CHAPTER 17
The Ideals of the Sokoto Caliphate in
the Outlying Districts: The O-Kun
Factor in the British Conquest of
Northern Nigeria, 1897-19O6
Jide Ige
Introduction
The word "O-kun",1 like "Aku" in Sierra Leone, is the mode of
saluation common but not exclusive to the area. Indeed, O-kun refers to
the people and their dialect and has been applied to the
geographical area which they occupy. The area, which has been
variously referred to as Kabba Division, 2 Kabba Yoruba, 3
northeastern Yoruba,4 presently constitutes a major portion of Kogi
State of Nigeria.
A conscious attempt to study the area, with particular reference
to its factor in the conquest and eventual reshaping of the Sokoto
Caliphate and its outlying areas into one administrative unit known as
Northern Nigeria has not become a focal point in any existing work. It
should be noted that this chapter is aware of the works of Mason and
Obayemi on the jihad in O-kunland.5 Mason argued that the jihad
manifested itself in O-kunland. Obayemi, on the other hand, insisted
that jihad did not take place in the area and that Islamic activities,
including the acceptance of the new faith in O-kunland, were done
under British colonial rule.6 Based on this position, it is important to reexamine the ideals of the jihad in the outlying district of O-kunland.
The point is that whether \hejihad took place in O-kunland or not, its
role in terms of providing a comfortable base for the British conquest of
Northern Nigeria between 1897 and 1906 cannot be under-estimated.
This vital role which the area played has made it an integral part of
Northern Nigeria.
Shaykh cUthman Dan Fodio's Ideals
In February 1804, Shaykh "Uthman Dan Fodio (hereafter Dan Fodio)
declared a holy war (jihad) aimed at cleansing his society of nonJslamic activities. According to R. A. Adeleye, Dan Fodio's main
purpose “...was the establishment of Islamic law and Islamic ideals
as the basis of! government in the place of systems ridden by nonIslamic laws, observances and practices ,"7 Dan Fodio accused the
Hausa rulers of polytheism. He accused the rulers from deviating from
the path of God (Allah) and "raised the Hag of the kingdom of the world
above the flag of Islam and are thus unbelievers",8 Furthermore, the
Habe rulers were accused of imposing uncannonical levies on their
subjects They were also accused of turning their land into the land of
unbelievers and that the rulers themselves were not true Muslims and as
such could not make true Islam the Slate religion. Therefore, Dan Fodio
justified the emigration from these unbelievers as a means of avoiding
their wrong doings which were not primarily based on Islamic law
and values. The principal aim of Dan Fodio was to restore the practice
of Islam to "the classical pattern of the early rightly guided caliph".9
It was the conviction of Dan Fodio that if the Hausa rulers were true
Muslims, they would not have engaged in illegalities with regard to
imposing imcannocal levies, denying the "faithful"' the right to practise
their religion (Islam) and not basing their administration on Islamic
law and value. In other words, the concern of Dan Fodio was to cleanse
the society of unislanvic activities so as to give room for people to
practise orthodox Islam.
To achieve their goals, Dan Fodio had to declare a jihad in 1804.
Thejihufl (Holy war) was the last instrument employed by Dan Fodio.
The war was believed to be necessary if and only meaningful results
were to be achieved. It should be stressed that the war was sanctioned
by the holy Qu'ran. It must be emphasised that the main theatre of
war was the Hausaland but the consequences found expressions not
only in Hausa/Fulani territories but also in the outlying districts
including O-kunland. It would be recalled that O-kunland was a
district under the supervision of a Nupe agent just like Lokoja under a
Nupe prince.11'
The Kingdom of Nupe and the Outlying District of Okunland. As noted above, O-kunland became a district under Nupe
aristocracy, "I his explains why O-kunland was regarded as
constituting the southern pan of Nupe Kingdom.11 It should be
acknowledged that Nupe Kingdom was an integral part of what later
became the Sokoto Caliphate indeed, Dendo, one of the preachers and
emissaries of the Fulani jihad to "heathen countries" was a Fulani
from Kebbi. He •ame to Nupe "country" first as an itinerant
preacher, diviner and
seller of charms.1" Between 1804 and 181 "i, (he Fuiajii had established
themse!1- es firmly in the Hausa stales, They established their
hegemony over what later became known as Northern Nigeria in a
rather loosely organised but decentralised dual empire. Nupe kingdom
fell to Gwandu. Dendo's arrival in Nupeland coincided with the reign of
Etsu Ma'azu who died in 1818 Internal strife set in after his death There
was a succession dispule between Mu'azu's son, Jiinada, (he legitimate
heir to throne and Mua'zu's brother's son, Majiya. Majiya gained the
support of Dendo and the Fulani group in Nupe. The Fulani who
helped Majiya in ascendancy soon became jealous of his prosperity and
influence. The Fulani waged war against bun and he was defeated.
