NAVIGATING THROUGH ACADEMIA: AN EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECTS
OF RACE, CLASS, AND GENDER ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALE STUDENTS
Shanell Latrice Brumfield
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2005
THESIS
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
EDUCATION
(Behavioral Sciences/Gender Equity Studies)
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SUMMER
2010
NAVIGATING THROUGH ACADEMIA: AN EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECTS
OF RACE, CLASS, AND GENDER ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALE STUDENTS
A Thesis
by
Shanell Latrice Brumfield
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Kim Bancroft, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Frank Lilly, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Shanell Latrice Brumfield
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library
and credit is to be awarded for the Project.
Robert Pritchard, Ph.D., Department Chair
Department of Teacher Education
iii
Date
Abstract
of
NAVIGATING THROUGH ACADEMIA: AN EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECTS
OF RACE, CLASS AND GENDER ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALE STUDENTS
by
Shanell Latrice Brumfield
Statement of Problem
This study examines the effects of intersection of race, class, and gender on the
educational experiences of African American female students. Many community
forces affect the academic achievement of African American female students. For
example, racial identity has been documented as contributing to the educational
environment of African American students. African Americans are part of a racially
stratified group in which their membership is permanent. Because of the historical
implications of institutional racism controlled by the dominant culture, African
Americans have learned to be skeptical of anything associated with the dominant
culture. According to Ogbu (1992), African Americans are involuntary minorities,
who are skeptical about the means of advancing in a society that is controlled by the
dominant culture.
iv
Class also has a strong impact on the educational experience of African
American students. For students who are from low socioeconomic backgrounds,
parent involvement is often low and educational resources are scarce. According to
Slaughter and Epps (1987), “parents influence their children’s academic achievement
directly by their impact on the schools their children attend. Low SES and Black
Families often lack the human and material resources needed for a positive academic
environment in the house” (p.19).
Lastly, gender bias in the classroom can also affect the academic success of
African American female students in the classroom. In early education, when
compared to their white counterparts, African American female students receive more
instructional communication from their teacher, but are gradually socialized by
instructors to be passive (Lips, 1989). The intersecting systems of oppression from
racism, classism and sexism make the educational experience of African American
female students unique in comparison to their peers of other ethnicities.
Sources of Data
The researcher sought to understand how factors such as race, class, and
gender impact the educational experiences of African American female students.
Using the constructivist design, the study attempts to explain the participants’ feelings
and experiences as African American female students navigating through academia.
Eight African American female students, ages 14-18, participated in this study as well
as two Dunlap High Staff members. The methodology employed for this study is
v
based on a qualitative and quantitative research design using a mixed method
triangulation approach. Student participants were asked a predetermined set of 17
open-ended questions about their experiences with race, class, and gender within their
learning environment. In addition to student participants being interviewed, a 31question Likert scale survey was used to measure the participants’ levels of agreement
to statements addressing race, class, and gender in education. Staff participants were
also interviewed regarding their experiences in educating African American female
students, and how race, class, and gender impact this particular demographic of
students at Dunlap High. All interviews were digitally recorded for later transcription,
and surveys were coded, entered, and analyzed using a SPSS (Statistical Packages for
the Social Sciences) database. Participants’ responses were then divided into major
themes and sub-themes.
Conclusions Reached
The participants in this study confirm most of the theories found in the
literature review, with the exception of the level of gender bias experienced in the
school setting. When student participants were asked questions regarding gender bias,
female student participants stated that they were comfortable working with male
students and they felt they were treated equally to their male counterparts. A majority
of the student participants stated that they did not experience racial discrimination in
the learning environment, but did express their awareness of racial barriers they will
encounter once leaving Dunlap High. Staff and student participants also conveyed the
vi
need for an increase in ethnic diversity of school administrators. Both students and
staff discussed how parent involvement was important for academic success and the
limitations parents from low and middle class households have when participating in
the students’ educational process. All participants agreed that racism, classism, and
sexism exist in society as a whole, but feel that these intersecting systems of
oppression are not within their learning environment.
, Committee Chair
Kim Bancroft, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
vii
DEDICATION
I would first like to acknowledge and thank God for continuously blessing me
exceedingly and abundantly above all that I have asked for.
Mom and Dad: Thank you for always supporting me throughout my academic
career. You provided me with examples of how hard work, determination and
diligence can open numerous doors to being successful.
Mia: You are truly my best friend and the greatest sister in the whole world.
All the times I wanted to give up writing my thesis, you were always there
encouraging me to continue. You helped me recognize that I can do and be anything.
You truly inspire me to be a better person.
Dr. Bancroft: You were so many things to me throughout my time in the grad
studies program… professor, mentor, reader and therapist (LOL!). If it was not for you
providing me with the opportunity to share my experiences in education, I do not think
that my thesis and research would have been done. So thank you for teaching me to be
a critical thinker and making me feel that I can be the “change agent” that the
American education system needs.
Dr. Lilly: Thank you for taking the time to be my second reader. You also
inspired me to one-day focus on educational research as a profession. Your humor and
easygoing personality mixed with intelligence and expertise has made this process
enlightening and enjoyable.
viii
Dr. Carinci: The things that I have learned from you are too numerous to list,
but I admire your passion for education. You are the epitome of how professors should
teach their students. Thank you for pushing me to complete my thesis regardless of the
obstacles I encountered.
Friends and Family: Thank you for all of your support and best wishes through
not only my academic career, but also my life in general. You all played a role in
helping me achieve my master’s degree and for that, I am grateful.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication.................................................................................................................. viii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................. 2
Significance of the Study.................................................................................. 4
Methodology..................................................................................................... 5
Limitations ........................................................................................................ 7
Theoretical Basis for Study .............................................................................. 8
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................ 12
Organization of the Remaining Chapters ....................................................... 13
Background of the Researcher ........................................................................ 13
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................................... 16
Origins of the Concept of Race in the United States ...................................... 17
African Americans in Education .................................................................... 20
Racial Identity ................................................................................................ 22
Women in Education ...................................................................................... 24
African American Women in America........................................................... 34
African American Women in Education ........................................................ 35
Socioeconomic Factors and Their Effects on Education ................................ 41
Self-Efficacy ................................................................................................... 50
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 54
Research Design ............................................................................................. 54
Research Question .......................................................................................... 57
Research Instruments...................................................................................... 58
x
Participants ..................................................................................................... 60
Setting ............................................................................................................. 62
Procedures ...................................................................................................... 65
4. FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 67
Summary of Participants ................................................................................ 71
The Importance of Succeeding Academically ................................................ 80
Development of Racial Identity and Ideology in Academic
Environment Race…. ..................................................................................... 85
Impact of Gender on Academic Achievement ............................................... 96
5. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 100
Introduction .................................................................................................. 100
Conclusions .................................................................................................. 100
Recommendations ........................................................................................ 108
Limitations .................................................................................................... 115
Recommendations for Further Study............................................................ 117
Reflections .................................................................................................... 118
Appendix A. Student Participant Consent Form ................................................... 119
Appendix B. School Staff Participants Consent Form ........................................... 123
Appendix C. Student Survey .................................................................................. 127
Appendix D. Student Interview Questions ............................................................. 131
Appendix E. Staff Interview Questions .................................................................. 133
References ................................................................................................................ 135
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Profile of Participants ..................................................................................... 79
xii
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
As she sits in her advanced placement course, Che’von cannot help but notice
that she is in a classroom in which the majority of her peers do not resemble her ethnic
identity or gender. She feels alone in the classroom; it is difficult to identify with both
her male and female Caucasian peers because she is an African American female. As
the bell rings and she enters the halls with her African American peers, Che’von
adopts her other identity, which helps her “fit in” with her African American peers.
After school, Che’von and her younger siblings come home to an empty house
because her single mother must work to provide for the family. As Che’von finishes
her homework and helps her younger siblings, she knows that tomorrow the cycle
begins again when she awakes. This tale is a common one across America for African
American female students learning to navigate through the educational system while
dealing with issues of race, class and gender.
African American female students have a unique educational experience in
comparison to their white counterparts. African American female students not only
encounter gender bias in the learning environment, but they also experience racial
discrimination. When race, class, and gender problems intersect in the lives of African
American female students, they must develop methods to navigate through these
intersecting systems of oppression both internal and external to the academic
environment. This study seeks to examine how factors such as race, class and gender
affect the educational experience of African American female students.
2
Statement of the Problem
Many community forces affect the academic achievement of African American
female students. In studies conducted by cultural anthropologist John Ogbu (1992),
community forces focus on the perceptions of the value of schooling, the quality of
relationships within the academic context (trust of school personnel), and the impact
of school curriculum on the cultural identity and beliefs of minority students. For
example, racial identity has been documented as contributing both positively and
negatively to the educational environment of African American students (Ogbu).
Because of the historical implications of institutional racism controlled by the
dominant culture, some African Americans have learned to be skeptical of anything
associated with the dominant culture, especially skeptical of the value of education as
a tool to gain upward mobility. According to Ogbu, African Americans are
involuntary minorities, meaning they are a part of a minority population whose
ancestors were enslaved, conquered, and brought to the United States against their will
(Ogbu). As a result, though many believe that hard work is necessary to succeed in the
educational system, African Americans are also aware of the institutionalized
discrimination that increases the difficulty in attaining quality education and future job
wages.
Class also has a strong impact on the educational experience of African
American students. For students from a low socioeconomic background, parent
involvement is often low and educational resources are scarce, according to Slaughter
and Epps (1987): “parents influence their children’s academic achievement directly by
3
their impact on the schools their children attend. Low SES (socioeconomic status)
black families often lack the human and material resources needed for a positive
academic environment in the house” (p. 19). Parents living in poor urban
neighborhoods may often lack the transportation to send their children to schools in
affluent areas or may not have the monetary resources to purchase school materials.
Lastly, gender bias in the classroom can also affect the academic success of
African American female students. In early education, when compared to their white
counterparts, African American female students receive more instructional
communication from their teachers but are gradually socialized by instructors to be
passive (Lips, 1989). As African American female students are taught that their
assertive behavior is seen as aggressive, a negative student attribute, they slowly
become “voiceless” in the classroom in order to maintain good grades. Studies
conducted by Signithia Fordham (1993) illustrate further the impact of gender and
race on the academic achievement of African American female students. All of these
factors previously stated should be carefully examined in order to understand the
educational atmosphere of the African American female student.
Over the past two decades, educational researchers have sought to understand
the educational experiences of African American students and have published
literature regarding the academic achievement among African American male
students. There has been minimal research literature regarding the educational
experiences specific to African American female students. The nature of this study is
to research how factors of race, class and gender intersect in an academic setting and
4
evaluate how these factors influenced the educational experiences of African
American female students. The researcher and participants addressed topics of racial
identity, racial discrimination, gender bias, socioeconomic status, and levels of parent
involvement.
Significance of the Study
In comparison to their African American male counterparts, the population of
African American female students graduating from high school and attending college
has increased. Though more African American female students are attending college,
their ability to navigate through the world of academia is unique when compared to
their Caucasian counterparts. In society, African American women encounter
intersecting systems of oppression, and for African American female students, these
systems of oppression can be prevalent in the schools through the practice of
institutionalized racism, sexism, and classism by other students, teachers, and school
administration. By researchers evaluating the experiences of African American female
students, the findings from research studies can help aide the pedagogical practices of
those educating the African American student population, as well as create an
appropriate educational environment for all students regardless of race, class, and
gender. For example, conducting research studies on African American female
students’ educational experiences that bring to light the unique experiences of this
population of students can, in turn, help improve educational practices, develop new
educational policies and programs, and lead to more studies of different minority
groups now marginalized in the field of educational research.
5
Methodology
The purpose of this study is to evaluate how factors such as race, class, and
gender affect the educational attainment of African American female students. Over a
two-day period, the researcher interviewed eight African American students and two
staff members at Dunlap High School in Sacramento, California. Prior to collecting
data from students and staff, the student participants were given letters of consent to
be signed by their parents and returned to the researcher. The letter of consent stated
the nature of the study, types of questions and topics that were addressed, as well as
the researcher’s contact information in case participants had any questions. The
research study used a sample size of 10 participants: eight African American female
students and two staff members. A female counselor at Dunlap High selected two
African American female students from each class level (freshman, sophomore, junior
and senior). The selections of staff were random, based upon availability. For the
purpose of this study, academic success is defined as a student’s level of proficiency
and competence to master the curriculum in an educational setting. Educational
attainment is defined as the accomplishment of receiving education that will help
students to gain upward mobility. Of special interest to the researcher was how race,
class and gender intersect in the academic environment to create a unique educational
experience for African American female students.
This study employed both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, better
known as a mixed design. All participants had an opportunity to seek clarification
regarding survey and interview questions, as well as to address concerns regarding
6
confidentiality and concept definitions with the researcher prior to data collection. The
survey was used as a quantitative measure. The survey instrument used in this study
involved 31 five-point Likert scale questions, regarding race (discrimination, peer
relations, staff diversity); gender (bias in the classroom, gender of instructors, and
level of comfort working with male students); class (parent involvement and economic
resources in the classroom). Students had the option to select their level of agreement
to statements listed on the survey, which included “strongly agree,” “agree,”
“undecided,” “disagree” and “strongly disagree.”
In addition to using the survey as a quantitative measure, the researcher also
used interview questions as a qualitative method, which consisted of interviewing both
student and staff participants. Similar to the nature of the survey questions, the
interview questions also addressed the impact of race, class and gender on the
educational experiences of African American female students. With the researcher
conducting interviews in addition to the surveys, student participants were able to
elaborate on questions asked on the survey and provide more narratives regarding their
personal experiences as African American female students at Dunlap High. The
interview posed 17 open-ended questions to the student participants and 15 openended questions to two staff members at Dunlap High School.
As to the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the research design, the
approach used in this study employed constructivism as a design concept.
Constructivist design seeks to understand how human beings construct meaning based
upon their engagement with the world through their experiences (Creswell, 2003).
7
Because the study’s purpose was to convey the experiences of African American
female students in education, the constructivist design allows for a narrative that
shows how participants construct meaning from their educational experiences.
Limitations
There were several limitations of this study that included the following: the
time of academic year students were interviewed, limited access to school staff,
demographics of student populations, and student participants being unfamiliar with
concepts presented in the interview questions. First, participants were interviewed in
mid-May during a time in which Dunlap High was completing exit exams and STAR
testing. Prior to conducting interviews, when the researcher inquired about how
participants were feeling, a lot of the responses consisted of “tired” and “stressed,”
both attributed to testing. Because participants were in the middle of testing,
interviews may have been slightly rushed. This time of the year was also busy for staff
due to final exams and submission deadlines for student academic reports.
Interviewing only two staff members did not allow the researcher an opportunity to get
more staff feedback regarding the academic success of African American female
students.
Another limitation was the demographic of the student population. When
students were asked about racial discrimination in the academic environment, student
participants stated in their interviews that they never experienced racial discrimination
at Dunlap High. Because the study yielded a finding of the absence of racism in the
academic environment, the researcher found that due to the demographics at Dunlap
8
being majority African American, student participants stated that they had not
experienced discrimination or racism from their peers. As will be noted in the
findings, racial discrimination was not an issue for majority of student participants of
this study because they were the majority in the academic setting. Another limitation
found was the student’s unfamiliarity with the concepts of socioeconomic status.
Though the researcher explained the concepts to the student participants, there was
minimal time allotted to further elaborate on the meaning of the concepts and their
relevance to the study. When the researcher addressed issues of socioeconomic
factors, student participants were unfamiliar with what the concept entailed. Lack of
knowledge regarding these concepts may have affected the responses on the survey as
well as interview questions. The researcher attempted to define concepts in the best
way possible to help participants understand the questions they were being asked. The
design of the qualitative questions also was a limitation due to there being no
questions regarding gender bias in the academic setting. Though questions referencing
gender were not specifically asked in the interviews, participants addressed the ways
in which gender affected their learning environment. Such questions were on the
survey instead. Questions regarding gender not being stated in the interviews lead to
limited findings regarding gender from the qualitative aspect of the study.
Theoretical Basis for Study
Because African Americans have a rich history marked with racial
discrimination, oppression, and sociopolitical activism, the researcher conveyed how
these historical implications have influenced the values and beliefs held by African
9
Americans in today’s society. Since being brought to America in the 1600s, African
Americans have been conditioned by the dominant culture to believe that they were
inferior mentally. Race as a socially constructed category was utilized to justify the
separation of African Americans from their white counterparts, even though there are
no biological indicators separating African Americans and Caucasians. Citizens of
European descent saw African Americans as an inferior people and the belief of
inferiority was used by the dominant culture as justification for enslaving African
Americans. Even after the end of slavery, African Americans were still treated
unequally compared to their white counterparts.
Because African Americans were valued by the dominant culture as not being
citizens in American society, African Americans were not allowed to attend school,
dine, or use public transit with other white citizens. Though African American
students were not allowed to attend school with white students, they were educated by
African American instructors that viewed education as a sociopolitical tool to fight
racism and discrimination. Brown versus Board of Education changed the educational
landscape for African American students by allowing both African American and
white students to attend school together. As a result, African American students found
themselves in educational systems in which instructors perpetuated racial stereotypes
through instructional practices.
Through experiences with institutional racism, some African Americans have
learned that individual merit may not be enough to navigate through barriers in
education. In addition to race being seen as a system of oppression, African American
10
female students encounter the intersection of race and gender in education, thus
creating a unique educational experience. Black Feminist Thought was developed out
of the need to address the intersection of race and gender that was missing from
traditional feminist literature and theory.
Black Feminist Thought
Black feminist thought addresses the issues of the intersection of race and
gender and how specialized knowledge and meaning are created from the standpoint
of African American women. Though literature has been published regarding sexism
and its social implication for women, feminist theory literature has a deficit of the
thoughts and experiences of African American women. According to Collins (2000),
“Black feminist thought aims to empower African-American women within the
context of social injustice sustained by intersecting oppressions” (p. 22). African
American feminists, such as Patricia Hill Collins (2000) and Ana Julia Cooper (in
Lemert & Bhan, 1998), have all contributed literature, which addresses the need for
the presence of African American standpoint in feminist literature.
In regards to feminist research, standpoint theory seeks to collect data that
centralizes the standpoint of women. For example, in the literature published by
Patricia Hill-Collins (1991, 2000), African American women define their own
experiences, which are the focal point in sociopolitical change. Historically, African
American women were viewed as the antithesis of how society believed women
should be. Women were thought to possess characteristics such as being passive,
docile, and pious, only focusing on their family’s needs. However, African American
11
womanhood differed from that of white womanhood. In addition to taking care of their
own children, African American women also worked in the fields alongside African
American slave men, whereas white women were expected to stay within the home
and not work or engage in manual labor. In addition to an African American woman
being focused on her family, she was often the only provider and played the dual roles
of mother and father when her husband was sold off into bondage. African Americans
women have been exposed to unique experiences shaped by racism and sexism.
Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory evaluates the historical implications of race and how the
practice of racial discrimination and institutional racism affects members of society.
African Americans have had a long history of oppression in the United States.
Because race is a socially constructed concept, critical race theory consists of a body
of knowledge, which focuses on how racial and institutional practices shape the
experiences of racially oppressed groups. Similar to black feminist thought, critical
race theory also evaluates the intersection of racism, sexism, classism and their impact
on social practices. Ogbu (1992), a cultural anthropologist, included critical race
theory in his literature regarding racial stratification and the adaptation of different
kinds of minority groups to social institutions. Ogbu claimed that “involuntary
minorities” might reject values associated with the dominant culture, such as academic
achievement. According to Ogbu, some African American students typically reject
academic achievement due to fear of being accused of “acting white,” thus feeling as
if they are losing their membership within the African American culture. As a result,
12
African American students may perform poorly in order to acquire acceptance by peer
groups.
Theorists such as bell hooks (1999), Patricia Hill Collins (2000), Gloria
Ladson-Billings (1994) and Beverly Tatum (1997) have all used critical race theory in
a broad range of disciplines, including education and feminism, to illustrate the unique
experiences of African Americans in the United States. For the purpose of this
research paper, critical race theory as it relates to education was the primary
foundation of this research project. The researcher collected qualitative and
quantitative data regarding how race as well as class and gender affected the
educational experience of African American female students.
Definition of Terms
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. Pedagogy that focuses on connecting with the
students’ lives through their culture and interests (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Gender Bias. Favoring one gender over the other based on assumptions about
talents and capabilities (Streitmatter, 1994).
Involuntary Minority. Ethnic groups that are a part of U.S. society due to
historical colonization, conquest and slavery rather than voluntary migration (Ogbu,
1992).
Racial Centrality. The extent to which being Black is seen as normative to an
individual’s identity (Scott, 2003).
Racial Saliency. The importance placed on being black depending on context
or situation (Scott, 2003).
13
Self-Efficacy. An individual belief in the capability to execute a required action
or desired outcome (Boardman & Robert, 2000).
Vicarious Learning. Learning through observation of another individual
(Pajares & Usher, 2006).
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
The literature review in Chapter 2 begins with a brief introduction to the
problem, followed by the history of African Americans in the United States. After a
historical overview, the topics of education and racial ideology in America as they
relate to African Americans will be addressed. The next section consists of a historical
overview of women in education. The rest of Chapter 2 discusses factors such as
gender, class and self-efficacy beliefs and their influences on the educational
experience of African American female students. Chapter 3 includes the methodology
used to study the research question. The methodology section provides information
regarding participants, research methods used and the interview setting. Chapter 4
presents the findings from the qualitative and quantitative data collected from survey
and interviews. Chapter 5 provides an analysis of the findings and the conclusions that
were drawn from the data collected by the researcher. Chapter 5 also includes further
analysis of limitations and recommendations proposed by the researcher based on the
outcomes of the study.
Background of the Researcher
Shanell Brumfield was born and raised in Oakland, California, and graduated
from Galileo High School in San Francisco, California, in 2001. During her primary
14
education in the Bay Area, Shanell was exposed to racial discrimination and the
impact of socioeconomic factors on the education of students attending school in
urban neighborhoods. Through the lack of economic funding, discriminatory
instructional practices, and the tracking system of African American students and
other students of color, Shanell was able to evaluate the deficits in education of
students in poor urban neighborhoods in comparison to schools in affluent
neighborhoods. Being one of a few African American students in honors classes
throughout her education, Shanell was also exposed to racial discrimination and
negative teacher perceptions while in advanced placement courses, which impaired her
level of self-efficacy. It was not until her junior year of high school that she met an
African American female instructor who helped Shanell regain a newfound passion for
education through culturally relevant pedagogy and introduced her to the many
possibilities offered through a college education.
Shanell Brumfield received her Bachelor of Arts degree in Communication
Studies from California State University, Sacramento in 2005. After graduating from
Sacramento State in 2005, Shanell began to work as research technician in the field of
mental health. After taking two years off from school, Shanell decided to enroll in the
Teacher Education, Gender Equity program at Sacramento State in 2007. Shanell
decided to focus her curriculum selection on race, class and gender. Within her urban
education course, Shanell had the opportunity to read case studies about schools in her
local neighborhood and was exposed again to the inequalities in education faced by
African American students, especially African American female students. After
15
reading the case studies of schools in the Bay Area, Shanell decided that her
educational focus would be on the academic achievement of African American female
students from poor urban neighborhoods. By doing so, Shanell hoped to not only tell
the story of the educational experiences of African American female students, but also
be an example for future African American female students thinking of furthering
their education. The last three years have been a journey to give voice to a population
that is commonly marginalized if not invisible in educational research literature.
16
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The academic journey of African American students is currently in the
forefront of educational research. This is due in part to educational policy makers’
need to understand why this particular demographic is falling behind their
counterparts. Through the lenses of the fields of sociology, cultural anthropology,
education, and even economics, various theories and solutions have been presented to
help African Americans have access to an equal education. However, the educational
experiences of African American students are not homogenous. Factors such as race,
class, and gender all intersect to produce a unique educational experience. For
example, African American female students have to confront both race and gender
barriers.
The following literature review examines how factors such as race, class, and
gender affect the educational attainment of African American female students. The
first section will give an historical overview of African Americans in the United
States; this section includes an historical examination of the social construction of race
and its impact on African Americans. The second section focuses on the journey of
African Americans in education. This section includes discussion of segregation
versus desegregation and racial identity development. The third section covers the
gender bias encountered by women through pedagogical practices. The fourth section
of the literature review covers African American women’s educational experiences.
The fifth section reviews how socioeconomic factors can produce barriers for African
17
American female students as well as for their families when parents try to develop a
productive educational environment for their children. Some barriers noted include
parent involvement, economic resources for educational material, as well as
pedagogical practices in poor urban schools. Finally, the last section discusses factors
contributing to the self-efficacy of students as well as the role the academic
environment plays on the self-efficacy of African American female students.
Origins of the Concept of Race in the United States
As Europe experienced political and economic stability in the 1400s,
imperialism was viewed by the Europeans as being the key to world dominance. With
the rise of seaport towns and shipbuilding, various European countries began to
explore different parts of the world, in hopes of developing their economies through
the trading of both goods and foreign slave labor (Winant, 2000). Britain specifically
had an interest in the New World, known today as North America. From the
indigenous people already in the Americas, Europeans were able to acquire knowledge
about the land, as well as the natural resources that could be used for trading with
other countries. With the beginning of the colonization of the Americas, Europeans
began to bring African slaves for the purposes of free labor and economic gain.
Enslavement of Africans was profitable to Europeans because slave labor could be
sold to land owners, and slaves had the ability to produce agricultural goods lucrative
to the economic development of what would become the United States (Karenga,
1993).
18
Race as a Biological Concept
African American enslavement was justified through theories based in the
physical sciences, such as biology and anthropology. Dominated by European thought
and ideologies, the physical sciences initiated classification of all creatures into genus
and species in a very rational way during the Age of Reason; in human beings, this
process emphasized differentiation according to the most superficial characteristics,
such as facial features and skin pigmentation. When referring to the justification of the
racial taxonomy of people in America, Europeans referred to the supposedly differing
physiognomic characteristics of Africans compared to Europeans, ignoring the
essential sameness in human biology. According to Hunter (2005), “Because
Europeans and European Americans used their power to culturally, politically, and
economically dominate Africans, they created a ‘white is right’ culture that served to
support their colonial and slave society endeavors” (p. 1). From their skin
pigmentation to the texture of their hair, African slaves were seen as barbaric beings
that needed to be controlled. Racial categorization was used by Europeans to
demarcate Africans and ensure that the system of oppression and the exploitation of
labor remained unchallenged. In contrast to these colonial perspectives on race,
contemporary scientists view race as a social invention developed during early
European imperialism. Smedley (1993) states that “‘race’ is nothing more and nothing
less than a social invention… it has nothing to do with the intrinsic or potential
qualities of the physically different population” (p. 48).
19
With the expansion of the American colonies, immigrants from other European
countries came to America and served in the colonies as workers. Within the colonies,
a class system developed in which the lower class consisted of poor whites and
African Americans, while the wealthy whites were in the upper and middle classes. To
discourage the unification of poor whites and African American slaves, leaders
strategically developed laws to give poor whites more power than African American
slaves. By doing so, upper class citizens not only maintained their wealth and status
within the colonies, but also diminished any possibility of a collective rebellion by the
poor whites and African slaves. Smedley (1993) states,
Colonial leaders consciously formulated policies that would separate poor
whites from Indians, blacks, and mulattoes. It was not long before the various
European groups coalesced into a white ‘racial’ category whose high status
identity gave them access to wealth, power, opportunity and privilege. (p. 45)
With the development of Caucasian as a superior racial category, individuals who
lacked the European physical characteristics were seen as inferior. Because of their
dark pigmented skin and wool-like hair, African Americans were seen as being the
antithesis of the phenotype, purity, and civility possessed by Europeans. The
justification for enslaving Africans and for their supposed inferiority to all other races
was further enforced and extended through research in the field of anthropology and
other physical sciences (Blakely, 2001).
The belief in African American inferiority led to many African Americans
being denied access to education, land ownership and other rights of American
20
citizens. Though the Emancipation Proclamation sought to free slaves, many
systematic forms of oppression hindered the upward mobility of African Americans in
society. One profound barrier was the institutional racism within education. By
controlling the supply of knowledge to African Americans, the dominant culture had
the ability to control the extent of their actions. The struggle for equal education for
African Americans was marked by legislation and key court cases that are often
referenced as events that ultimately altered the academic climate for African American
students. In order to evaluate the current state of education of African Americans, an
analysis of the historical implications of institutional racism as it relates to education is
necessary.
African Americans in Education
After slavery was abolished in 1863, the 1865 Freedman’s Bureau was
established to aid the transition of newly freed slaves in society. The 1865 Freedman’s
Bureau Act allowed African Americans to attain employment, food, jobs and medical
attention. Historically, African Americans were the only group to be denied education.
Slave owners felt that educating African Americans would lead to the enlightenment
of slaves and the raising of their status as educated members of society (Jackson,
2007). Though this act was developed to help former African American slaves, it did
not alter the racial discrimination faced by many newly freed slaves. “Separate but
equal” was introduced to society through the Plessey v. Ferguson case which set the
tone for legalizing segregation amongst whites and people of color by having
designated facilities according to race (Dorsey, 2008). As long as African Americans
21
had the same facilities as whites, many states in the U.S. that practiced legal
segregation contended that no constitutional laws were violated. Though educational
facilities existed for both black and white children, the education resources and
materials provided to African American children was certainly not equal. Material
educational resources as well as educational facilities for African Americans were not
nearly as comparable as that of white students. For example, Brown v. Board of
Education illustrated the effects of legalized racial segregation and its application in
an educational setting. Not until after the 1950s did the Supreme Court rectify the
detrimental effect of separate-but-equal on black children (Dorsey, 2008). Some
historians argue that desegregation was a milestone in fighting racial oppression
within the field of education; however, African American historians and educational
theorists have argued that there were drawbacks for black children attending school
with white children.
Impact of Desegregation
When black children were in all black schools, black educators typically
viewed education as a political tool that was used to help transform students into
enlightened thinkers, an act of transgression against white supremacy. Hooks (1999)
states, “When we entered racist, desegregated, white schools we left a world where
teachers believed that to educate black children rightly would require a political
commitment…now we were taught mainly by white teachers whose lessons reinforced
racist stereotypes” (p. 180). Black students were now in integrated educational settings
in which the pedagogical practices did not seek to empower them but instead
22
reinforced societal notions of inferiority. From years of being exposed to a curriculum
that further reinforces discrimination and oppression, these occurrences have shaped
how African Americans have viewed the educational system, as well as their racial
identity.
Racial Identity
Development of Racial Identity
During the developmental stages from childhood to adolescence, African
American children acquire knowledge regarding their identity from relationships with
individuals within their community. When African American children enter preadolescence at ages 10-13, they begin to be more aware of race and discrimination as
they encounter negative stereotypes and images of African Americans (Scott, 2003).
In early childhood, African American children begin to absorb cues that reinforce the
superiority of the dominant culture. For example, teacher expectations, reflective
social appraisal and vicarious learning all help shape a child’s racial identity. By the
time the pre-teen African American reaches middle school and high school, society
often reflects their race back to them negatively, conveying messages which they
might absorb in conscious and unconscious ways. At the same time, they enter the
“encounter stage” in which they typically experience some form of racism (Tatum,
1997). The family is central to the development of racial socialization. According to
Scott,
Racial socialization that emphasizes racial issues and prejudice, whether tacitly
or explicitly is argued to be of critical importance for African American
23
adolescence…type of racial socialization received and emotional and stress
reaction to discriminatory experiences may directly relate to adjustment
outcomes or may moderate the effects of discrimination distress. (pp. 523-524)
By introducing concepts such as racial equality as well as discrimination, African
American parents racially socialize African American children to understand the role
that race plays within their community, specifically in education. Parents are one of
the key components in a child’s socialization process, influencing how they will
perceive the world. African American parents educate their children on how to combat
the racial oppression that they will face within their community. Community is often
considered the place where an individual lives, but in actuality a student’s community
can be multiple places. Within these various communities, African American students
encounter forces that also shape their racial identity. Cultural anthropologist Jonh
Ogbu (1992) produced literature from his findings when studying factors that
contribute to the disparities in education between minority groups and the dominant
culture. Ogbu’s research consisted of evaluating how community forces affected the
perception of education by involuntary minorities.
Involuntary Minorities
An African American student’s experiences in an academic setting with
institutional racism, poverty, and other community forces affect their perception of
education. According to John Obgu (1992), African Americans are “involuntary
minorities,” referring to “those groups that are a part of the United States society
because of slavery, conquest, or colonization, rather than by choice because of
24
expectations of a better future” (p. 290). Involuntary minorities tend to be skeptical of
mainstream institutions because of their history of oppression by the dominant culture
(Obgu). Furthermore, involuntary minorities desire to do well in education, but do not
believe that hard work alone will lead to success in educational institutions. Ogbu
found that involuntary minorities sometimes resist what the mainstream dominant
culture finds valuable. Rejecting the dominant culture’s social norms is a form of
resistance exercised by involuntary minorities. In order to gain trust from involuntary
minorities within the field of education, educators must develop a curriculum centered
on the teaching and learning styles of the students’ culture (Ogbu). Harmon (2002)
states, “Culturally competent teachers develop meaningful relationships with their
students that extend beyond the classroom, reaching out to include the students’
families in the education process” (p. 68). Though African American parents view
education as a tool to help their children succeed academically, they are also aware
that their children will encounter barriers that will keep them from succeeding
academically.
Women in Education
In addition to race, gender is cited as another influential factor in obtaining an
equal education. Gender has also been at the forefront of educational research. Though
more women are graduating from college and universities, the journey to get to higher
learning institutions are marked by gender bias within the classroom. The educational
experiences of male and female students differ as soon as they enter the classroom.
Historically, girls were not only allowed to attend school during the school day before
25
boys and did not have the option of taking courses that challenged their intellectual
abilities. In today’s society, of course, boys and girls share classrooms and are allowed
to take the same curriculum. However, despite major strides made in educating
women, gender bias is still prevalent within the classroom. Gender bias can sometimes
be covert if not oblivious to individuals in the classroom environment.
History of Women in Education
During the 1700s in colonial America, boys were allowed to attend school,
while young girls were confined to the home, shadowing their mothers while doing
domestic work. It was not until 1767, that girls were allowed to get an education. A
school in Providence, Rhode Island, began to advertise teaching girls. Families that
wanted their daughters to be educated had to pay a lump sum of money to teachers for
additional hours of educational instruction. Education was only accessible to female
students from wealthy families, which led to the exclusion of female students that did
not come from an upper class background. When girls were allowed to enter an
educational institution, they not only were separated from the boys, but also were only
permitted to attend school before and after male students attended during the day.
Though girls were now allowed to attend school, their lessons differed drastically from
their male peers. Some of the educational lessons young girls were taught consisted of
piety, moral values, proper manners, and other skills needed to become a proper wife
and mother (Sadker & Sadker, 1995).
As the American Revolution was underway in the late 1700s, the intellectual
development of future leaders was seen as the key to a strong country. The first
26
exposure to education took place within the household by mothers, so the need for
women to become educated was on the agenda of leaders in society. According to
Sadker and Sadker (1995), women “were the nation’s first teachers…before women
can enlighten children, she had to be enlightened” (p. 17). Once girls were allowed to
attend school, there was a need for further education and out of this need seminaries
were developed. Female seminaries were seen as a solution to allow women their own
separate educational institution that would provide academic curriculum, as well as
encompass courses that reinforced what society deemed as the appropriate role of
women. Sadker and Sadker state that “these institutions provided protected
educational environments, safe havens for high-school-age girls to learn to become fit
companions for their husbands, the first teachers of their children, and the moral and
spiritual corner stone of the family” (p. 19). After the opening of Troy Seminary in
1821, Mount Holyoke opened in 1837. Mt. Holyoke allowed women to take courses
that were comparable to male courses. More seminaries began to develop across the
country for women, as well as for women of color. During the mid 1800s, 80% of
women graduating from seminaries would go on to become teachers (Sadker &
Sadker). With the feminization of the field of education, more women began to
become instructors, while the men moved to more administrative roles such as deans,
principals and headmasters. According to Roby (1972), “Hiring women was a logical
way to meet the need for teachers not only because they had become accustomed to
teaching their own and neighbors’ young children, but because taxpayers wanted to
pay the cheapest possible wages” (p. 122). By the late 1800s, more girls were going to
27
school and getting an education, but curriculum and classrooms were separate for boys
and girls. Once male and female students were allowed to attend school together, it
was clear that there was an emphasis placed on the education of males in comparison
to females.
In 1833 Oberlin College in Ohio was the first college to admit women
including African American women (Sadker & Sadker, 1995). Though Oberlin paved
the way for other institutions in co-education, women were restricted to only taking
“women’s courses.” According to Sadker and Sadker, Oberlin’s women students’
tasks included “washing the men’s clothes, caring for their rooms, and serving them at
table” (p. 21). In addition to a biased curriculum, women were not granted an
academic degree, but a degree of “Mistress” in a specialty area emphasizing duties
performed in the women’s courses (Sadker & Sadker). As women began to excel
academically, the issue of the educational advancement of women in a co-educational
setting became a topic of discussion amongst institutions of higher learning.
