
opponents could beaccused of being lukewarm about the revolutionary cause. Until Civil war
a small central committee was led by Lenin with Trotsky, Bukharin, Stalin and 11 others as
members – 1919 Lenin decided on the need for a greater apparatus to advance revolution
Stalin chaired Organisation Bureau – Orgburo – recruited, appointments, assignments,
purges, and assassinations
Abuse of Cult of Lenin
Stalin impressed by Vanguard party of professional revolutionaries – used to create heroic,
divine status – Bolshevik reputation for toughness and militancy – self-confidence and power
. Stalin capitalised on death through being a pole bearer and having Lenin’s bod embalmed
and placed in a Tomb in Red Square, Moscow. Used Lenin as means of criticising Trotsky –
lack of heroism, optimism, and faith – claimed Trotsky’s idea of permanent revolution
(permanent success of socialism in Russia) depending on world-wide socialism, was a theory
of permanent hopelessness and showed a lack of faith in the Russian people. Stalin convinced
Trotsky to miss Lenin’s funeral – criticism of arrogance and lack of respect towards Lenin
Manipulation and Opportunism
Spoke to dissatisfactions of many Soviet Russians in 1920s – issues with NEP concerned
young workers including inequality and rise of the rich in cities (NEO men/wealthy traders)
or richer countryside peasants (Kulaks) Stalin developed the concept of ‘Socialism in One
Country’ to develop patriotism within Russian Society developing industrial force
Timeline of power struggle
1922 – Stalin appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party
1923 – Stalin accumulated bureaucratic power in his hands
1924 - 24 January – death of Lenin – Trotsky tricked into not attending, May – Stalin
survives reading of Lenin’s will – triumvirate (Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev) defeat Trotsky
at 13th Party Congress when Trotsky raised objections to the growing centralization and
bureaucratization of the party. Trotsky isolated.
1925 – Trotsky loses position as Commissar of War
Stalin forms alliance with “the right” including Bukharin, Rykov, and Tomsky – support
continuation of NEP opposed idea of rapid industrialisation – Zinoviev and Kamenev try to
relink with Trotsky but rejected – they lose every vote at 15th Party Congress
1927 – Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky – accused of forming “united opposition” – crime is
“factionalism” with punishment of expulsion
1927-28 – major economic crisis – food shortages – NEP run out of steam
1929 – Stalin turns on right allies – calls for massive, rapid industrialisation and hard line
against peasants – 1929 Party Congress Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky – forced out of
Politburo – Stalin becomes undisputed leader of Soviet Union, Trotsky expelled
-
the nature of the USSR under Stalin, including dictatorship and totalitarianism
(ACHMH138)
Joseph Stalin enforced his totalitarian state by putting fear into the peoples and taking
complete control over aspects of life in Russia. Totaliariansim a form of government in which
the national government has complete control over every aspect of both private and political
life. Satlin monitored telephone lines, read mail, and planted informers everywhere. He
eliminated those who apposed him in any way. He controlled all sources of information from
newspaper, motion picture and the radio to art, literature, science and history. Education the
schools were strically controlled by the government, the ultimate goal was to produce the
citizens that were capable of contolling to stalins new system, schools became much stricter
and more focused on courses necessary to develop skilled workers. Discipline was harsh for
students in order to make them disciplined workers for the factories. Churches were shut
down and turned into school or movies. Church leaders were arrested, Stalin could not allow
challenges.
Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship
The nature of Stalin’s dictatorship allowed only a single party in the political party of the
Ussr. This party went as far as banning any opposition within the party with the ban on
factions. As a result of this Stalin had banned all political opposition by 1929. Stalin’s party
controlled all the media- the press, cinema and the arts. Education was controlled to present
party line and inculcate the correct thinking. Socialist Realism was the only acceptable style
of the arts. The media promoted the cult of personality stalin. He even had people re-writing
the past. Stalin’s party came to have enormous influence over people’s lives. Where one
worked lived or studied was all controlled by the state. Stalin took control of aspects of
Russia this leading hi in control of a successful dictatorship.