Before his defeat, Majiya gave Dendo who was thought to be the brain
behind Majiya's success influential position. Majiya went further by
putting Masaba, Dendo's youngest son in his care in the palace.
Dendo grew to become a man of power and influence more powerful
and influential than Majiya himself Eventually crisis erupted between
Majiya and Dendo. Dendo died in 1833, the year Oldfield and Lander
visited Raba.u Indeed, the history of Nupe Kingdom in the early 19th
century is essentially a history of constant intrigues. Fights, wars and
rebellions: fights between Dendo's sons, wars against other ethnic
groups and against factions i.i Nupe and rebellions of the old Nupe
dynasty who continued to put pressure in the hope of recovering the
throne from the Fulani. Let i! be noted that while Dendo (1824-33)
became the eiTeciive ruler of Nupe, he did not bear the title of Ersit.
This was perhaps to demonstrate his religious zca but his successors
definite!}' deviated fnmi this religious drive. Instead they allowed
economic and ethnic considerations to override the religious zeal on
which the foundation of the Caliphate was laid.
The period between 1833 and 1857 witnessed a number of
internal wrangling in Nupeland. For instance, Usinan Zaki who firs!
reigned between 1833 and 1845 was Dendo's son. He succeeded his
father whereas Masaba (Dasaba), another younger son of Dendo
established his own capital at Lade He too reigned in the 1840s. That
is, Masaba and Zaki became rival kings, Masaba believed that he
should succeed Dendo because he (Masaba) though was the youngest
son of Dendo had a Nupe mother whereas Usman Zaki was of Fulani
descent. Masaba won the admiration of "some people as well as the
Gwandu Emir who was the political head of the Eastern Sokoto
Caliphate. Masaba led two revolts against Zaki. The first attack was
launched from Raba while the second revolt was led from exile in
Lade.
Masaba defeated Zaki who fled to Gwandii. Masaba thus
proclaimed himself the King of Nupe, During this lime (1840s) Nape
kingdom grew extensively. Masaba reigned first in Lade and later in
Raba. He conquered the Kamuku in the north, the Ubari in the east,
and the Kakanda in the south. He also invaded O-kunland and
removed the influence of other Fulani chiefs in the area.14 Besides,
Masaba had the ambition of bringing all other Nupe territory under
his control in the process, he entered into conflict with some notables
in the kingdom. Such notables included Usman Zaki's loyalists
Umom Majigi and some army generals. For instance, Umoru
Bahause, a Borno general in Masaba's army revolted and drove
Masaba from Raba. Masaba fled to Ilorin via Egbe (a town in
Okunland) where he obtained political protection.15 Umoru attempted
making himself the Etsu of Nupe.
The period between 1850 and 1857 was one of interregnum. This
was the period when Zaki and Masaba were in exile in Gwandu and
Ilorin respectively. For about three years, Umoru was the elfective
ruler of Nupe. Masaba who was more determined to deal ruthlessly
with Umom, launched attack from Ilorin. All other Fulani including
Zaki and Umom Majigi joined forces with Masaba against Umom. At
last Umoru was defeated. After Umoru's defeat Bida became the
"engine room" of the new Nupe Kingdom. Usman Zaki returned from
exile and was reinstated in 1857. He became the first Etsu to reside in
Bida.
One important thing to be stressed here is that the civil wars in
Nupeland compelled Nupe mlers to deviate from the pursuit of the
ideals of the Sokoto Caliphate. The new emphasis was placed on sociopolitical and economic survival. To achieve this noble goal the Nupe
outlying districts became targets of attack and exploitation which
explains why the O-kun-Bida relations changed from mutual
understanding to mutual suspicion and hostility.