Around the beginning of Civil War in the mid 1800s, as more male students
were being drafted to fight in the Civil War, many colleges and universities
experienced a decrease in male student enrollment. With the decrease of enrollment in
colleges and universities, the economic dilemma faced by many institutions forced
schools such as the University of Michigan (1870) and University of Rochester (1900)
to open its doors to women. In an effort to increase revenue, more colleges became coeducational, which led to more women applying to colleges. Once women were
admitted to these institutions, they were met with great opposition from their male
28
peers as well as faculty who felt women attending college would lead to male students
feeling emasculated. By the mid to late 1800s, all female colleges such as Smith,
Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Radcliff, and Mount Holyoke were developed by advocates who
believed that women should be exposed to curriculum that was equivalent to that of
male students. With the development of institutions for women, oppositions were
strong. The first attack was on the state of the American family. Similar to the
arguments of the inferiority of African Americans, the biological sciences were also
used to illustrate how further education of women can lead to inability to reproduce as
well as women being less intelligent due to the size of the female brain.
As time progressed into the mid 1900s, a new form of education referred to as
vocational education allowed students to take courses in which they can learn skills in
various professions. These courses tended to track female students into professions
that reflected the roles which society felt women should play. Sadker and Sadker
(1995) state that “even college bound girls who were not enrolled in vocational
curriculum were required to take domestic science and home economics while boys
took manual training or industrial arts” (p. 32). In 1972, as part of the Education
Amendment Act, Title IX was passed, which states “ no person in the United States
shall, on the basis of sex be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of,
or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving
federal financial assistance.” Since the enactment of Title IX, there has been
examination of gender bias within the classroom. Educational researchers have not
only researched gender bias in the classroom, but also how knowledge and self-
29
identity are developed through female student’s experiences with gender bias in an
academic setting.
Gender Equity in the Classroom
Lack of gender equity in the classroom has led to educational research that
focuses on the educational experience of female students. According to Streitmatter
(1994), gender bias is defined as “the underlying network of assumptions and beliefs
held by a person that males and females differ in systematic ways other than
physically, that is, in talents, behaviors, or interest” (p. 2). The goal of the
conscientious educator of young women is to eliminate gender bias within the
classroom, which can be done by developing a curriculum in which the instructors
exhibit equity in their pedagogical style. Gender equity has varying definitions due to
different perspectives brought to the field of education. According to Grossman and
Grossman (1994), some define equity in terms of fairness or sameness. Educators use
gender equity and educational equity interchangeably. Educational equity is “achieved
when both genders have an opportunity to participate in whichever courses and
activities they prefer to achieve up to their different potentials, when they are treated
in accordance with their needs, and when they are prepared for different societal roles”
(p. 119). Over the past 35 years since the passing of Title IX, educational researchers
are finding that gender bias is being practiced in the following general ways: underrepresentation of a specific gender in curriculum material, discriminatory teacher
expectations of female students, pedagogical teaching practices in favor of males over
30
females, and unbalanced interaction between teachers and male students versus female
students.
Female Students in Male Dominated Classrooms
Seeing the classroom as a positive environment in which all students are
influential is the goal of educators, but female students in male dominated classrooms
have voices that are often silenced by their male peers. There have been studies
conducted on the learning styles of female versus male students. When females are in
a male dominated classroom, their voices are silenced by males dominating not only
classroom discussion, but also by male students monopolizing the instructor’s time.
These occurrences lead female students to disengage from the curriculum, which can
ultimately lead to low academic achievement.
The American Association of University Women (AAUW) (1992) provided an
examination of the academic journey of girls K-12 and issues they face in a genderbiased curriculum. The AAWU (1992) reports that boys receive more teacher
attention; specifically, “when boys called out, the typical teacher reaction was to listen
to the comment” (p. 68). Research has shown that female students prefer to work in all
girl groups in contrast to working in groups in which they are the minority. In a study
conducted by Parker and Rennie (2002), male and female students were enrolled in
two types of science curriculums, consisting of a same-sex and mixed-sex
demographic. The purpose of the study was to enhance the understanding of genderinclusive instructional strategies while being mindful of the gender differences in
educational learning styles. Parker and Rennie defined gender-inclusive as “strategies
31
which incorporate value and extend both boys and girls learning experiences and
learning; current interests, needs and concerns; and preferred learning and assessment
styles” (p. 882). Both boys and girls were able to participate in a single-sex science
class as well as a mixed-sex science class. At the conclusion of the study, researchers
found the following: Girls preferred a single sex learning environment; girls took more
risks in the single-sex science course; boys were unaffected by the course change and
preferred the same sex course; some boys preferred the mixed class environment;
teachers preferred the all girl course in comparison to the all boy course. By exposing
female students to different forms of pedagogy and making classroom structural
changes, instructors can develop a classroom in which female students have an
opportunity to be active participants in their educational environment. Studies have
also found that when females are the majority in the classroom, the competitiveness
and anxiety they felt decreased.
Females do well in classrooms in which they see their fellow classmates as
contributors to the discussion rather than academic adversaries. Parker and Rennie
(2002) also found that teachers had more difficulty maintaining behavioral order in the
all-male classroom. One teacher stated that, though the boys benefited by the end of
the year, “it was a lot slower [than for the girls] before we’d start to see any advantage
in it” (p. 891). The study concluded boys’ and girls’ communication skills and
classroom needs differ, which requires different teaching strategies dedicated to each
gender difference. More importantly, Parker and Rennie’s study suggested that the
issue of tailoring curriculum to gender could be elusive, due to other factors in the
32
learning environment. These findings lay the foundation to understanding the events
that take place in early childhood education. Young girls learn at an early age that
submissive behavior equates to the perfect student, while young boys learn that being
outspoken is key to being an educated individual.
Teacher Student Interaction
Though the male-female interaction within the classroom is important when
studying gender bias in the classroom, teacher interaction also plays an important role
in educational equity within the classroom. Parents are the primary socialization
agents followed by instructors within a child’s community. When children enter into
pre-adolescence, most of their time is spent in a classroom with their instructor, thus
shifting the primary socializing agency to their teacher. Lips (1989) reports on
researchers who studied how gender socialization in the classroom has helped
contribute to gender bias. When focusing on teachers as a factor of gender
socialization, Lips found that teachers reinforce gender roles through often
unconscious pedagogical practices. One example provided by Lips discusses how
teachers respond differently to boys than to girls. Lips states, “Teachers, apparently
unaware of the differential treatment they are handing out, pay more attention to boys,
and responded more to boys who act aggressive and to girls that act dependent” (p.
203). When female students evaluate what is deemed by the authoritative figure in the
classroom (teacher) as appropriate behavior, females internalize the concept of
compliance and dependence as a form of being a “good student.” Lips states, “That
more feedback to male students indicated to female students that “male concerns take
33
first priority” (p. 204). As female students navigate their way through academia, they
are confronted by signals within the classroom that tell them their education is
secondary. Within the classroom, instructors now must reevaluate their own
pedagogical practices in order to understand how to best provide students with an
equitable education.
Lack of Representation of Women in Curriculum
Having representation of females in literature and other curriculum material is
a pedagogical practice that can help diminish bias in the classroom. In primary school,
young girls read stories with males as the main character, while female characters are
not the primary source of strength and heroism. When learning about American
history and literature, female students rarely have an example of how women have
shaped history or the literary world. If the female voice or representation is not present
in the course material, the curriculum does not reflect the demographic of the
classroom, which can lead the female student to become disinterested in the
curriculum. More representation of women in nontraditional stereotypical roles in the
classroom material can help aid the elimination of gender bias within the classroom
(Grossman & Grossman, 1994). The research regarding gender bias addresses how to
improve the educational experience of female students; however, the educational
experiences of all female students are not universal. For example, African American
female students not only have to deal with gender inequality in education, but also
racial inequality, thus making their experience unique in comparison to that of their
white counterparts.
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African American Women in America
When comparing the gender roles of males and females in the African
American culture versus the dominant culture, distinct differences appear.
Historically, women were expected to work within the home, while the men were the
providers for the family. From a history of oppression, African American women have
been socialized to learn to be independent in various circumstances. For example,
during slavery African American women had to work in the fields doing manual labor
as well as doing work within the home. Women also served as head of the household
when their husbands were sold to a different plantation. From these historical events,
African American women have had a long history of hardships in which they had to
take on what society deems as masculine behaviors in order to survive. Through
generations, the concept and connotation of what strength is have evolved to be very
different amongst African American women in comparison to their counterparts.
African American women were depicted as the antithesis of the dominant
culture’s definition of a woman and “womanhood.” African American women were
denied true womanhood because true womanhood was inherently defined as being
white. Under this quality, African American women were excluded because of racial
stereotypes. The depiction of African American women as being sexually
promiscuous, exotic, and evil helped reinforce the purity of white womanhood
(Johnson-Bailey, 2003). Women were to be bystanders in society rather than play
active roles in the public sphere, while men were allowed to be active participants in
life. However, African American women did not play a passive role in society; they
35
worked alongside men in the fields, and had active roles in both the private sphere as
well as the public sphere. Due to African American women being active participants
in both spheres, they were seen by society to be masculine. According to Hunter
(2005), “Black women were dominated by patriarchy, experiencing a second-class
status to black men and to white women…sexism and racism interact to create an
additional form of oppression” (p. 10). Because African American females typically
deviate from the norm of being passive and silent members of society, they are often
stigmatized. When an African American woman is assertive, members of the dominant
culture see her as overly aggressive.
African American Women in Education
The African American female student is often seen as an aggressive learner
rather than a student that is passionate about being an active participant in her own
education. Another reason why African American female students may struggle more
in school is because of cultural qualities they may have developed as a result of this
history and that can be in conflict with the expectations of women in general. The
concept of race in addition to gender makes African American female students’
educational experiences differ from that of her white male and female counterparts.
In contrast to their white female peers who are typically characterized as
passive, African American females are stereotyped as being difficult and aggressive
students who “challenge” authority. According to Fordham (1993), “African American
women bring to the academy broadly defined—a history of womanhood that differs
from that of white or any other American woman” (p. 8).According to Lips (1989),
36
Because black girls are not socialized to the passive and submissive behaviors
encouraged in white girls, they receive more teacher attention than do white
girls in the early grades… black female students in the classroom may be more
likely to be seen as ‘assertive and bossy’ rather than as fitting the white-female
student image of ‘submissive and cuddly’. (p. 204)
Currently in education, students are expected to store and regurgitate information
provided by instructors and not question information presented or the quality of
pedagogical practices. Because the African American female student usually is not
silenced in the classroom, the labels placed on them affect their perception of
education.
In today’s educational system, an assertive and direct style of learning is
correlated to male students, while female students are characterized as being docile.
Though African American female students are socialized to be assertive, a
characteristic that they exemplify in their early childhood education, in later grades
these girls’ active participation within the classroom decreases. According to Lips
(1989), “Black female students present an active, interacting and initiating profile in
the early grades but join their white female counterparts in the later grades in what
appears to be traditional female sex role behaviors” (p. 204). The decrease in
assertiveness in the academic setting is due in part to the silencing of female students
in the classroom. In her ethnographic study of a predominately African American
populated high school in Washington, DC, Fordham analyzed the level of recognition
37
of gender diversity and its impact on the academic achievement of African American
female students. Fordham (1993) found that
academically successful black girls achieved academic success in the following
ways: (1) becoming and remaining voiceless or silent or alternatively, (2)
impersonating a male image including voice, thinking, speech pattern, and
writing style, in the formal school context when formally interacting with their
teachers in classrooms. (p. 10)
In the same study at Capital High School, Fordham discovered that African American
females that opted not to be silenced in the academic setting were viewed my school
staff to be underachieving African American female students. Fordham suggests that
African American females that choose not to conform to being a passive participant in
their education are deemed as “loud,” which has a negative connotation to instructors
and other school faculty.
Intersectionality in Educational Research
The need to study the different variables that affect the academic achievement
of African American women has been addressed in the writings of educational theorist
such as bell hooks (1999), Patricia Hill-Collins (1991, 2000), and Ana Julia Cooper (in
Lemert & Bhan, 1998). By viewing race, class, and gender as intersecting concepts,
researchers will be aware of the barriers faced by this specific minority group. All
three of their philosophies exemplify the importance of using education as a tool to
obtain power and to challenge gender and racial inequality in various institutions.
When educators discuss gender bias and inequality in education, it is imperative to
38
identify all intersecting forms of oppression. Collins (2000) states, “Instead of starting
with gender and then adding other variables such as race and social class, Black
Feminist Thought view these distinctive systems of oppression as being part of one
overarching structure of domination” (p. 372).
The foundation of Black Feminist Thought can easily be applied when
studying the current generation of African American women. Many black feminist
thinkers have adopted “standpoint theory” as the foundation for studying minority
groups that are commonly marginalized. Standpoint theory takes into account
circumstances and life events from the individual as the primary focus of study to get
an accurate perspective into the experiences of women. For example, Collins (1991,
2000), Cooper (in Lemert & Bhan, 1998), and hooks (1999) note that education is
more than sharing of information, but also a political tool used by African Americans
to challenge racial and gender inequality. All three women illustrate the importance of
educating women and decentralizing the curriculum from the instructor’s standpoint—
especially if the instructor stands from a place of advantage. Understanding and
applying this theory creates a pedagogical approach that provides a more
individualistic educational experience for female African American students.
Ana Julia Cooper (in Lemert & Bhan, 1998) shared the same sentiment
regarding the importance of valuing the role of educating all women, regardless of
race. Cooper believed that, from education, all women begin to expect more from
themselves as well as from the world around them. Cooper’s platform was to convey
to political figures as well as the masses not only why providing equal and non-
39
oppressive education to all women is important, but also the benefits of educating
African American women. Similar to Cooper, hooks also believe that education can
lead to power not only through the information provided, but also through an engaged
pedagogical style that removes the oppressed nature experienced by African American
female students in the classroom.
Oppressed Pedagogy
Paulo Freire (1968), who believed that the lack of exchanged narrative
between student and instructor leads to an oppressive educational environment in
which the students’ experience and voice do not contribute to the learning process,
coined the concept of oppressive pedagogy. Similar to Freire, hooks (1999) believed
that all students, especially women of color, experience oppressive pedagogy. Hooks
states, “To educate as the practice of freedom is a way of teaching that anyone can
learn” (p. 186). African American female students who rejected being voiceless in the
classroom not only suffered poor academic achievement, but were also stereotyped.
Oppression through pedagogical practice is exhibited when an instructor does not
allow the role of student and teacher to be interchangeable. When the African
American female student is taught to absorb information without adding individual
meaning, she not only lacks the ability to identify with the presented material, but can
also have low expectations from the curriculum offered to her. According to Cooper
(in Lemert & Bhan, 1998), African American girls should “expect something more of
them than that they merely look pretty and appear well in society” (p. 86).
Decentralization must take place for the curriculum to transform, meaning rather than
40
forcing African American female students to view the dominant culture’s ideas and
understandings as the norm, African American female students can now create
knowledge that represents their experiences. According to Collins (1991),
“Decentering a curriculum that presents the ideas and experiences of elite white men
as being normative and universal challenges this link between knowledge that presents
dominant group interest and the power to rule” (p. 368). A decentered curriculum can
take the form of inclusion of African American female voices and perspectives in
literature and representation of African American women throughout the curriculum.
Though expressed in different ways, all three of these theorizing women (Collins,
hooks and Cooper) advocated for an educational environment in which African
American female students are able to be inquisitive about the knowledge being
presented and address any issues they have with the information they are being taught.
Instructors also have the opportunity to learn about their students and adjust
pedagogical styles to suit their needs. By doing so, the role of student and teacher are
interchangeable.
African American students are still facing barriers when attempting to attain a
quality education. African American children are still too often in classrooms where
their intellectual growth is paralyzed by oppressive pedagogy that does not take into
account how the intersection of race, class and gender affect their educational
environment. Hooks’ (1999) concept emphasizes an engaged pedagogy, in which the
roles of students and teachers are interchangeable, but this vision is overshadowed by
policies of social promotion and curriculums in which the student is nothing more than
41
a depository. Another aspect of understanding the intersection of gender, race and
class is curriculum transformation, which focuses on studying the intersectionality of
race, gender, and class as it relates to education, is currently missing from scholarly
educational research. This approach would mean moving away from a curriculum
focused on Eurocentric ideals. Most importantly, the lack of literature regarding the
effect of race and gender on the educational experience of preadolescent and
transitional age African American female students is a testament to the importance of
studying the interconnected variables of race, class and gender.
Socioeconomic Factors and Their Effects on Education
Along with an understanding of race in the United States, socioeconomic
factors have also been in the forefront of educational research. A focus on
socioeconomic factors is crucial because it contributes to the access to educational
resources, level of parent involvement, as well as the quality of education a student
receives. For example, the single African American mother who has to work long
hours to provide for her family may not be able to be involved in her child’s school
activities. Another example would be an inner city school that does not have enough
monetary funds to provide educational materials for students to use in the classroom.
Socioeconomic factors interconnect with race and gender to shape the academic
experience of African American female students.
Limits in Parent Involvement
Parent involvement is one of the key components in determining the success of
students in the field of academia. Collins (2000) states, “African American women
42
have long realized that ignorance doomed black people to powerless…many black
mothers continue to take their roles as educators seriously” (pp. 210-211). Though
parents have the intention to provide the best for their child, in actuality for some
parents it has become increasingly difficult to make their intentions a reality. Collins
(2000) adds, “Black women’s support for education illustrates the important
dimension of Black women’s political activism” (p. 210). The value of black women
as educators is increasingly important because there is an increase within the African
American community of women who are head of single-parent households. Economic
factors such as employment and availability of monetary funds to support the family
have shifted parents’ focus from the child as an individual to focusing on the needs of
the whole family. For example, parents living in poverty commonly have less time to
spend at a child’s school due to the arduous process of seeking employment or
working hours that limit their availability to be present at school events. Such parents
may have limited time to help cultivate their child’s interest in education. According
to Lareau’s ( 2003) study of parents at two schools, middle-class and low-income,
cultivation of a child outside of the school setting through organized activity can be
equally beneficial to the activities experienced in school. Lareau states, “Teachers
want parent involvement in schooling, especially parental supervision of
homework…teachers interpret a failure to show up for a parent-teacher conference as
a sign that parents do not value schooling” (p. 26). Though parents are not present at a
school event that does not mean that they do not value their child’s education.
According to Slaughter and Epps (1987), “Parents influence their children’s academic
43
achievement directly by their impact on the schools their children attend. Low SES
and Black families often lack the human and material resources needed for a positive
academic environment in the house” (p. 19).
Another factor influencing parent involvement is the level of education
attained by the parent. Guadalupe Valdes (1996) author of Con Respeto: Bridging the
Distances Between Culturally Diverse Families and Schools conducted a study in
which she evaluated how culture affects the perception of the role of education in the
household. In her study, she found that the Mexican-American parents in the study
expressed the desire for their children to surpass the often low educational level
attained by them. Valdes states, “Parents expressed very positive views of education.