Control of all means of mass communication
Controlling all means of communication is highly important to a totaltarnistic state as in
ensures the message of citizens and the outside word receive and are strically regulated. This
guarantees the regime only broadcast its version of the truth and its interpretation of the past
and present events. Stalinists Russia posed a strong control over the media, the education
system and cultural system of the USSR. This facilitated the Cult of Stalin, which essentially
defied stalin and made ordinary people feel they owed gratitude to him for the achievements
of soviet Russia.
economic transformation under Stalin and its impact on Soviet society, including collectivisation and
the five-year plans (ACHMH138)
Smychka was a popular political term in Soviet Russia and Soviet Union. It can be roughly translated as
"collaboration in society"
Collectivisation
Relations with peasents- From the earliest day of the revolution, relations between the
peasents and central government had been strained. There was many in the party who
didn’t like the richer peasents these were referred to as kulaks. The poor harvests of the late
1920’s prompted many party officials to again seek an alternative to the inefficient
agricultural production and distribution system. In 1928 the harvest was again down.
Farmers reacted to this by slaughtering animals, destroying or hiding grain and neglecting
fields.
The decision to collectivise- The combination of poor harvests, peasant disconnect and
concern for the future among the parties’ inner circle led stalin to move in the late 1929 to
rapidly produce agriculture. He believed in peasents being able to be controlled easier in the
collectivisation. If soviet agriculture was to be any benefit it couldn’t remain backward.
According to the revisionist in historian Kotkin the reasons for stalins move to collectivise
the was his ideological commitment to the introduction of socialism. In kotkins words, stalin
took an almighty gamble to collectivise, but it ultimately paved the way for industrlisation of
the USSR.
Thinking historically 6.2
1) a. identify the advantages of collectivisation to the soviet government
-
The advantages of the collectivisation to the soviet union was the push of stalin had the full
control over the grain export coming out of the country. He also had control of the agriculture
production
Disadvantages
There wasn’t very many disadvantages in for the soviet states but some of them were about
the disruption of the countryside, as the violent measures were put in place this led to the
mass rebellions in the Soviet Union.
2) b. Advantages of the agriculture work in collectivisation
-
There was minimal to 0 benefits to the agriculture workers as the whole point of
collectivisation was for them to work harder in produce of them to make more produce in work
for the country.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages include the sickness and starvation which was happening with the workers in
Russia. This led to workers dying as they were overworking themselves with not eating giving
them a lack of energy. They were constantly placing pressure on themselves to meet certain
quotas. A lack of food led to most Russian agriculture workers ending up being malnutrition.
3) Explain why the link between collectivisation and industry was so important to Stalin.
-
The collectivisation of the farms would create a higher produce of surplus of labour and
produce which would then be able to distribute to then gain profit on the exports coming out of
Russia improving them economically.
4) Account for the kulaks being specifically targeted for extermination. Discuss how valid his
actions were.
Stalin deprived them of there land often sent them to Siberia and sometimes had them killed.
his actions were valid as they discouraged the other peasants of becoming kulaks therefore
making them able to provide for themselves and not work for the government.
5) How did the kulaks rebel against collectivisation.
The kulaks burnt the crops and killed the animals in a form of rebellion in order to stand
against the government and not work for them.
Industrialisation
Background 1917-28
Russian politics in the war was dominated by a struggle of power within the Communist
Party. Central to this the question was about economic growth. In reference how to balance
growth against the demands of peasantry. Lenin majorly favoured main ting good relation
with the peasant class. By 1924 the party had consolidated its rule but to most people it was
far away in Moscow. The ravaged by a combination of civil war and economic policy based
on coercion was devastated with famine and deprivation were rife and in the revolt.
Bukharin’s moderate policies
Thinking Historically 6.1
1) Describe the nature of soviet industrlisation before the five-year plans
-
The industrlisation was lacking in produce before the five year plans Stalin introduce the
willingness of trying to improve the production as they were falling behind the other western
nations.
2) Explain why Stalin promoted industrlisation as a majory priorty in the soviet economic policy
He felt the only way for Russia to grow as a nation was
–
political transformation under Stalin: growth of the Party, use of terror, show trials, gulags,
propaganda and censorship (ACHMH138, ACHMH139)
–
social and cultural change in the USSR under Stalin (ACHMH138)
–
the nature of Soviet foreign policy 1917–1941
–
the role of ideology in Soviet foreign policy 1917–1941