Right from 1857, Bida Etsuship, Usman Zaki, Masaba, Umom,
Maliki and Abubakar did cany out organised exploitation in Okunland using various means including wars, intimidation, coercion
and diplomacy. For instance, between 1857and 1859, Elsu Usman
Zaki decided to revamp the economy of the new kingdom which has
been battered as a result of the various crises in Nupeland preceding
his accession. Moreover, he had to keep himself in the good book of
Gwandu by sending regular gaisuwa (gifts), Usman Zaki felt Ib.id hewould meet his economic and military needs by expanding into Okunland. His chance of being successful in the area became more
plausible with regard to the politically lose and militarily
uncoordinated position of O-kunland. It should be emphasised that
Usman Zaki energised his invasion or bombardment of 0-kunland
thinking that the area was a reservoir of slaves and craftsmen.''1 This
human index would be used to service the economy of the newly
united Nupe Kingdom. It must be acknowledged that the imposition of
Nupe hegemony in O-kunland enhanced Bida long distance trade with
Afenmai (Kukuruku) and Benin in the South, Sokoto and Kano in the
north. In other words, the drive to acquire more slaves and tributes,
Usman Zaki like any of his contemporary imperialists attacked a
number of towns and villages in O-kunland
Evidently, between 1857 and 1859, I,,-mail Zaki attacked Ejuku
town. Ejuku resisted the attack before it finally collapsed leaving
eight people and one dog as survivors.17
In the reign of Masaba (1859-1873), various attempt; were made to
expand Bida's hold on O-kunland. This was to enable him fulfill his
ambition to transform Bida from a war camp into a capita! city. He
needed human and material resources to fund his ambitious projects
including the building of a palace, building of mosques, night markets
and so on.18 To achieve the above, Masaba became more aggressive and
went beyond the occupation of O-kunland. He suppressed the Gbadegi
revolt as well as the Kyedye. He fought wars with Kukuruku,
Kukando and Bassa Nge in the south, Gbari and Agaje Fukini in the
east. Furthermore, he extended his kingdom to Tsaragi (Share) region
Like Usman Zaki, Masaba :s chief concern was economic and not
religious. To win the support of the Emir of Gwandu, who was the
spiritual head of Nupe kingdom, Masaba sent some slaves and gifts to
him. These "gifts" were well received by the Emir. Apparently, the
Emir was in support of Masaba's imperial policies and operations of
them which again negated the ideals on which the Sokoto Caliphate
was founded.
In his own case, Etsu Umoru who succeeded Masaba made more
rapacious demands for slaves. He launched serious attacks on Igbirra
(Ebira). He did not succeed in subduing them. Umoru's attack of the
Kyedye succeeded because he got the support of the Royal Niger
Company which sold to him gunpowder. This was done to accelerate
the company's involvement in trade and politics in the Niger Benue
world on the Niger. The appointment of Goldie was to rescue the
company from serious financial mess. Goldie therefore came to the
Niger. Within a few years, Goldie had created a trading empire on the
river and based on the positive result of his enterprise, the British
gave Goldie's company a charter which e«q>owered him to rule the
region. Goldie's desire to rule the region is understandable in view of
the fact that "without political power there could be no stable
commerce with Europe and no secure profit".29
In 1871, W.H. Simpson sailed from Liverpool with instructions
from the Foreign Office to negotiate with the Etsu Nupe, to secure
protection for the British subjects on the Niger. Before this time,
Nupe people had been trading with several European firms. 30 The
Etsu Nupe, Masaba, intended to divert British trade to his territory so
that Nupe would serve as middlemen between the north and south.
Nupe rulers were particularly interested in acquiring European arms
and ammunition with which to maintain internal security as well for
expansionist programmes in the outlying districts.
When Goldie settled down in the Niger area, he came to a
conclusion that the reason for the company's financial loss was over
competition. The only remedy he believed was monopoly of trade. He
therefore persuaded all other companies in the area to come together.
The amalgamation of these firms was done on November 20, 1879.
This gave birth to the United African Company (UAC). The UAC
went beyond commercial activities. It really engaged in political
expansion and that is why one can refer to it as Britain's imperial
agent on the Niger.