Parents in Valdes’ study felt that education was important and that it was their duty as
parents to send their children to school” (p. 153). Lack of confidence in their own
education forces parents to feel a sense of helplessness when trying to contribute to
their children’s education. Parents that have not attained a post secondary education
may shy away from interacting with school faculty because they feel they lack the
qualifications to determine what is best academically for their child. The lack of
confidence in one’s own education makes parents feel irrelevant in the process of
developing an educational plan for their child. There can also be cultural barriers in
understanding academic expectations of the education system and the family’s role in
the educational process. For example, the education system in the United States may
differ dramatically in comparison to that of Japan and India. According to Valdes, lack
of familiarity with the educational system can lead immigrant parents to view
44
involvement differently from parents in the dominant culture. In discussing how
Mexican immigrant parents viewed American schooling, Valdes states, “In spite of
their good intentions, there was much that the families did not understand about
American schools” (p. 155). Some cultures believe that it is the teacher’s job to
educate the students, while the parents raise the child to become a contributing
member of society.
By respecting cultural differences of the students and their families, teachers
can come closer to closing the cultural barrier between student’s family and their
academic setting. In order for parents from different cultures to become involved with
their child’s education, the school must provide an element of multicultural material
reflective of the various cultures within the classroom. Multicultural material can
consist of more representation of people of color or other groups that are
underrepresented. According to Sonia Nieto (2003), author of Affirming Diversity:
Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education, the curriculum must be redeveloped
to fit multicultural needs. Nieto states, “Teacher education programs for example,
need to be re-conceptualized to include awareness of the influence of culture and
language on the learning… and instructional and curricular strategies that encourage
learning among a wide variety of students” (p. 315). Lack of education, race and
cultural differences, and parent occupations all affect parent interaction and
involvement in the cultivation of a child’s academic journey.
45
Instructional Practices
As much of this review demonstrates, pedagogical practices affect the learning
environment within the classroom. The types of responses used to engage student
inquiry, as well as the different classroom structures, can all affect how a student
perceives their role in the education process. Pedagogical practices have been studied
to determine how instructional methods can further perpetuate the social structure and
social classes within society. For example, according to Jean Anyon (1997), author of
“Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work,” schools in wealthier areas prepare
their students for more desirable jobs in comparison to schools in poor communities.
Monetary funds are not the biggest contributing factor to differences between
schools in poor and wealthy communities, but rather the instructional methods
employed to engage the student within the classroom. For instance, in poor
communities, schools do not have the basic essential materials needed to conduct
science experiments and find solutions to math problems. Children educated in poor
urban environments are taught in a way that does not prepare them for academia, but
rather for jobs dealing with manual labor. In the 20th century, continuing
industrialization fostered a change in the workforce and education began to be viewed
as essential to upward mobility in the social classes. According to Bowles and Gintis
(1996), “The role of education in capitalist expansion and the integration of new
workers into the wage-labor system came to dominate the potential role of schooling
as the equalizer and the instrument of full human development” (p. 181). The
correlation of society’s class system and the type of educational settings depending on
46
income is evident when comparing wealthier neighborhood schools with schools
located in poverty/urban areas. Schools that lack educational resources tend to track
children into occupational roles similar to blue collar/manual labor jobs.
Another characteristic of urban education is the nature of oppressive pedagogy
that takes place within working class and lower income schools. Paulo Freire's, author
of Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968), addresses the issue of students being passive
participants in the classroom by stating, “ a careful analysis of the teacher-student
relationship at any level inside or outside the school, reveals its fundamentally
narrative character… this relationship involves a narrating subject (the teacher) and
patient, listening objects (the students)” (p. 52). Similar to hooks (1999), Freire
opposed an educational environment in which the students absorbed info, rather than
being able to critically evaluate the narrative provided by the instructor. The narrative
described by Freire is similar to the type of education discussed by Anyon (1997) in
her description of the “working-class schools.” Anyon’s research focuses on the
correlation of the different type of curriculums and the various social classes. Anyon
describes the “working-class school” as classrooms filled with activities consisting of:
Work following the steps of a procedure…usually mechanical, involving
remote behavior and very little decision making or choice. The teacher rarely
explains why the work is being assigned, how it might connect to other
assignments, or what the idea lies behind the procedure or gives it coherence
and perhaps meaning or significance. (p. 48)
47
For working class students, this kind of pedagogy means that rather than be prepared
to be critical thinkers, students are being taught to be compliant. For African American
female students, the theme of compliance and mechanical thinking contribute to the
oppressive nature they experience in the classroom. In what Anyon calls the “elite
executive school,” the work and instructional style prepare students to be the elite
leaders of society. Anyon explains, “In the executive elite school, work is developing
one’s analytical intellectual powers. Children are continually asked to reason through
a problem, to produce intellectual products that are both logically sound…schoolwork
helps one to achieve, to excel, to prepare for life” (p. 56). Both of these curriculums
mirror the difference between the expectations of America’s social class system.
Though all students receive an education, what sets them apart is the quality and type
of education they receive as well as what the education exposed to them is preparing
them for.
Limitations to Accessing Community Resources to Supporting Education
Communities that are lacking in material resources may find the task of
providing students with the essential educational tools quite difficult. For example,
poor urban educational settings may not be able to afford science material for
experiments or calculators for basic arithmetic. Joyce Epstein (1995), author of
“School/Family/Community Partnerships: Caring for the Children We Share,”
emphasizes the importance of instructors creating a partnership with the students’
community. According to Epstein, community is defined as “all who are interested in
and affected by the quality of education…not only the neighborhoods where students’
48
homes and schools are located but also any neighborhoods that influence their learning
and development” (p. 178). Instructors can collaborate with the community by
providing the students and their families with information on cultural and social
supports. By doing so, the instructor not only exemplifies that they are invested in the
student’s education, but the instructor also engages the family in the education
process. Due to the inflexible schedule of parents, school staff must make an effort to
engage all within the students’ community in order to create a thriving learning
environment in the home. Parents would like to be more active in their child’s
education, but have a limited amount of time outside of the home. By teachers making
a conscious effort to collaborate with parents and provide them with the materials
needed to create an additional learning environment, parents will feel as if they are
active participants in their child’s education.
One problem the schools have with involving the community is that the school
administration wants to hold the local community accountable for the passing/failing
of students rather than working collaboratively with school and local communities.
Some communities foster a hope to provide a quality education to students, but lack
the monetary funds to do so. Communities may rely heavily on school administrators
to utilize and allocate monetary resources to the educational programs that will
improve the education of children. Noguera (2003) provides readers with examples of
how race and class are correlated with education by stating:
In most cases, poor communities lack the resources necessary to monitor the
quality of education provided to students…concentrated poverty and racial
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segregation limit the ability of parents to exert control over the schools that
serve their children, and educational leaders in such communities often lack
the resources to take on the task themselves. (p. 83)
The people who are suffering the most in the war of accountability are the
students who are subjected to these harsh educational learning environments. Students
attending schools in impoverished areas are segregated from students that are
attending school in affluent areas. This segregation is evident in the quality and access
to education. Collins and Williams (1999) found:
Segregation affects socioeconomic mobility in multiple ways. First, because
residence determines access to schools, residing in undesirable neighborhoods
translates into access to schools of inferior quality. Compared to whites, blacks
have higher dropout rates; those who do complete high school are exposed to a
less demanding curriculum, lower teacher expectations, and lower levels of
skills and knowledge compared to their white peers. (p. 498)
As previously addressed, race, class, gender, and other socioeconomic factors
interconnect to affect the educational experience of African American female students.
If the educational environment is not tailored to the African American female
demographic, over time the level of perceived self-efficacy of African American
female student’s decreases, diminishing their desire to learn, thus promoting a sense of
helplessness regarding their academic journey. In an age when education is viewed as
the essential key to a successful and fulfilling life, it is necessary to study the obstacles
faced by a group that is often marginalized in society.
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Self-Efficacy
There are many factors within a student’s social structure that can affect the
academic success of a student. At the macro-level, socioeconomics structure and
forces that include parental occupation or the socioeconomic status of the
neighborhood a student lives can determine access to educational resources. Within
the meso-level, which includes the education institution can affect the student through
pedagogical practices, student-teacher interaction and academic curriculum. The
micro-level, which encompasses the individual and cultural identity, can influence the
student through their relationships with other students and other individuals that they
may meet. All three of these social structures have elements that affect the level of
self-efficacy of a female African American student.
Self-Efficacy Defined
According to Albert Bandura (1994), self-efficacy is one’s belief in their
ability to succeed in specific situations. Bandura theorized that if someone believes
that he or she will succeed in a specific area, the level of belief would determine how
the individual would approach various goals and situations throughout life. The higher
an individual’s self-efficacy, the more likely he/she will attempt to master difficult
tasks rather than avoiding them. Individuals with low levels of self-efficacy, tend to
avoid situations in fear that their attempts will produce an undesired outcome.
According to Pajares (1996), “Efficacy beliefs help determine how much effort people
will expand on an activity, how long they will persevere when confronting obstacles,
and how resilient they will prove in the face of adverse situations” (p. 544). When
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studying self-efficacy in education the most common sources studied were mastery
experience, vicarious experience and social persuasion. According to Pajares and
Usher (2006), students form their self-efficacy beliefs as they interpret information
from four principal sources: mastery experience, modeling/vicarious experience,
social persuasions, and emotional/physiological indexes (pp. 7-8).
Self-Efficacy and the African American Female Student
When evaluating self-efficacy in an educational context for African American
female students, factors such as race, class and gender all have an impact on
efficacious behavior in an academic setting. For example, vicarious experience has
been of great importance when developing the self-efficacy of African American
female students. Because African Americans have had a long history of discrimination
and oppression within education, there have been few models for African American
youth to model their behaviors after. Pajares (2006) states, “students are most likely to
alter their beliefs following a model’s success or failure to the degree that they feel
similar to the model in the area of question” (p. 7). As previously stated by Ogbu
(1992), involuntary minorities are skeptics of education being a tool of upward
mobility. This skeptism can be passed down from generation to generation, which will
in turn decrease adequate models of African American students in educational
institutions. Once African Americans attained the right to higher education, there were
barriers in place that kept African Americans from educational institutions. Lack of
African American representation in higher education made them seem invisible in
academia to future generations. Vicarious experience can take place through an
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African American female student seeing other African American students succeed,
having mentors, and other images of African American women engaging in
efficacious behavior.
Social Persuasion is another important aspect of self-efficacy beliefs. Social
persuasion refers to the messages received by external sources such as teachers, peers
and other factors in a student’s community. African American female students receive
messages regarding their race, gender and socioeconomic status in the educational
system on an everyday basis. From early education, African American girls are
socialized in the educational environment that being assertive is not desirable, and that
their male counterpart’s education is a primary focus to instructors. The message that
African American female students receive regarding her race is that because she is
African American, that the instructor’s perception of her as a student is determined
prior to knowing her capabilities. The message conveyed regarding socioeconomic
status is that depending on a student’s class level and access to economic resource will
determine the likelihood of attending college. According to Pajares (2006), “positive
invitations convey the message that people are able, valuable, responsible, and
forgiving; negative invitations suggest that people are not valued and that they are
incapable of participating positively in their own development” (p. 8). In order to
understand how self-efficacy of African American female students are developed, an
analysis of the history of African Americans, gender in education, as well as
socioeconomics must take place.
53
As previously addressed, race, class, gender, and other socioeconomic factor’s
interconnect to affect the educational experience of African American female students.
If the educational environment is not tailored to the African American female
demographic, over time the level of perceived self-efficacy of African American
female student’s decreases, diminishing their desire to learn and promoting a sense of
helplessness regarding their academic journey. In an age when education is viewed as
the essential key to a successful and fulfilling life, it is necessary to study the obstacles
faced by a group that is often marginalized in society. Currently the United States has
accomplished a historic milestone of having their first African American President
Barack Obama. One of the key components of President Obama’s platform is to
improve the American educational system through allocating money to schools in low
socioeconomic neighborhoods, as well as addressing the issue of racial inequality.
Similar to President Obama’s view of education, Michelle Obama, the first African
American First Lady has become the epitome of a strong, assertive African American
woman. The representation of a strong, assertive, and educated African American
woman in power has inspired me as an African American female graduate student to
conduct research regarding the impact of race, class and gender on the educational
experience of African American female student’s. The goal of conducting this
research project is to evaluate how race, class, and gender intersect in the learning
environment and impact African American female learners.
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Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study is to evaluate how factors such as race, class, and
gender affect the educational attainment of African American female students. The
research study used a sample size of 10 participants: eight African American female
students and two staff members. A female counselor at Dunlap High School selected
two African American female students from each class level (freshman, sophomore,
junior and senior). The selections of staff were random, based upon availability. For
the purpose of this study, academic success is defined as a student’s level of
proficiency and competence to master the curriculum in an educational setting.
Educational attainment is defined as the accomplishment of receiving education that
will help students to gain upward mobility.
Research Design
To explore my research question that is focused on the educational experiences
of African American female students, I chose to use both qualitative and quantitative
research design (mixed methodology).Commonly used in qualitative research,
triangulation is the convergence of multiple sources of data collection to support a
hypothesis or theory (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). According to Denzin and Lincoln
(1998), methodological triangulation is “the use of multiple methods to solve a single
problem.” (p. 46). A mixed methodology design was chosen because I wanted to
enrich my qualitative data findings with quantitative data collected from surveys
completed by participants, and illustrate the experiences of African American female
55
students through narrative. With the knowledge that using a single method of research
can have its limitations, a mixed method approach was used as a strategy of inquiry
for my research questions.
As to the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the research design, the
approach used in this study employed constructivism as a design concept.
Constructivist design seeks to understand how human beings construct meaning based
upon their engagement with the world through their experiences (Creswell, 2003).
Because the study sought to convey the experiences of African American female
students in education, the constructivist design allows for narrative that shows how
meaning was constructed through educational experiences.
For the quantitative approach, I chose to develop an interval scale of
measurement. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2005), “interval scales of
measurement allow statistical analyses that are not possible with nominal or ordinal
data.” (p. 27). One common interval scale used in social science research is the fivepoint Likert scale. I drafted a Likert style questionnaire in which participants were
asked their level of agreement with a closed statement regarding their experiences
with race, class, and gender at Dunlap High. The survey as a quantitative measure was
used because it allowed for participants to rate each statement according to their level
of agreement, which gave the researcher a better understanding of how each student
felt about the stated question. The five point Likert scale allowed student participants a
range of responses when answering questions regarding race, class, and gender in the
academic environment (see Appendix C).
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In conjunction with the quantitative portion of the design, I also wanted a
narrative approach to the design, so I drafted open-ended interview research questions
so participants more richly reflect upon their experience of race, class, and gender in
an educational environment (see Appendix D). According to Leedy and Ormrod
(2005), qualitative research focuses “on phenomena that occur in natural settings…and
involve studying those phenomena in all their complexity” (p. 133). This study
followed the procedures described by Creswell (2003) in which mixed methodology is
completed concurrently and “the investigator collects both forms of data at the same
time during the study and then integrates the information in the interpretation of the
overall results” (p.16). Similar to the ethnographic study conducted by Signithia
Fordham (1993) regarding the educational experiences of African American female
students, I also chose to model my qualitative design after her study because Fordham
sought to research the impact of the intersection of race and gender in the academic
environment. Fordham also evaluated the behaviors and attitudes African American
female students adopted in order to be academically successful. Fordham interviewed
not only African American female students but also staff, as well as observed the
behaviors of the students and staff in the academic environment. This study was an
excellent model because past research focusing on female students in education treated
gender and race as isolated variables that were independent from each other, whereas
Fordham researched both race and gender as interdependent variables that create a
unique educational experience for not only African American students, but also those
educating the African American female population. Fordham also provides historical
57
background of African American women in society that provides readers with an
understanding of how behaviors seen as masculine have been adopted by African
American women.
Research Question
The questions used in this study’s survey reflected key issues addressed in past
educational research regarding race, class, gender and other socioeconomic barriers
that affect the educational attainment of African American female students. The
qualitative research of Beverly Tatum (1997) and Signithia Fordham (1993) helped
shape my research questions regarding the place of race, class, and gender in an
academic setting. For example, Tatum’s primary focus in a lot of her written work
focuses on how concepts of race and racial identity are developed in the academic
setting, while Fordham combined both race and gender as intersecting variables that
affect the educational experience of African American female students. Students in my
study had the opportunity to evaluate how the following areas of their lives affect their
academic achievement:

Race: relationships with peers, presence of African American instructors on
Dunlap High campus, exposure to racism/discrimination.

Gender: sexism and gender bias in the classroom, as well as ratio of
male/female instructors

Socioeconomic status: monetary resources, parent involvement, socioeconomic
environment of home and school.
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Students had the opportunity to select a response on the survey that best
expressed their opinions regarding the barriers they felt they faced in their educational
environment. In addition to both student participants answering the closed questions
on the survey, the qualitative questions in the interview portion of the study allowed
student and staff participants to further elaborate on their experiences of race, class,
gender and other socioeconomic factors in the school setting. Specifically, the
qualitative questions served as a way to provide students with a voice when addressing
internal and external factors that affect the academic achievement of African
American female students.
Research Instruments
The instruments used in this study involved a 31 five-point Likert scale
questions and 15 open-ended interview questions. Respondents were asked their level
of agreement with the statement; options offered were “strongly disagree” to “strongly
agree.” Statements included topics such as race, gender, parent involvement, academic
setting evaluation and teacher/student interactions. All participants had an opportunity
to seek clarification regarding survey and interview questions as well as to address
concerns regarding confidentiality and concept definitions with the researcher because
the researcher was within the room when the informant was completing the survey.
A letter of consent was provided to the student participants and school staff.
The primary point of contact at Dunlap High, a school counselor, administered the
consent form to students to be returned with parent and student signatures prior to
student interviews (see Appendix A). Most student participants stated that they would
59
like to keep their interviews confidential and inquired as to whether their responses
would affect their grades. Within the letter of consent, participants were told that all
identifying information would be kept confidential.
Students were asked a set of 17 questions inquiring about their experiences as
students at Dunlap High School. Staff were also asked 15 open-ended questions
regarding how race, gender, and class affect the African American students they
interact with at Dunlap High (see Appendix E). Open-ended questions were used for
both students and staff to enrich the quantitative data collected from the student
participants. Examples of questions posed to participants were the hindrances of
parent involvement, importance of staff diversity, the role of peer support on academic
achievement, and the influence of race, class and gender in the learning environment.
In addition to open-ended questions, students were asked if they had questions
for the researcher. These questions and responses were also recorded. Some of the
questions asked by student participants included difficulties the researcher had as an
African American female student, as well as how to succeed academically when faced
with racism and sexism. Though the impromptu questions asked by the student
participants were not a part of the original open-ended questions, the researcher was
able to take notes regarding the level of interest students had in speaking with
someone who was similar to themselves and was able to overcome barriers and
succeed academically. Some written notes were also taken regarding non-verbal
communication of the respondents. For example, lack of eye contact, excessive
movement, and clearing of the throat were some of the commonly noted nonverbal
60
cues expressed by research participants. The most prevalent nonverbal communication
was evasive eye contact, which the researcher interpreted as nervousness. The
nervousness conveyed through evasive eye contact can be an indication that
participants were nervous and unsure as to how much information to convey to the
researcher as well as how comfortable participants were with answering the
researcher’s questions. Interviews lasted no more than 15 minutes for students due to
student respondents not being able to miss majority of their study hall period;
however, staff interviews lasted roughly 20 minutes because interviews were
conducted during periods in which staff did not have to teach nor counsel students.
Participants
Over a two-day period, African American female students were interviewed in
vacant rooms at the school site during their designated study periods. Staff interviews
were scheduled around rest periods in which staff did not have to teach nor counsel
any students.
All participants initially inquired about the nature of the study as well as the
purpose it would serve in the field of education. Because the research question is
centered on the academic experiences of African American female students, it was
fitting that the criteria would be developed around distinct academic and social
characteristics that each participant would possess. Excluded from the study were
students not of African American descent and male students. While there were no
distinct criteria for selecting administrative staff for my study, I determined that the
student participants must meet the following criteria:
61

Two female students from each class level (freshman, sophomore, junior and
senior).

Be of African American descent (bi-racial included).

Female.

Between the ages of 14-18.
Two female students were chosen from each grade because I wanted equal
representation for the quantitative and qualitative results of the data.
I also sought to have a counselor participate as an informant because of their
constant interaction with students and parents. This counselor was chosen in particular
due to her being an African American and a woman. This particular counselor also had
a working relationship with a staff member in the teacher education department at
California State University, Sacramento, and expressed a strong interest in the
researchers study. After corresponding with the African American female counselor at
Dunlap High School, the counselor agreed to participate in the research study as well
as help identify students that met the research criteria. After two brief meetings with
the staff at Dunlap High School, African American female students were chosen to be
participants in my thesis research. In addition to the selection of the African American
female students and the counselor, after hearing about the research project from
another staff member, an English teacher voluntarily wanted to be part of the research
project because majority of her students were African American and female, as well as
her interest in women’s issues and gender bias in education. The English teacher was
of Caucasian descent. Due to lack of timing in the academic year when the research
62
study was conducted, there was minimal staff available to partake in further interviews
with the researcher.
Setting
The Oak Park Community
The community of Oak Park, the first suburb of Sacramento, California, serves
the school chosen for this study, Dunlap Charter High School. Originally thought to
one day become its own separate city from Sacramento, Oak Park was home to many
western immigrants and farmers in the first 20 years of its existence (Simpson, 2004).
In 1911, rather than Oak Park becoming a separate city, the area became the
residential community for commuters working in the downtown Sacramento area.
With technological advances as well as the development in transportation to and from
downtown Sacramento, more working-class and lower-middle class families found it
favorable to move to the Oak Park community because of its location, as well as the
relatively lower cost of living.
Though the Oak Park area was a thriving working class community, in the
1930s, the Great Depression hit hardest those communities that were most vulnerable,
including the working-class Oak Park area. After the Great Depression, Oak Park
residents found it difficult to economically recover from its local businesses financial
loses, which ultimately set the stage for other socioeconomic changes to come in the
1940s. Further debilitating to Oak Park was the fact that by the 1940s street cars were
replaced by buses and cars, which led to the development of Highway 99, directly
through the Oak Park neighborhood, thus separating the community in half (Simpson,
63
2004). With the development of Highway 99, more middle-class families relocated to
other areas in Sacramento, such as East Sacramento and the Land Park area, raising
the cost of living as well as causing more low-income families to move to the Oak
Park community. Family owned businesses in the Oak Park community began to
move to different locations or were forced to close their doors due to lack of business.
The community landscape began to change as well. Historically a predominantly
white suburb in the early 20th century, by the mid 20th century Oak Park demographic
reflected a predominantly African American community. What was once a community
which prided itself on family, community and collaboration, was now a community
that had little community businesses and community funding to support revitalization
and academic resource endeavors.
As early as 1990, one notable Oak Park resident , a professional athlete, started
a nonprofit development company, which sought to revitalize all components of the
Oak Park community, including bringing in businesses as well as improving the
schools and parks in the community. One school in jeopardy of closing was Dunlap
High School, one of a few high schools in the Oak Park Community. Due to poor
student performance, Dunlap High school was due to be closed by the Sacramento
Unified School District, but with the help of the nonprofit development company,
Dunlap High School was turned into a charter school, thus becoming Dunlap Charter
High in 2003. Problems that plagued Dunlap High school were under performance of
students, lack of educational funding for academic resources, as well as low levels of
parent involvement and community involvement in the improvement of Dunlap’s
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academic environment. Since becoming a charter school, Dunlap High has seen a
tremendous improvement in student performance.
Dunlap Charter High School
Dunlap High School is home to an estimated 1,000 students and 50 staff (EdData, 2009). With a student population of predominantly African American (55.8%)
and Hispanic (24.1%), Dunlap High is a reflection of the demographics within the
community. Students from neighboring areas of Sacramento, such as Del Paso
Heights, Valley High, and South Sacramento, also travel to the Oak Park area to attend
Dunlap High School. Dunlap High School has an estimated 43 teachers predominately
Caucasian (70.7%) with a minority of Hispanic and African American (7.3%)
teachers. With an overall API score of 731 out of a total 800 possible, Dunlap High
has at least a 98% graduation rate with a 2% dropout rate (Ed-Data, 2009). When
entering the Dunlap High School building, students are expected to wear the proper
school uniform, which includes polo shirts with the Dunlap High logo and khaki or
denim jeans. Students frequently pass the “Wall of Fame” which lists all of the
colleges that the high school alumni attend after graduating. The “Wall” was created
for Dunlap High students as a form of encouragement. Prior to Dunlap becoming a
charter school, the numbers of students graduating from high school as well as scoring
high API scores were relatively low. Since establishing emphasis on academic
improvement, and encouraging parents and community to be accountable for the
success of students at Dunlap High School, students have exceeded academic
expectations and have continued to maintain a relationship with Dunlap High by
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returning to the school to speak to and mentor students. The significance of illustrating
students academic improvement serves to remind students who were currently
attending Dunlap High as well as students considering attending Dunlap the
importance to succeed academically and seeing other students like themselves go on to
higher education institutions. Having an academic setting that stresses academic
excellent and praises students for their accomplishments develops student’s selfefficacy, an element that is important in the academic success of African American
female students.
Procedures
Letter of Consent
Prior to meeting with students and staff, all participants were given a letter of
consent describing the nature of the research as well as the anonymity of participants
filling out the survey Due to the students being minors, a letter of consent was drafted
describing the nature of the project, and the confidentiality of all data obtained from
the project. The letter of consent was to be signed by participants and their guardians
(see Appendix A).
Analysis of Quantitative Data and Qualitative Data
After surveys were administered and returned to the researcher, data was coded
and entered into the Statistical Program for the Social Sciences (SPSS) database. The
SPSS database allows data to be compiled and analyzed in multiple ways. Because of
the small sample size, the researcher was unable to use t-tests and correlation models
to analyze data. Instead, the researcher analyzed the responses to the quantitative data
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by reviewing the percentages of each point on the Likert Scale according to the
question. The researcher analyzed the data in the following three ways: Aggregated to
get an idea of how the participants answered statements as a whole group; grade level
of student participants and parent education level. By doing so, the researcher was able
to evaluate how these factors may have influenced the responses to the experiences of
race, class and gender in an academic setting. This database would also provide the
mean scores for each statement on the surveys.
Qualitative data was evaluated by having all audiotapes transcribed. After
interviews were fully transcribed, themes present in the interview were listed as well
as key quotes that the researcher felt was relevant in addressing the research question.
To get a better understanding of the themes that were addressed through the qualitative
data, the researcher listened to all interviews a total of three times, and utilized
Microsoft Excel to track themes of each listening session. After the researcher listened
to each interview at least three times, as well as categorized themes, the researcher
compiled a list of major findings that were evident from the interviews. Once both the
qualitative and quantitative data was thoroughly evaluated, the researcher then
compared both forms of data and consolidated the findings to illustrate if indeed
factors of race, class, and gender impacted the educational advancement of African
American female students.
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Chapter 4
FINDINGS
The purpose of this mixed methodology study was to explore the unique
challenges faced by African American female high school students when encountering
the intersection of race, gender and class in an educational environment. This study
reflects the experiences of eight African American female students ranging from ages
15-18 and two school staff employed at Dunlap High School in the Oak Park
neighborhood located in the city of Sacramento. Of special interest to the researcher
were the impact of race, class and gender on the academic achievement of these
particular African American female students. In addition, the researcher was
particularly interested in how these girls navigate through academia when confronted
with barriers caused by socioeconomic factors.
Over a two-day period, eight African American female students and two
Dunlap High School staff were interviewed regarding the impact of race, class, and
gender on the academic achievement of African American female students. Data
collected from the interviews and surveys indicated that participants were aware of the
educational barriers due to race and gender, but because the demographic of Dunlap
High School was predominantly African American, there were low levels of racial
saliency. Many student participants stated that though they have not experienced racial
discrimination at Dunlap High School, there is a minimal amount of discourse on
issues of race, gender and class in their academic environment. Race and gender did
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not become central to participants until they began reflecting on the need for African
American teachers and counselors in leadership positions at Dunlap.
In addition to the findings surrounding race, participants conveyed that they
have not experienced gender bias in their educational environment, but revealed that,
in comparison to male instructors they have not had many African American female
instructors. Similar to findings regarding African Americans in leadership positions, in
this study participants conveyed that there were not many African American women in
leadership positions at Dunlap High School; they were only able to list at least three
African American women within their academic environment of at least 43 instructors.
Lastly, in comparison to the findings on race and gender, this study shows that
class was an important barrier to parent involvement and access to educational
resources. Both female students and staff conveyed that parent involvement was vital
to helping African American students succeed academically. Reasons for limited
parent involvement included: parents’ employment hours, parents’ dedication to other
siblings, and parents’ lack of access to technology to stay abreast of school changes.
Student participants coming from a single parent household addressed how unstable
economic factors (such as employment, housing, etc.,) affected their parents’ ability to
participate in the student’s education, but rely on peer and staff support to motivate
them to succeed.
This chapter is divided into six sections: The first section consists of a brief
description of participants, such as their ethnicity, age, and current grade level.
Because the nature of the study reflects the experiences of African American female
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students and staff at Dunlap High, it is necessary to provide character information of
participants in order to enrich the research findings as well as understand how their
individual identities shaped their understanding of their educational environment. By
providing character information of each participant, the researcher sought to illustrate
the similarities and differences amongst participants as well as value how these
differences contribute to each of their unique experiences when navigating through
academia. In addition to race, age and grade level, information regarding parents’
educational level, the researcher collected family demographics and personality traits
via interviews and observation. The first section also includes a description of the two
staff interviewed at Dunlap High School.
The second section focuses on factors that contribute to the motivation for the
students to succeed academically. As the researcher began to isolate themes from
factors that contribute to the motivation for students to succeed, smaller, yet
significant themes that emerged for this second section included the following: upward
mobility, diminishing racial stereotypes of African Americans, and closing the
achievement gap. Upward mobility as a theme dealt with the student’s use of
education as a means of improving their current socioeconomic status, such as moving
from a lower class level to middle class. Using education as a tool to diminish racial
stereotypes was described by participants as breaking societies pre-conceived notions
of African Americans as being un-educated though increasing more African American
students graduating from high school and attending higher learning institutions.
Lastly, closing the achievement gap was described by participants to be an important
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motivator in succeeding academically to also prove that African Americans are as
educated as their Caucasian counterparts are.
The third section of the chapter examines the development of racial identity
and ideology in an academic environment. The themes that emerged in the third
section were perception of “acting white,” importance of race to student identity, and
lack of African American instructors in leadership positions in an academic setting. In
the fourth section, student participants discuss their parents’ involvement in their
educational process. In this, section students reflected on factors that hinder their
parent’s level of involvement including work schedules, obligation to other relatives
and lack of access to material resources.
In addition to sections one through four, section five consists of the role gender
plays in the educational environment of African American female students. Education
research regarding gender bias in the classroom treats all female students as if they are
a homogenous population, when in fact, race can be an additional barrier faced by
female students in the academic environment. When the researcher addressed
questions in regards to gender bias in the classroom, participants not only addressed
themselves as female students, but also addressed how race and gender have impacted
them internally and externally to the academic setting. Lastly, section six concerns
how student and staff participants conveyed the ways in which Dunlap High could
improve the educational environment for its African American female population.
Sub-themes that emerged from section six included students’ desire for more options
of different types of curriculum, as well as the need for cultural competence training
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for teaching staff. In addition, the findings indicate students’ concern about the
discourse surrounding race and gender and increasing communication with parents of
students.
Summary of Participants
This section describes the participants according to grade level and aims to
provide a short description that highlights how they viewed education, as well as their
current and future educational aspirations. Prior to beginning the interview and at the
conclusion of the interview, participants had a chance to introduce themselves to the
researcher and ask questions regarding college. From the preliminary conversations
with participants, the researcher had the opportunity to gain a better understanding of
the participant’s lives internal and external to experiences at school. The eight student
participants were asked their age, ethnicity, and grade levels. They were also asked
about their parents’ education level and the number of siblings in the household.
Seven of the eight student participants were of African descent with an additional
participant identifying herself as of both African American and Polynesian descent.
Prior to the formal interview, participants were asked if they had a desire to further
their education past high school. Some student participants expressed that they
planned to be the first in their family to go to college. All the students expressed a
desire to attend college in order to gain a better chance of having a good career.
Participants also discussed the impact of having school age siblings living in
the household and the impact that had on parent involvement in the educational
environment. For the purpose of this study, parent involvement is defined as the level
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of engagement in which a parent participates in various school activities both internal
and external to the school environment. Activities included helping students with
homework, communicating with staff regarding student academic progress, and school
events and assemblies. Seven of the eight student participants stated that they had at
least one to two siblings living within the household, while one participant stated they
had at least three siblings living in the household.
In addition to parent involvement as being a factor that affected the academic
achievement of the students, the cultural diversity of staff at Dunlap High was
described by both student and staff participants as being of great importance. All
students claimed that there were few African American instructors at Dunlap High
School; one student stated that besides one African American female counselor, the
only other African American staff members she had met were security guards and
janitors. Later in this chapter, some of these views and concepts will be further
explored. In addition to interviewing students, two staff members were interviewed in
order to understand the educational barrier faced by African American female students
from the vantage point of individuals in a leadership position. One staff member
interviewed was an English teacher of Caucasian descent, while the other staff
participant was of African descent and an academic advisor to all of the student
participants in this study. Pseudonyms have been used in this study in order to keep
the actual names of the participants confidential.
The following section introduces the individual students, relating their ethnic
identification and grade level, in addition to parent educational level and each
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participant’s self-perception. First, Mia is a 15- year-old bi-racial student of African
American and Polynesian descent. Mia is a high school freshman and expresses
herself openly about her experiences internal and external to school. Mia considers
herself creative, emphasizing her love for art, skating and rock music. Mia stated that
her peer circle is ethnically diverse. She expresses interest in attending college at a
school with a good arts program. Mia stated that she does not have the best study
habits due to her inability to concentrate in the classroom. One of the distractions Mia
addressed in her interview was her family concerns. Mia has been raised in a singleparent household in which her mother is the breadwinner. Mia states that her mom’s
involvement in school is limited due to long work hours, but she stresses to Mia that
academic success will lead to a good future.
In addition to interviewing freshman Mia, the researcher also interviewed a 14year-old African American female student in her freshman year of high school named
Zhane. Zhane described herself as sociable, yet able to balance her social life and
academic grades. Sometimes considered a “nerd” for being focused in class, Zhane
stated that she is comfortable with being intelligent and tends to surround herself with
peers who want to excel in school. She stated that she vicariously learns the
importance of education from her brother and sister, who both attended college. Her
mother has a high school education level, and her father received some college
education. Zhane’s desire is to join the ranks of her siblings by graduating from
college. She has an interest in interning at U.C. Davis in a biomedical program. Zhane
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chose to come to Dunlap High because of its connections to internships with local
colleges as well as the demanding academic curriculum offered to its students.
Two sophomore students were interviewed named Leana and Beyonca. Leana
is a 16-year-old African American female student, in her sophomore year of high
school. She is actively involved in sports and relies heavily on the support of her
family when it comes to succeeding academically in school. She expressed her interest
in going to college, but also had anxiety about how she will be able to afford higher
education. Leana stated that her parents have a close relationship with the staff at
Dunlap High School and are actively involved in fostering a strong educational
environment in the home. Both of Leana’s parents had some college education, but did
not complete the course work to attain a college degree.
The second sophomore interviewed named Beyonca was a 16-year-old African
American female student who described herself as self-motivated, focused, and
intelligent. Beyonca stated that she surrounds herself with students who want to do
well in school and who have goals of furthering their education. Both of Beyonca’s
parents graduated from college, and she conveyed that they expected the same of her.
She revealed that her parents are actively involved in her education and her parents
have strong relationships with her instructors at Dunlap High School. Beyonca also
has two siblings. Described by her counselor as a “go-getter,” Beyonca is ambitious,
evident in her description of why education is important. Though in her sophomore
year, Beyonca is actively searching for internships that would give her a better idea of
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what her major will be in college as well as possible career options she will have after
completing college.
A 16-year-old African American female student in her junior year of high
school, Niecie considered herself highly efficacious and motivated to succeed
academically. Being involved in programs such as MESA and advanced placement
courses, Niecie states that her peers come to her for academic help in the classroom.
Niecie’s mom had some college courses but did not attain a college degree. Being
raised by a single-mother, Niecie addressed the challenges her mother faced when
trying to be involved in her education. “My mom is a single mom, so I help my
brother and sister… my mom is my everything.” Religion is something that Niecie
feels helped her become mentally focused in school when external factors influence
her mindset. One of the main concerns that Niecie had when it came to her academic
environment is that she feels she is only praised when she is at her best academically,
but when she is at her lowest point in school, she feels that she loses the support of the
staff at Dunlap High School.
Nala is an African American 17-year-old female student in her junior year of
high school. Since she was young, Nala expressed a desire to go to college. She
considered herself to have a strong plan on how to accomplish that goal. Nala believes
that all of the minority students at Dunlap High encounter the same racial stereotypes
and depictions developed by society, which affect how they are perceived by society,
but Nala chooses to ignore the stereotypes to succeed. Nala does not get much help
with her homework from her parents, but she cites her self-motivation and sports as
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key factors that help her do well in school. Due to her mother having her at a young
age, Nala described her own desire not to become a teen mother and instead to go to
college and get a degree. Nala also revealed that she has anxiety of how the lack of
economic resources will affect attending college. Despite these anxieties, Nala is still
hopeful and ambitious when it comes to attending college.