In 1882, the UAC was reorganised and given a new name - the
National African Company. The objective of the reorganisation was
to govern the region which the company traded with. This was to
eliminate any competition. By the time the Berlin Conference was
holding the British Foreign Office had directed the company to hoist
the Union Jack at all places where they had established trading posts It
would be recalled that both the German and French firms had also
established trading posts in the area. The hoisting of the flag was the
basis upon which the British laid claim to these places at Berlin
(1884-85). In this respect, the British had succeeded in eliminating all
other European influence (through their firms) particularly the French
and German in the area. With the hoisting of the flag, the UAC was
recognised by the British to represent her authority on the Niger To
enhance the power of the company, the British gave it a charter. The
National African Company was given the Royal Charter and changed
to the RNC in July 1886. Thus, Goldie became the political
administrator, taking care of all political and administrative matters,'1
Before the arrival of Goldie on the Niger, British contact had
been well made although the contact was based on trade and limited
to the Niger-Benue waterways. 32 Thus, Nupe Kingdom (Emirate)
became the main "base • of British activities". 33 Between 1857 (the
arrival of Dr. Baikie's expedition) and 1859, Lokoja was made the
centre of British activities.34 By 1867, the British government had
appointed a Consul at Lokoja. By 1877, the British volume of trade
with Nupe, Gvvandu and Sokoto had become substantial By 1880,
European traders had also established trading statiorj in Yola. in
other words, the European traders particularly the British had made an
in-road into the Caliphate but the position of Nupe as about the most
powerful kingdom in central Nigeria cannot be put asicb. This partly
explains why the Europeans and their companies wauled to be assured of
good relationship with the Etsu. Similarly, the unknown terrain of the
Caliphate might be dangerous for them in case of any crisis between
them and the Caliphate- Part of the measure taken by the company was
to allow false claim on the treaties made with Etsu Maliki by saying
that Etsu MaSiki had ikplaced himself under the protection of the
English, following which all foreigners wishing to establish themselves
on the Niger would have been obliged to seek authority of the British
representative...""'5 However, in June 1885. the company had entered
into treaties with Sokoto and Gxvandu Tiii? shows that the Europeans
were interested in the entire Caliphate but awaiting a better day.
From 1895, the activities of the Royal Niger Company in central
Nigeria had clearly demonstrated their aim of taking total control of
the Sokoto Caliphate and its outlying districts as part of the
manifestation of European imperialism in the last quarter of the 19'1'
century. One great advantage the British had in the conquest of the
Caliphate was the semi-independent nature of the emirates provided
they made available to Gwandu and Sokoto regular gifts and homage
Indeed, 1892-1896 can be regarded as the period of gestation in the
conquest of Bida and its outlying districts of 0-kunland, Slogan
Lapai, Agaie, Kyede etc. What the company did was to ally with Bida
"enemies" and to pretend that they had come to liberate them from the
oppressive rule of Nupe rulers. It would be recalled that from 1880s
the O-kun people had made moves to check the excesses of Nupe
There he proclaimed the liberation of the people. The British flag was
hoisted at Kabba which marked the end of Nupe imperialism but
marked the effective beginning of British imperialism in Northern
Nigeria. In other words, O-kunland provided the needed base for the
British conquest of Northern Nigeria as clearly demonstrated in the
subsequent attacks, bombardments, conquests and occupation ofother
parts of the Caliphate - Bida, Ilorin, Borgu, Idah, Borno, Zaria,
Gwandu, Kano, Kotagora, Katsina, Kebbi all fell to British forces,
especially between 1900 and 1906, the period which can be described
as the early years of British colonialism and subsequent
transformation of the Sokoto Caliphate into what later became
Northern Nigeria.
Implications of O-kun Relations with the Sokoto Caliphate
In the first place O-kunland became the first territory (whether major
or outlying) district of the Sokoto Caliphate to be invaded, and
brought under the Royal Niger Company, the
that heralded the
British rule in Northern Nigeria. It was the base provided by the O-kun
that facilitated and enhanced the conquest of Northern Nigeria, Based
on this, O-kunland was made an integral part of the vast territory of
Northern Nigeria. Indeed, as part of the transformation of the Sokoto
Caliphate, Kabba province was created along with provinces created by
the British for administrative convenience and economic exploitation of
the entire Nigerian region
Secondly, Kabba town enjoyed prominence under the Bridsb
administration similar to what it enjoyed during the Nupe rule. The
town had served as Provincial headquarters, Divisional headquarters
and District headquarters under die British following the reorganisations carried out by the British colonial administration. It
must be well said that the prominence Kabba and indeed the O-kun
people enjoyed in the old Northern Region had its root deep into their
role during the Nupe era.
Furthermore, those who invaded and plundered O-kunland did
not do so in order to promote the ideals of the Sokoto Caliphate but to
explore and exploit the human and material resources ofihe area, ft is
important to state that the non-pursuance of the ideals of the Caliphate
in the area made the growth of Islam to be an issue of the colonial era.
Evidently, no single mosque or Quranic school was built in the area
during the Nupe era. It must, however,, be acknowledged that exslaves and remnants of Nupe-Fulani propagated Islam in the area
37.
38.
39.
Ibid., p. 146
Ibid., p.146.
NAK/LOKOPROF. 93/1923 “Notes (Historical and
Ethnological) on other Tribes”.