A senior in high school, Shantrice is an African American female student with
confidence when describing her academic progress. Shantrice was a sophomore when
Dunlap High School became a charter school in an effort to improve the educational
outcomes for its students. Shantrice states that the Sacramento Unified School
District’s plan of changing Dunlap into a charter school improved her educational
experience by giving her access to more challenging curriculum and external
educational programs. Shantrice is actively involved in sports and described her peers
as being supportive of her education. She states that both her parents are involved in
her education. Both of Shantrice’s parents had some college level education, but
wanted Shantrice to graduate from college. Shantrice has plans on furthering her
education after graduating from Dunlap High School.
The last of the student participants is a senior in high school named Maxine.
An 18-year-old African American female student, Maxine stated that she had a
supportive group of peers and family. Though she has no access to educational
resources outside of school, Maxine utilizes tutoring offered by Dunlap High. Both her
mother and father had a high school education. Both of her parents communicate with
Maxine’s teachers, as well as lookup her grades on the Dunlap educational website.
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Like the other participants, Maxine notices that the staff does not reflect the cultural
demographic of students at Dunlap High School. In addition to commenting on the
lack of African American staff, Maxine also made suggestions on the need for more
discourse regarding issues of race and gender. Maxine prefers to focus on how the
courses will prepare her for furthering her education.
In addition to interviewing student participants, the researcher selected two
staff members, Jean and Faye, to provide insight regarding their experiences with
African American female students and their parents when trying to help students
succeed academically. Jean is a young, Caucasian, 10th grade English teacher and
advisor at Dunlap High School. Due to the high school’s educational reform centered
on improving educational outcome for its students, Jean decided to teach at Dunlap
High School. Jean conveyed that working at Dunlap High had given her the
opportunity to make a difference in the education of all students. Jean believes that in
her classroom, the students begin to develop a trusting relationship in which they can
address educational concerns. In addition to teaching, Jean is also an advisor and
describes herself as being a role model for some of her female students. Jean is an
advocate in making a connection between the students’ academic environments at
school as well their home environment. Jean stated that one of the primary barriers to
the connection could be the fact that “a lot of parents work during the hours that
school events take place.” The second staff member in the study was Faye, a young
African American counselor, who advises all of the female participants of this
research project. Often referenced as a part of the support system of the students
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interviewed, Faye observes firsthand the impact of race, gender and class in the
educational environment of African American female students. Faye, who has both an
undergraduate and graduate degree, viewed education as being the key to setting
“them [students] up for being successful in their future.” Determined to make sure that
all of the students that she advises graduate from both high school and college, Faye is
one of a few African American staff members in a leadership position at Dunlap High
School, which concerns not only her, but also many of the participants of the study.
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Table 1
Profile of Participants
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The Importance of Succeeding Academically
Upward Mobility
In order to understand the impact of education in the lives of the students and
staff participants, one of the first questions asked was why succeeding academically
was important. All participants cited that one of the main reasons to succeed
academically is to have a better future, that is, to gain upward mobility. Nala stated
that she wants to further her education in order to get a good job. “I think that
everybody’s education is important, so in the future you have a good job, and
everything will be set for you, because it’s hard now with our economy to get a job.”
Nala understands the importance of having a higher level of education in order to
compete in the future job market.
Similar to Nala, Mia also shared sentiments that her mother conveyed the
importance of education as a means of improving her future quality of life. “My mom
always says that if you do well in school, it will help you with life…you have to learn
stuff to get you places.” Although Mia is only a freshman in high school, she is
already thinking about her future career and the role that education will play in helping
her make money so that she does not have to struggle later in life. As the researcher
interviewed participants regarding academic success, the notion of “struggling” was
often conveyed to the researcher. Just as Mia’s mom stressed the importance of her
daughter getting an education, Mia’s mom also stated that it is important for her
daughter to be the first to go to college in her family to set an example for her younger
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cousins. Similar to Mia being the first to go to college, the majority of the student
participants stated that they would be the first generation to go to college as well.
Out of the eight student participants, only one participant stated that both of
her parents had attained a B.A. or B.S. college degree. According to Faye, the
counselor, some of her African American female students would be the first in their
family to attend college. Faye acknowledged that the additional pressure to be the first
to attain a college degree motivates students to succeed but can also be stressful for
students. “These kids are the first to even graduate from high school, the majority of
our students are the first to go to college, so just imagine how you would feel if you
went to college campuses and saw people that looked like you.”
At the time of the interview, Maxine was one month from graduating from
high school. When asked the importance of succeeding academically, Maxine
confidently stated that education is important because “you have to achieve things to
get places in life, so you won’t have to struggle when you get older, so it’s important.”
While reinforcing Maxine’s point of the importance of education, Niecie noted the
difficult reality of attending school in a poor urban neighborhood where wealth is not
present. Niecie lives in an urban neighborhood and believes that education is
“important for us in order to succeed in life because a lot of us are not given the
money to do well in other places.”
Similar to the ideas of Ana Julia Cooper (in Lemert & Bhan, 1998) regarding
the education of not only African American men, but also African American women,
the young women seem to be echoing that tradition or concern of the importance of
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educating African Americans. When referencing the importance of education, all
participants spoke of education not only for themselves but also for African American
women in general. Beyonca stated that she is aware that she has “two-strikes” against
her being African American and a woman, but states that those same odds against her
serves as motivation towards her goal of attending college. Participants conveyed that
by more African Americans going to college, they are helping diminish society’s
stereotypes of African Americans being un-educated.
Eliminating Stereotypes
Participants also conveyed viewing the importance of education as an upward
mobility tool for all African American women as a means of eliminating societal
stereotypes. By the time pre-teens enter middle school and high school; African
American children encounter racial stereotypes that reflect society’s perceptions of
African Americans (Tatum, 1997). Racial stereotypes of the intellectual inferiority of
African Americans can be traced back to the early 1600s when slaves were brought
from Africa to the Americas. These stereotypes have shaped the perceptions of
individuals within society and have entered into the academic setting. African
Americans such as Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Dubois, and Ana Julia Cooper all
conveyed the notion of educating African Americans as a means of eliminating social
injustice and improving the lives of all African Americans. Academic success as a
means of eliminating stereotypes was discussed by Beyonca, who stated, “I know a lot
of times society...especially in Sacramento, really looks down on us at Dunlap
High…they think we are not up to par academically wise compared to other students,
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so it’s important to succeed academically because it shows them that, yeah, we can do
just as well as other students.” Because of the historical implications of these
stereotypes, society has labeled students from low-income neighborhoods as being
incapable of keeping up academically with students from middle and upper-income
neighborhoods. According to Shaffer, Ortman, and Denbo (2002), “The view that
achievement is not a ‘black thing’ is reinforced by Eurocentric curriculum and a color
coded tracking system” (p. 21).
Leana and Zhane expressed the benefits of African American female students
achieving academically, which included eliminating racial and gender stereotypes, as
well as closing the achievement gap. Leana believed that academic achievement
would eliminate racial stereotypes and gender stereotypes of women in education.
Leana noted, “Guys really put us down. They feel like we can’t really achieve stuff
…they usually think that we can’t do that many things because we’re women.”
Freshman Zhane also addresses how academic achievement will improve the
perception of Dunlap High School, as well as of the African American student body.
Zhane states that the academic achievement of African American students is important
because “it would make our school look like we are doing something, as well as
[close] the achievement gap.” In fact, the concept of academic success as a means of
closing the achievement gap is a notion introduced to Latino and African American
students when they first begin attending Dunlap High.
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Closing the Achievement Gap
For the past 20 years, there have been numerous research studies conducted
and published regarding the academic achievement gap between African American
and Latino students in comparison to their Caucasian counterparts. As more research
has been conducted on the achievement gap and new policies developed such as No
Child Left Behind (NCLB), educational researchers are now evaluating how the
intersecting systems of oppression create a different educational environment for
students of color. Some of the institutional practices include the following: unequal
funding, inaccurate educational measurements and assessments, under-qualified
teachers, low teacher expectations, lack of parent involvement, and racial segregation
(Denbo, 2002a). The achievement gap was mentioned often by both students and staff
participants as being an important focus of instructors at Dunlap High School.
According to all student participants, when first beginning as freshmen at
Dunlap High, students and families were asked to attend a mandatory assembly
regarding the achievement gap between minority students and Caucasian students.
Participants stated that the purpose of the assembly was to convey the importance of
academic achievement in order to reduce the achievement gap between ethnic
minorities and their Caucasian and Asian counterparts. Dunlap High has also
encouraged parent participation in school programs, increased communication with
instructors and college tours. As educational policy makers evaluate different factors
within the learning environment, sociologists and educational researchers have also
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dedicated time to evaluating how external factors such as race impact the educational
experience of African American female students.
Development of Racial Identity and Ideology in
Academic Environment Race
The concept of race is a social construction used to classify individual
members in society. The importance placed on race in an academic setting can be
dependent upon the majority demographic of staff and students in the educational
environment. At Dunlap High School, African Americans make up over half of the
student population, whereas the African American staff consists of less than one-third
of the teaching faculty and administrative staff. Scott (2003) has developed the term
“racial centrality” in order to explain the impact of being in an environment in which
individuals specific race is the majority, thus making the environment feel normative.
According to Scott, “Racial centrality refers to the extent to which being Black is a
normative aspect of one’s self conception and identity” (p. 522). When participants in
this study were asked questions about their interactions with peers of the same race as
well as about experiencing racism while attending Dunlap High, student participants
stated in their interview that they have not experienced racism at Dunlap High,
however when the researcher reviewed the quantitative data less than 50% stated that
they have never experienced racism at Dunlap High. This is an example of how in a
homogenous environment, race is less salient (Moore & Rowley, 2002). A few student
participants stated that although they had never experienced racism at Dunlap High,
they were fully aware that racism and sexism exist outside of school. One example of
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this awareness was when student participants in academic extra-curricular activities
experience the saliency of race due to being one of a few African Americans in a
given setting. According to Scott (2003), “Racial saliency refers to the extent to which
being Black is meaningful in a particular context or situation”. (p. 522). For students
who participated in honors classes or external academic activities, there was an
increase of racial saliency, because they were in an academic environment in which
they were one of only a few African Americans present. Race also became a central
concept in this study when a few of the female student participants reflected on their
educational experiences in which they were accused of “acting white” by their peers.
Though in the interview over half of the student participants stated that they did not
experience name calling for succeeding academically, data collected from the
administered survey reflected that 75% stated they have been called names for
succeeding academically. Although some of these events pre-dated their attendance at
Dunlap High, these incidences had shaped their perception of academic success.
Acting White
Researchers such as Jon Ogbu (1992) and Signithia Fordham (1993) had
produced literature regarding the concept of “acting white” within the African
American community. Because African Americans have been conditioned to believe
that academic success is only reserved for the dominant culture, some African
Americans feel that striving towards academic excellence is seen as conforming to the
norms and values of the dominant culture. According to Fordham (1993), “For many
African Americans, acting white implies acceptance of an ethic that is normed and
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nurtured by the dominant society” (p. 147). Similar to the experiences of participants
in Fordham’s study, the researcher found that female participants that excelled
academically also experienced name-calling due to achieving academic success. When
student participants were asked on the survey if they had peers the same race as them
that supported them succeeding academically, at least 37% stated they agreed that
peers of their own race supported their academic success, while 63% stated that they
were undecided or disagreed that their peers are supportive of them excelling in
school. In pursuing evidence of this trend for students in this study, student
participants were asked if they were called names by their African American peers for
achieving academically in school. While five out of the eight participants stated that
their African American peers were supportive academically, three participants stated
that they had been accused of “acting white” and called names such as “Oreo” and
“nerd.” In their study Shaffer, Ortman, and Denbo (2002) found that, “Black girls who
take school seriously are accused of ‘acting white’” (p. 21). In the same way Mia
shared her experience of being called names for succeeding academically; however,
she took this experience as a lesson in which she learned to accept who she was: an
academically oriented young woman. Mia admitted that when she was called names, it
was hurtful because she felt like she had to choose to act out what her peers
considered “black.” Mia admitted that she did not conform to the “black” stereotypical
girl that society has developed, and because of not conforming, she has been called an
Oreo because she “is more of a skater, rocker-type girl.” Rather than Mia subscribing
to racial stereotypes, she describes herself not according to her race, but according to
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her individual interest, which serves as another identity for her. Describing her interest
as “listening to rock music and metal and stuff like that,” Mia stated that she is
considered by many of her peers as an Oreo; nevertheless, she has became more
confident in being herself. Mia has learned to cope with the name calling by
developing an identity that did not involve race, while her peers such as Niece and
Beyonca have tried different approaches.
In addition to Mia experiencing being called names by her African American
peers, Niecie and Beyonca, both of whom were in advanced classes, had similar
experiences of being called names for excelling in school. Niecie stated that for as
long as she could remember being in school, she had been called an Oreo for being in
honors classes and after school academic programs. Recalling some of her
experiences, Niecie stated that she had been called a nerd and Oreo
since I was in elementary school, because, like, I’ve gone to school in Oak
Park my entire like, so, like when it comes to like honors programs or
programs like MESA and stuff, I’m typically the only black kid in the
program…so I’ve always been called the Oreo black on the outside, white on
the inside.
Beyonca had a diverse group of friends and stated that although she was called names
for being smart, she learned how to disregard comments and remain focused in school.
Beyonca stated, “It’s just that I feel like why you are going to down me because I’m
smart, like because I want to do better… It’s not my problem if you don’t want to do
better.” Beyonca, Mia, and Niecie have learned to deal with the critique from peers
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about their academic progress; in contrast, the other participants stated that their
relationships with other African American peers have been generally positive.
Peers are viewed as being one of the most influential factors in an adolescent’s
life. Peers are not only part of a student’s support system, but also have the ability to
influence other individuals. According to Maxine, her peers are supportive of her
succeeding academically. When asked how peers affected her academic achievement,
Maxine stated, the peers “affected it [academic performance] in a good way, because,
like the school and all of my friends, family, they’re all supportive; they all want me to
achieve.” Nala acknowledged that she had to change some behaviors to be accepted by
some of her peers, but felt that it was necessary because “you just have to, like, get
along with people.” Niecie also shared how she had to change her behavior in order to
be accepted by peers by “putting on different faces for two different groups of
friends…you know, kind of be like them in order to be in with them.” Niecie and
Maxine’s experiences with peers illustrated how African American female students
can sometimes have to modify behaviors in order to maintain peer relationships. All
participants expressed the influence peers had on decision making in the learning
environment. In addition, peer relationships being an important factor in the learning
environment, peers also expressed concern regarding African Americans in leadership
positions at Dunlap High School.
African Americans in School Leadership Positions
The importance of race amongst peers was not as significant as the finding of a
lack of African Americans in leadership positions that participants in the study all
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commented on. Participants were also asked if they felt that the school staff at Dunlap
High School consisted of the same cultural diversity of the student population and
whether that mattered to them. When asked if the cultural diversity amongst staff at
Dunlap High mattered to student participants, both staff and student participants
revealed that not only were there not a lot of African American instructors, but they
also felt that it is important to have instructors that reflected the same cultural diversity
as the student population. According to data collected from the surveys administered
to student participants, 75% stated that they have not had more than three African
American female teachers while attending Dunlap High School. Faye was referenced
by the student participants as being one of the only few African American staff
members at Dunlap High. When asked if she felt that the staff at Dunlap was reflective
of the student population, she stated that she hoped that one day it would be, but
currently it was not. Faye stated, “We have more African American teachers than a lot
of other high schools, but it’s not reflective of the population as the majority of the
student population is African American.” Jean also agreed with Faye, stating that there
are only a few African American instructors. Jean noted the importance of having on
staff “Denise Lee or Faye, who are African American, young and very successful, and
it isn’t because they had things handed to them, but because they’ve worked hard and
pushed through barriers, and now they’re giving back to the same people that they
maybe once were.” Jean named these specific women because they come from similar
backgrounds as some of the African American female student participants.
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The importance of the visibility of African American staff is evident in the
students’ frequent reference to Faye as being a supportive guide for African American
female students. According to Niecie, Faye was there when her “grades started
slipping, and Faye called my mom, like every day, and calling me every day.” Nala
acknowledged Faye as being one of the staff that was accessible when she was on the
verge of not doing well academically. All of the participants reported Faye as a
support system when things such as family issues, economic stress, and stress from
school threatened to affect their academic grades.
When the students were asked if they have taken classes with an African
American instructor, participants could not recall having any African American
instructors while attending Dunlap High, but stated that there were African American
school staff such as security and janitorial. “There’s a few African American teachers
here…two or three, but the rest are white.” When asked to recall how many African
American staff are in leadership positions at Dunlap High, Maxine stated that there
were few Hispanic and African American instructors or counselors besides her advisor
Faye. According to Denbo (2002a), “Although student diversity in the United States is
increasing, diversity within the ranks of the teaching workforce is declining” (p. 55).
Vicarious learning through an African American female role model in a leadership
position at Dunlap High was considered by Jean to be of utmost importance for the
African American student population. However, Jean noted that most of the instructors
at Dunlap were Caucasian and a few Hispanic. Both Jean and Faye, stated that having
positive role models who happen to be the same race as the African American student
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body would benefit the students by allowing them to feel as if they have individuals
that can relate to their experiences dealing with racism, sexism and classism.
Parent Involvement
As soon as a child is born, parents become the informal teachers until children
become school age. Education takes place within the home as well as within the
school. Parent involvement has been cited by researchers as being vital to academic
success. According to Denbo (2002a),
Greater levels of family stress, less available time, fewer social and economic
resources, and fewer positive memories with their own public education
experiences inhibit African American parents from being involved in their own
children’s educational experiences at home and in school. (p. 17)
Participants were asked the level of involvement their parents have in their educational
process. Though all student participants stated that their parents stressed the
importance of furthering their education, some student participants stated that their
parents could not be as involved as other parents could since their work schedules and
other family obligations interfered. When student participants were asked if they were
helped by their parents with schoolwork, 25% of students stated that they received
assistance from their parents with their schoolwork. According to Witherspoon (2002),
“parent involvement has been found not only to improve student achievement but also
to produce significant long-term benefits” (p. 181). All student participants noted
parent involvement as one of the primary factors affecting student academic
achievement. While six of the eight student participants come from a two-parent
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household, two participants coming from single-parent households stated that their
parents were not as involved as other parents due to working to support the family.
Mia said that she rarely had the opportunity to see her mom because by the
time she got out of school, her mother was already off to work. In the last year, Mia
and her mom had economic hardships, prompting her mom to work even more hours
to support her family. “Being away from my mom, kind of does make me feel bad. It’s
the only way that we can like—live where we live now, like get things, like clothes
and school uniform and stuff, so you know it’s only for my own good I guess.”
Though Mia rarely saw her mom after school, when she and her mother had a chance
to interact and discuss school, Mia stated that her mother stressed the importance of
succeeding academically in order to get a good job. Mia’s sentiments of her mom’s
emphasis on the importance of education were similar to the findings of the
quantitative data. When participants were asked if their parents were concerned about
their academic success, 75% strongly agreed that their parents were concerned about
their academic achievement. As previously stated, all female participants conveyed
that education was perceived within the household as being a tool that would provide
students with a better life. When student participants were asked if their parents
actively participated in school functions at Dunlap High, only half of the participants
stated that their parents are involved with the different events that take place at the
school. Witherspoon (2002) states, “A study of low-income high achieving African
American students found that their parents stress the value of education for their
futures” (p. 181). Although Mia’s mom was not able to be as involved in her education
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as she would like, Mia stated that she had the additional support of her mom’s friends
to help her with her schoolwork. “I barely see my mom, so basically I am on my own,
but I do have, like, my mom’s friends or like my neighbor they support me.”
When the researcher interviewed Niecie, she also addressed the issue of her
mom being “stretched” when trying to participate in parent activities at Dunlap High.
Niecie stated that after the passing of her stepfather, her family only consisted of
herself, mom and two siblings. “She’s a single parent, so my sister and brother go to
school far away, so my mom, she has to drive them to school and pick them up, and
my brother plays football and my sister softball, so she has to be at their games just as
much as mine, she has to basically equal herself out…give everybody a little bit of
mom.” This common occurrence of “equaling-out” the single parent amongst siblings
makes parent involvement nearly impossible. According to Dearing et al. (2003),
“Work may be particularly challenging for educational involvement among low
income families…Time appears to be a central aspect of employment that creates a
barrier to educational involvement for low-income mothers” (p. 881). Although
Niecie’s mom had limitations when trying to be involved at Dunlap High, Niecie cited
her mom and her faith as the main support systems and motivations to succeed
academically. Niecie and Mia’s experiences of parent involvement in their education
echoed that of many African American students from single-parent households headed
by mothers. Although Dunlap High encourages parent participation, school staff
members are aware of the limitations of some of the students’ families.
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Jean, an English teacher and counselor, encountered parents on an everyday
basis and had experienced firsthand factors that hinder parents from school
participation. “From what I’ve seen a lot of parents, they work the same hours as the
kids are in school or maybe even past when the kids get out of school.” In addition to
work as a barrier, Jean conveyed that some families lack the access to computers,
which made accessing student grades from Dunlap’s database increasingly difficult.
“If you [parents] want to check the Power School online, if you don’t have internet,
you’re sort of out of luck, definitely.” Faye stated that parent is who have minimal
time to be involved in their students education fully utilized the time they had by
communicating with teachers via telephone and in-school visits. Faye noted, “I think
that we do have parent participation here at Dunlap High; we encourage a lot of
parental involvement, but I do find that when parents are actively involved in their
child’s education, that’s when kids are really successful.”
Student participants from a two-parent headed household stated that their
parents are actively involved in their education by communicating with their
instructors, checking their grades using the schools grade database, and even coming
to Dunlap’s campus to meet with their counselors. In fact, according to Beyonca, both
of her parents are “too much” involved in her educational process. Beyonca stated that
her mom is a teacher and is familiar with the educational environment and the
academic expectations at Dunlap High School. Beyonca stated about her parents,
“They won’t go away…they’re, like encouraging me, like they make sure I’m always
doing my homework, eating breakfast, all that stuff, and bad grades are unacceptable.”
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Shantrice expresses that her parents came to Dunlap events and were consistently
checking her grades on the school’s electronic database. “My mom does quick lookups here every day or every week, and my mom finds [my grades] and makes sure my
absences are correct and my grade is correct…she talks to teachers and both of my
parents are supportive.”
Impact of Gender on Academic Achievement
After the researcher interviewed the students regarding their experiences with
race in the learning environment, student and staff participants were also asked
questions about gender bias at Dunlap High School. According to student participants,
when asked if they felt being female was a disadvantage succeeding academically,
50% disagreed and 25% strongly agreed. Because past research conducted by
researchers such as Sadker and Sadker (1995), Fordham (1993), and hooks (1999) all
suggest that girls are experiencing gender bias in the classroom in the following forms:
male dominated classrooms, minimal teacher interaction, underrepresentation of
women in literature, and minimal women in educational leadership positions.
However, African American female theorists evaluate how the concept of race and
gender intersect and creates a unique experience for female students of color. In
studies conducted by Lips (1989), Fordham (1993), and Collins (2000), African
American female students do not always conform being silent and passive in the
classroom like their white counterparts, which minimizes some of the levels of gender
bias experienced in the classroom.
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In fact, according to the data collected by the researcher regarding gender, data
shows that participants did not experience gender bias in the classroom. When student
participants were asked if male students received more teacher-student interaction
within the classroom, over half of the participants responded that they strongly
disagreed (25%) or disagreed (25%). In addition to not feeling that males dominated
the classroom, 63% of participants also stated that they had never experienced gender
bias while attending Dunlap High. Although participants stated that they had not
experienced gender bias, when asked if they would like to work with females rather
than male students, 63% stated that they would rather work with females than male
students. This finding is similar to researcher finding of Sadker in regards to females
preferring to work with females. Sadker stated in her research that female students and
male students have different communication and learning styles. For example, male
students tend to have an individualistic work style, while female student’s work well
in a collectivistic setting in which group harmony and helping others benefits all
students. This finding could possibly be due to the fact that female students out
number male students at Dunlap High School.
Synopsis of Findings
After conducting qualitative and quantitative research through a mixed method
consisting of a survey and interviews, the finding of this study illustrate that race, class
and gender intersect in the learning environment to create a unique educational
experience for African American female students. In regards to race, the researcher
found that students are aware of the stereotypes of African American in education, as
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well as the importance of closing the achievement gap and increasing the number of
African Americans furthering their education. Participants also addressed the
importance of having African Americans in leadership positions at Dunlap High in
order to have more positive role models for the African American student population.
In addition to the findings regarding race, class was also a topic addressed by
participants. Gaining upward mobility through academic success was one of the most
cited motivators for student academic success. Participants that lived in a single parent
household or in a poor urban neighborhood discussed how education could help
improve their class status when they get older and begin their careers. A few
participants reflected on their past economic hardships, and how their lack of
monetary funds will affect their future education. In addition to discussing upward
mobility through academic achievement, participants residing in neighborhoods that
are low socioeconomic status discussed how lack of educational resources in their
community was a reason for commuting to Dunlap high for a more advanced
curriculum. Parent involvement was also discussed in regards to the limitations faced
by parents with students attending Dunlap. Work hours and family obligations were
two frequent hindrances to parent involvement mentioned by both student and staff
participants. Student that lived in a single parent household stated that lack of parent
involvement sometimes negatively influenced their academic success.
In addition to the findings of race and class, participants also discussed the
impact of gender on academic achievement. Although staff and student participants
were not asked interview questions regarding gender, the concept of gender was
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intertwined in the responses to interview questions regarding race and class. This
finding illustrates how race, class, and gender are not viewed by African American
female students as being isolated variables, but rather interconnected concepts that
create a unique experience for the student participants. Though female participants
stated that they had not experienced gender bias at Dunlap High, they also conveyed to
the researcher that they were aware that externally and in the future, gender will affect
their ability to advance in their career. When participants were asked their level of
comfort communicating in a class that was male dominated and if being a female
student placed them at a disadvantage academically, student participants stated that
being a female student at Dunlap High did not make them feel they were less
academically capable than their male counterparts were. In conclusion, the research
findings from this study not only illustrated the impact of race, class, and gender on
African American female students, but also shed light on deficits within the field of
education when trying to education the African American female student population.
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Chapter 5
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to explore the unique challenges faced by
African American female high school students when encountering the intersection of
race, gender and class in an educational environment. This study reflects the
experiences of eight African American female students ranging from ages 14-18 and
two school staff employed at Dunlap High School in the Oak Park neighborhood
located in the city of Sacramento. Of special interest to the researcher were the impact
of race, class and gender on the academic achievement of African American female
students. In addition, the researcher was particularly interested in how the female
participants in this study navigated through academia when confronted with barriers
caused by socioeconomic factors. By conducting this study, the researcher sought to
add to the limited body of literature regarding the academic experiences of African
American female students between the ages of 14-18.
Conclusions
All of the participants in this study confirmed most of the theories presented in
the literature review. One exception to the literature review was the level of gender
bias experienced in the educational environment. The student participants in this study
seemed to have no issues with gender bias in the classroom. Quantitative data
collected reflected that participants felt that male and female students received equal
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teacher-student interaction, did not experience anxiety when working with male
students, and did not feel that they were at a disadvantage academically because they
are female. Though gender bias was not seen as an issue in the academic setting at
Dunlap High School, participants did address how gender was an issue external to
school, as well as how gender can be a possible barrier when seeking future
employment.
Both student and staff participants cited academic achievement as important
for their future success. When student participants were asked questions regarding
factors that hinder academic success, a few participants stated that individual merit
and self could be a hindrance, meaning that a student’s willingness to invest time in
excelling in school will determine the progress made toward reaching their educational
goals. This notion of merit lies at the foundation of American society and is stressed in
today’s schools. “Meritocracy” refers to a system of belief, which implies that the
harder an individual works, the more it will lead to a desired outcome (Shaffer,
Ortman, & Denbo, 2002). The participants stated that they work hard to achieve
academically, which will help them attain a college degree and eventually lead to a
successful career.
Another hindrance to academic success that students addressed was the level of
parent involvement. Most student participants stated that their parents are involved in
their education, while a few noted that their parent’s level of participation was
minimal due to employment and other family obligations, such as caring for other
relatives. The importance of parent involvement in education was a sentiment shared
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by various student participants, as well as staff. Past educational research regarding
the academic achievement of African American students indicates that parent
involvement is correlated to improved academic achievement (Witherspoon, 2002).
In addition to parent involvement, students noted how race affected their
educational environment. Some of the issues referenced in regards to race included the
concept of “acting white,” peer relations, and African Americans in school leadership
positions. African American female students that considered themselves as high
achieving stated that they had been called names such as “Oreo” or “Nerd.” Student
participants that were called names also conveyed that they had learned to disregard
the name-calling and chose to surround themselves with peers who valued academic
success. In addition to coping with the name-calling, other participants stated that they
had learned to adopt a dual identity, which they adopt depending on their peer group.
Peers were cited often by student and staff participants as being an important support
system, as well as influential factors in the academic environment. When participants
were asked if they had peers that were the same race as them and who supported
academic success, some of the participants stated that their peers were supportive.
Staff participants acknowledged that students being surrounded by peers that wanted
to succeed academically could help provide additional support in the academic
environment that can be missing externally to Dunlap High School. For example,
students that stated their parents were not involved in their education also stated that
extended family and their peer groups were additional sources of academic support.
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Student and staff participants also addressed the importance of having African
American staff in leadership positions at Dunlap High School. Students stated that
they had not had more than three African American instructors while attending Dunlap
High School. When asked to recall if they felt the staff at Dunlap was ethnically
reflective of the student population, student and staff participants stated that the staff
was not ethnically diverse. Staff participants conveyed that there was a need for more
African American female staff in leadership positions, as a means to have more role
models of successful African American women in the academic environment. Jean, a
teacher at Dunlap stated that the few African American female faculties come from
similar backgrounds of the female participants and are good examples of overcoming
barriers due to race, class, and gender.
The Importance of Succeeding Academically
Upward mobility. Staff and student participants discussed education as a means
of improving social class status. Student participants who experienced economic
hardships at the time of this research study expressed a strong desire to succeed
academically to get a good job, which will lead to more of a sustainable lifestyle. Nala
and Mia’s parents both expressed the importance of education as a means of having a
better future. The correlation between education, job market and financial capital all
influenced the importance placed on succeeding academically.
As some student participants stated that their parents had a college education, a
few participants stated that they would be the first in their family to attend college.
Student participants also went on to note that because their parents did not attend
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college, their parents had to work harder in contrast to someone with a college degree.
Student participants who had parents that did not attend college also conveyed that
their parents stressed the importance of attending college to improve class status.
According to Sirin (2005), “parents’ location in the socioeconomic structure has a
strong impact on students’ academic achievement…family SES sets the stage for
students’ academic performance both by directly providing resources at home and by
indirectly providing the social capital that is necessary to succeed in school” (p. 438).
Students from low-income backgrounds conveyed to the researcher the limitations of
economic resources and the need to not have the cycle of poverty repeat itself.
Education was a means of breaking the cycle of poverty and class status.
Eliminating stereotypes. Both student and staff participants agreed that the
presence of African Americans, specifically African American women in the
educational arena was an important tool in eliminating the negative stereotypes of
African Americans in education. Though the majority of the student participants
expressed that they have not experienced racism at Dunlap High, students also stated
that they were aware of the negative stereotypes in society in regards to African
Americans’ ability to succeed academically. The concept of African Americans being
intellectually inferior had a profound effect on African American students. The
stereotypes of African American students as being loud, un-educated and troubled has
filtered into the classroom and can affect instructors’ perceptions of African American
students. Student participants stated that by “leading by example” and succeeding
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academically, more students would follow suit, thus diminishing the negative
stereotypes of African American students.
Closing the achievement gap. In addition to eliminating stereotypes, student
participants stated that they hoped to show that African American students could
succeed academically and close the academic achievement gap. Student participants
stated that when first attending Dunlap High freshman year, they were required to
learn about the achievement gap and factors that can help lessen the gap between
African American students and their white peers. According to staff participants
interviewed, lessening the achievement gap and making sure that students attend
college were two of the primary focuses of the staff at Dunlap High. Staff participants
stated that through providing students with a quality education, as well as increasing
parent involvement in the students’ education, the achievement gap would decrease,
thus showing that African American students are academically up to par with their
white counterparts.
Race, Class and Gender as Factors Impacting the Educational
Experience of African American Female Students
Race. Student and staff participants were asked questions regarding race and
its impact on the learning environment. Student participants reflected on their
experiences with racism, both internal and external to the learning environment. In
addition to discussing the participants’ experiences with racism, African American
staff in leadership positions at Dunlap High School and peer relations and racial
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identity was addressed by participants. Staff participants also reflected on issues of
race in the learning environment and the need for cultural diversity amongst the staff.
According to student participants, they had no experiences of racism at Dunlap
High School. This finding was attributed to the fact that the student population at
Dunlap High School is majority African American. Although the majority of student
participants stated they had never experienced racism, African American students that
were in gifted or advanced placement courses stated that they have experienced
harassment in the form of name-calling by their African American peers. “Oreo” and
“Nerd” were cited as the most commonly used terms to define students whom their
peers considered to be “acting white.” Student participants that experienced namecalling also stated that they have learned to cope with taunts by peers by either
adopting a dual-identity depending on their surroundings or becoming accepting of
themselves, regardless of the pressure to conform to the racial stereotype of African
Americans. Staff participants also confirmed the importance of peer influence on
academic achievement. Staff participants stated the importance of having a supportive
peer circle that agrees with striving towards academic excellence. Faye, a counselor at
Dunlap High, stated that students who are efficacious had a tendency to surround
themselves with peers who were equally academically ambitious.
In addition to addressing peer race relations in the learning environment,
students also addressed a need to have more African American instructors in
leadership positions at Dunlap High School. The researcher asked student participants
if the staff at Dunlap was reflective of the student populations at Dunlap.
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Overwhelmingly, the students stated there were very few African American instructors
at Dunlap. Staff participants agree that it is important for students to learn vicariously
through staff in leadership positions who embody the racial diversity of the student
body. Staff participants saw the link between having more African Americans in
academic leadership positions and breaking the stereotypes of African Americans not
being academically successful.
Parent involvement. Both student and staff participants were asked the
importance of parent involvement, as well as factors that hinder parents from being
involved in the student participants’ educational process. Student participants who had
parents with low levels of involvement in the educational environment stated that
work hours, commitment to other siblings, and living in a single-parent household
were the main obstacles which kept parents from being more involved in school
activities. Staff participants also concurred with student statements when addressing
parent involvement. Staff participants stated that students who succeed academically
also have parents that are actively engaged in school activities, as well as have
relationships with their child’s instructor and other school staff. Student participants
who stated their parents were involved in their education also conveyed the
importance of their parents being involved and how the additional support at home in
regards to education was a motivation for them to succeed.
Gender. In addition to student and staff participants being interviewed
regarding race and class, student participants were also asked questions regarding
gender bias in the learning environment. Although female student participants stated
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they have not experienced gender bias in the learning environment, they are fully
aware that sexism exists external to the learning environment. For example, student
participants stated that the stigma of women being unable to academically achieve in
comparison to their male counterparts was one factor that motivates them to succeed
academically. Over half of the student participants stated they are comfortable
working on group projects in their learning environment, as well as having equal
contributions to classroom discussions in comparison to male students. Similar to
statements in regards to African Americans in leadership positions, staff participants
also stated that having African American women in leadership positions had the
ability to be influential in the learning environment because it would provide the
African American female students with strong female role models in positions that are
commonly dominated by males.
Recommendations
From collecting data in regards to race, class, gender and their impact on the
learning environment, the researcher presents the following recommendations that will
help African American female students effectively and efficiently navigate through
academia and achieve academic success.
African American Staff in Leadership Positions
According to both student and staff participants, Dunlap High has a small
population of African American staff in leadership positions. When participants were
asked if they felt that the teaching and counseling staff was reflective of the student
population, all of the respondents stated that Dunlap did not have many African
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American instructors in their courses. This situation at Dunlap High is typical of what
Crawford and Smith (2005) have found in other areas of American life: “African
Americans not only have low status in society … African American women are more
underrepresented in leadership positions than any other group” (pp. 54-55). As
indicated in this study’s findings, most female students stated that when needing
academic support as well as emotional support, Faye, an African American counselor
was a major contributor to the academic success of many of the female participants.
Increasing the African American staff population at Dunlap High will allow students
to not only learn vicariously from successful African American adults, but also
connect with someone that may have lived the same experiences as the students.
Studies have shown that as African American students grow up and become
professionals, they often are able to identify African American teachers and
administrators as being vital role models in their academic environment (Crawford &
Smith, 2005). Vicarious learning is one factor that can shape the self-efficacy of a
student. By having more African American staff, particularly African American
women, female students will have the opportunity to see an individual similar to them
that is successful and has overcome educational barriers due to racism and sexism.
Findings from this research study illustrated the impact of having African American
women in leadership positions, as well as how African American women at Dunlap
High School also serve as mentors to young African American girls. As stated by
student participants, academic success was an important factor in determining their
future success. By having more African American female staff members to serve as
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mentors at Dunlap, female students will also have the additional guidance needed that
they may not receive at home. According to Crawford and Smith, “The task of the
mentor is to afford the protégé with opportunities to learn and practice, and to reward
him or her so that acquired knowledge, performance, and motivation increase” (p. 64).
Cultural Competence Training
In addition to increasing African American female staff at Dunlap, the
researcher also recommends that all staff at Dunlap High receive cultural competence
and multicultural educational training. Cultural competence training will allow staff to
learn about educating diverse ethnic populations whose lifestyles, customs, and
educational learning styles are different from their own. At the time of the study, the
Dunlap High student population was predominantly African American and Latino, but
staff were primarily of Caucasian descent. One staff member interviewed suggested
that there was a need for staff to receive cultural competence training in order to learn
how to communicate with the students and their families. According to Beaulieu and
Denbo (2002), “To become more effective at meeting the learning needs of Africa
American students, educators must commit to becoming more culturally
knowledgeable and aware and specifically to gaining authentic knowledge of the
African American experience in America and the life experiences of their African
American students” (p. 50). The cultural competence training should cover topics
including but not limited to intercultural communication and culturally relevant
pedagogy.
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According to Liao (2001), intercultural communication “focuses on the study
of interactions between people of different cultures” (p. 5). Students of different
cultures may have a different perspective on their role as a participant in education, as
well as how to communicate effectively with the instructor and their peers.
Educational experiences differ from student to student, and factors such as race, class,
and gender play an important role in instructional practices and curriculum. In order
for a teacher to effectively communicate with a student from a different culture, the
instructor must evaluate the student’s community and culture, and provide the student
and family with a learning environment that is an extension of their home life. The
communication and learning styles of African Americans may differ from that of their
white counterparts. For example, in Fordham’s study of African American girls in
education, Fordham found that instructors saw the girls that were assertive and vocal
in the classroom as “loud” and “aggressive.” Becoming knowledgeable about the
communication style of different students will increase communication in the
classroom, thus making the learning environment less oppressive. According to Denbo
(2002a), “Specific teacher’s behaviors that demonstrate high expectations for students
can have a positive effect on classroom climate and student achievement” (p. 56).
In addition to training staff on intercultural communication, instructors should
also be trained on creating culturally relevant pedagogy. According to Ladson-Billings
(2001), culturally relevant pedagogy “describes an approach to teaching that promotes
academic and cultural success in settings where student alienation and hostility
characterize the school experience … the propositions on which this theory is based
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are academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical consciousness” (p.
78). Developing a culturally relevant pedagogy places student learning, cultural
identification, and students’ social awareness at the center of all classroom activities.
Though culturally relevant pedagogy is concerned with the success of students, it also
focused on the emotional, physical and mental well-being of students. Because of the
racism, academic setting, the additional support from school staff provides a caring
learning environment. By training instructors to use culturally relevant pedagogy in
the classroom, students are exposed to a less oppressive classroom. The
interchangeable roles of students and teachers emphasize the exchange of knowledge
between all participants in the classroom. Introducing material that is relevant to the
diverse population through the curriculum and literature would also create an
environment in which students can connect to what they are learning. By using course
material to connect the student’s community to school, African American female
students will view education as being tailored to them.
More Discourse Surrounding Race and Gender
When student participants and staff participants in this study were asked if
issues of race and gender were discussed at Dunlap, all participants conveyed that
classroom talk of race and gender was minimal unless a discussion occurred regarding
the achievement gap or a multicultural assembly. Student participants suggested that
there was a need for more activities that celebrate cultural diversity at Dunlap High.
Because of the rigorous standards of the American education system, which seeks to
produce academically successful students, students have few opportunities to engage
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in a curriculum in which they learn about race and gender. For example, most
concepts of race are discussed in multicultural assemblies or during designated months
such as Black History or Latin Heritage Months. Even during these times, students are
not exposed to in-depth information regarding social injustice and discrimination due
to race and gender. According to Nieto (2003), “teacher education programs for
example, need to be re-conceptualized to include awareness of the influence of culture
and language on the learning … and instructional and curricular strategies that
encourage learning among a wide variety of students” (p. 315). Commonly, school
administrators consider celebrating cultural holidays and learning about iconic cultural
figures as an effective means of educating students on different cultures. Nieto’s
approach to addressing culture in the classroom is centered on reconstruction of
curriculum in order to discuss issues not commonly discussed. Concepts of race and
gender can be introduced in social science courses, literacy, and history through
course material.
Increasing Parent Involvement
The significant role of parent involvement was also a major finding when
discussing factors that affect the academic achievement of African American students.
At least three student participants stated their parent’s level of involvement in school
was limited due to work schedule and time available. According to Bogenschneider
(1997), “Single parent families are less apt to interact with the school and the teacher,
but are interested in their children’s education and is likely to work with their
children” (p. 720). To increase parent involvement, schools must work with other
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networks that influence the student and parent participation in education. Methods of
increasing parent involvement can include working with extended family in the event
that the student’s parent cannot be present, as well as viewing the process of
increasing parent participation as an on-going process. In addition to having an
extended family member to represent parents during school sponsored events and
educational progress meetings, school staff can also designate new staff to be parent
advocates or liaisons. These individuals would only work part-time and would meet
with the parents outside of the school setting to update parents regarding their
children’s academic progress, as well as keep parents abreast of school events such as
college tours, academic testing dates and other important deadlines. Through
developing options for parents to connect with their child’s educational environment,
the parent will still feel involved, though he or she may not often be physically present
at the school. According to Witherspoon (2002), if parent meeting times are
inconvenient, one solution may be to “send home a brief questionnaire asking parents
to specify meeting times; provide multiple options for when parents can participate”
(p. 185). In addition to providing parents with a parent advocate and options of
meeting times, schools can also provide parents with information regarding ways to
participate outside of the educational setting. Some of the information provided can
include but not be limited to academic standards of the school and parent courses on
how to help students succeed academically. According to Witherspoon (2002),
“Teachers need to reach out and make the parent a partner…building such
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relationships and remembering that the common goal is the success of the child’s
education may require perseverance” (p. 190).
Limitations
Although this research study yielded many great findings, there were also
limitations the researcher experienced when collecting data and analyzing findings. As
to the research methods, the researcher was fully aware that some of the questions
regarding racial and gender discrimination, as well as class, would evoke some painful
memories for participants. The researcher was careful to stress to participants that
answering questions was optional, and they did not have to answer questions that
made them feel uncomfortable. By not forcing participants to answer questions that
made them feel uncomfortable, the researcher created an interview environment in
which participants were relaxed and open to answer questions as they deemed fit.
When asking participants questions regarding their educational experiences, the
researcher was also attempting to be objective and not ask leading questions nor
reflecting points of view regarding race, class, and gender in the learning environment.
In addition to seeking to be objective when interviewing participants, the researcher
sought not to allow her own biases and experiences with race, gender, and class
influence the responses of the participants. Prior to conducting the interview, as well
as at the conclusion of the interview, the female student participants were allowed to
ask the researcher questions regarding the nature of the research project and the role
they played as participants in the study. By having an open flow of communication
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with participants, the researcher attempted to achieve a higher level of comfort, as well
as build rapport with all of the student participants.
There were several limitations of this study which include the following: time
of academic year students were interviewed, limited access to school staff, the
demographic of student populations, and student participants being unfamiliar with
concepts presented in the interview questions.
First, participants were interviewed in mid-May during a time in which Dunlap
High was completing exit exams and STAR testing. . This time of the year for staff
was also busy because of exams as well as preparing academic reports for the end of
year. Interviewing only two staff members did not allow the researchers an
opportunity to get more staff feedback regarding the academic success of African
American female students.
Another limitation was the demographic of the student population. When
students were asked about racial discrimination in the academic environment, majority
of the student participants stated that they never experienced racial discrimination at
Dunlap High. The purported lack of experience with racism can be due to most of the
other students being African American as well. As stated in the findings, race was not
an issue to students because they were the majority in the academic setting. When the
researcher addressed issues of socioeconomic factors, student participants were
unfamiliar with what the concept entailed. The researcher attempted to define concepts
in the best way possible to help participants understand the questions they were being
asked. Unfamiliarity with the research concepts may have affected the participants
117
comfort with answering the question and may have been reluctant to answer some of
the interview and survey questions. The design of the qualitative questions also was a
limitation due to there being no questions regarding gender. This lead to limited
findings regarding gender. However, the written survey did provide questions
regarding gender bias in the classroom. Though there were no interview questions
regarding gender, participants addressed gender in their responses.
Recommendations for Further Study
While the purpose of this study was to examine how race, class, and gender
impact the academic achievement of African American female students, the researcher
realizes that the viewpoints of the participants are not representative of all African
American female students between the ages of 14-18. Further research on this topic
should also include bi-racial African American female students, as well as female
students that attend schools in which there is a small African American student
population. Once widening the demographic population of the students in the research
agenda, a comparative analysis should be incorporated in which researchers study
whether female students at a predominantly African American high school experience
less racism, sexism, and classism than African American female students at
predominantly white educational institutions.
In addition, due to gender not fully being treated by this study, further research
should be conducted regarding how African American female students deal with
gender in an academic setting. Previous research studies conducted by David and
Myra Sadker discussed gender bias in the classroom, but did not differentiate how race
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influences perception of gender bias in the classroom. Further research in regards to
African American female students and gender bias should include communication and
learning styles, male dominated student-teacher interaction, as well as preference for
male or female instructors.
Reflections
This research study grew out of the experience with racism, sexism, and
classism faced by the researcher. Because there is minimal literature on the
educational experience of adolescent African American female students, the
researcher felt that it was necessary to address issues of race, class, and gender in the
academic environment, and how these factors create a unique educational experience
for African American female students. The student participants that were interviewed
were highly efficacious and ambitious and will fare very well in the future. The staff
interviewed during this study also expressed high levels of commitment to helping the
student participants succeed academically. Education should provide students with the
opportunity to grow into adults that have the ability to critically think and evaluate the
world around them. By educators evaluating how race, class, and gender intersect and
impact the educational experiences of African American female students, they are
creating an educational environment, which fosters educational support and optimism
for this marginalized student population.
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APPENDIX A
Student Participant Consent Form
120
Student Participant Consent Form
My name is Shanell Brumfield. I am a graduate student at California State University,
Sacramento. I would like to invite you to take part in my research, which will focus on
community factors that enable or disable the academic achievement of African
American female students. I am interested in your experience as a student at
Sacramento High School, as well as your interaction with parents and faculty as
relates to your academic progress. My questions will pertain to the nature of how
socioeconomic (race, class, and gender) factors shape the educational experience of
African American female students.
For two days, I would like to hold one individual interview with you and other African
American female students. If you agree to take part in my research, I will collect
information in several ways.
1) I will ask you questions about how you feel about learning in your school. For
example, I will ask you about your educational goals, interactions with your
peers and teachers, as well as factors within your community that shape your
educational experience. Each interview should last about 30-45 minutes and
will be in private. With your permission, I will audiotape the interview.
2) I will also be conducting private interviews with your student advocate. I will
mostly be discussing his/her experiences as a student advocate.
I will not discuss anything that you tell me in our private meetings with anyone from
the school or outside the school. This privacy also includes information I get about
your schoolwork or grades. I will keep all of our conversations completely private.
121
There are no known risks to you from participating in this research. There is no clear
benefit to you from the research, though I do hope you would benefit from the
opportunity to reflect on your experiences as a Sacramento High School student. I
hope that the research will benefit society by showing how African American female
students perceive their educational environment as well as academic success.
All the information that I get from you during the research will be kept private. I will
store each tape recording and my notes about it in a locked cabinet. I will use a code
number to identify your tape and my notes about it, and I will keep your name and
code number in a separate file. I will not use your name or identifying information in
any reports of my research. I will not reveal what you say during our conversation
to your parents, teachers or principal.
After this research is completed, I may save the tapes and my notes for use in future
research by others or myself. However, the same confidentiality guarantees given here
will apply to future storage and use of the materials.
Your participation in this research is voluntary. You are free to refuse to take part, and
you may refuse to answer any questions or may stop taking part at anytime. Whether
or not you participate will have no influence on your standing or grades in your class
or at school.
If you have any questions about the research, you may call me, Shanell Brumfield, at
(916) 847-3546. If you agree to take part in the research, please sign the form
attached. I will provide you with a copy of this agreement for your future reference.
122
• I have read this consent form and agree to take part in the research.
______________________________________ Date ___________
Student’s Signature
• I agree to the audio taping of interviews with me.
______________________________________ Date ___________
Student’s Signature
• I have read this consent form and agree to have my child take part in the research.
______________________________________ Date ___________
Parent's signature
123
APPENDIX B
School Staff Participants Consent Form
124
School Staff Participants Consent Form
My name is Shanell Brumfield. I am a graduate student at California State
University, Sacramento. I would like to invite you to take part in my research, which
will focus on factors that enable or disable the academic achievement of African
American female students. I am interested in your experience as a student advocate at
Sacramento High School, as well as your interaction with attending students. My
questions will pertain to the nature of how socioeconomic factors shape the
educational experience of African American female students.
If you agree to take part in my research, I will conduct one interview with you
during the school year at the time and location of your choice. The interview will
involve questions about your interactions with student’s parents and school staff,
including both the challenges and the opportunities in creating a positive educational
environment for Sacramento High School students. The interview should last about
30-45 minutes. With your permission, I will audiotape the interview.
All of the information that I obtain from you during the research will be kept
confidential. I will store the tape recording and notes about it in a locked cabinet in my
home. I will use a code number to identify your tape and my notes about it, and I will
keep your name and code number in a file separate from the other material. I will not
use your name or other identifying information in any reports of the research without
your additional consent on this form.
I will primarily be interviewing and observing African American female
students. I will also seek to interview Sacramento High School principal regarding
various experiences working with this particular population, again asking how they
perceive community factors that enable or disable the academic achievement of
African American female students. All of these interviews will be confidential.
125
The fact that I am conducting research and that you, the students, and the
principal, will be openly known to the school community. I will not discuss the
information I receive from any participant with any other participant or nonparticipant at the site; and any discussions off site will not refer to the school in any
identifiable way.
There are no foreseeable risks to you from participating in this research. There
is no direct benefit to you, though I hope you will benefit indirectly from the
opportunity to reflect on your work. Ultimately, we hope that the research will benefit
society by gaining a better understanding of the academic experience of African
American female high school students. There will be no costs to you, other than your
time involved.
After this research is completed, I may save the tape and my notes for use in
future research by others, or myself with your permission. However, the same
confidentiality guarantees given here will apply to future storage and use of the
materials.
Your participation in this research is voluntary. You are free to refuse to take
part. You may refuse to answer any questions and may stop taking part in the study at
any time. Whether or not you participate in this research will have no bearing on your
standing in your class/school/job. If you have any questions about the research, you
may call me, Shanell Brumfield, at (916) 847-3546. If you agree to take part in the
research, please sign the form attached. I will provide you with a copy of this
agreement for your future reference.
126
I have read this consent form and agree to take part in this research.
___________________________ Date____________ Phone number____________
Signature
I agree to the audio taping of interviews with me.
_________________________________ Date ___________
Signature
127
APPENDIX C
Student Survey
128
STUDENT SURVEY
Name :
Date :
Ethnicity: ______________________________________________
Age: _________
Please answer the following questions to the best of your ability:
Grade level:
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Highest Education Level Attained by Parent:
Mother: H.S. Diploma
Some College
Masters Degree (MA)
Ph.D.
Undergrad Degree (BA)
Father: H.S. Diploma
Masters Degree (MA)
Undergrad Degree (BA)
Some College
Ph.D.
How many siblings currently live with you:
0-2
3-5
5+
Senior
129
130
131
APPENDIX D
Student Interview Questions
132
Student Interview Questions
1. Why do you feel achieving academically is important for students at Sacramento High
School?
2. What are some factors that you feel may hinder you from achieving academically?
3. Do you have peers that are supportive of you achieving academically? Are these peers
also African American?
4. Do peers who are the same race as yourself call you names (such as nerd, “acting
white,” stupid) because you succeed or do not succeed academically?
5. Are there behaviors you feel you have had to change (or need to change) in order to be
accepted by peers? Great question
6. As an African American student, do you feel that you have to work harder to succeed
academically than students of another race? Please explain.
7. How do you think factors such as the school environment, peer relations, the home,
and community affect your own academic achievement? Please explain.
8. Do you have outside support (family, community)/resources that you can utilize to
help aide you with your schoolwork? Please explain how you utilize these resources.
9. What do you think are some factors that help you do well in school? Please explain
10. Are your parents typically involved in your educational process? If so, in what ways?
Please explain.
11. What are factors that hinder your parent(s) from being more involved in your
education? Please explain.
12. From your experience as a student at Sacramento High School, you interact with staff
members on a daily basis. What are some of the concerns you have as a student
regarding your academic progress and future? How are these concerns addressed by
your counselor and/or teacher? Please explain.
13. To what extent does Sacramento High School have strong relationships with
organizations that serve your community? Please explain.
14. Do you feel that the staff at Sacramento High School is reflective of the diverse ethnic
population at Sacramento High School? Please explain.
15. Have you learned about concepts of race and gender within any of your classes,
cultural assemblies or clubs at Sacramento High School? Please explain.
16. Do you feel that Sacramento High addresses issues of race and gender equality as it
relates to academic achievement?
17. How do you feel Sacramento High School can help aid in your academic success?
Please explain.
133
APPENDIX E
Staff Interview Questions
134
Staff Interview Questions
1. Why do you feel achieving academically is important for students at
Sacramento High School?
2. What practices/procedures are taken when a student is identified as not
succeeding academically?
3. How do you think factors such as the school environment, peer relations, the
home, and community affect the academic achievement of African American
students? Please explain.
4. What do you think are some factors that help African American female
students do well in school?
5. How are relationships developed between the parents/caregivers of students
attending Sacramento High School and the staff at Sacramento high School?
6. What types of communication are utilized in order to convey information to
parents at Sacramento High regarding their child’s academic progress? How
often does this communication occur between staff and parents?
7. Are parents of African American females students typically involved in their
child’s educational process? Please explain.
8. What are factors that hinder parents from being more involved in their child’s
education? Please explain.
9. From your experience as a staff member at Sacramento High School, you
interact with students on a daily basis. What are some of the concerns that
African American female students express regarding their academic progress
and future? How are these concerns addressed?
10. To what extent does Sacramento High School have strong relationships with
organizations that serve the community of African American female students
and that will aide in the students achieving academically? Please explain.
11. Do you feel that race affects the academic achievement of African American
female students? Please explain.
12. Do you feel that the staff at Sacramento High School is reflective of the
diverse ethnic population at Sacramento High School? Please explain.
13. Have you received training regarding cultural competence and gender equity
within the classroom? If so, what concepts did the training consist of? Please
explain.
14. How do you feel that Sacramento High address issues of race and gender
equality as it relates to academic achievement?
15. How do you feel Sacramento High School can help aid in the success of
African American female students?
135
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