Biology 160, Autumn 2008
FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Compiled by Jess Wakefield
Edited by Colleen Sheridan
Chapter 2: Essential Chemistry for Biology
Key terms:
Matter
Elements
Atomic number
Mass number
Trace elements
Compounds
Atom
Electron
Neutron
Isotopes
Radioactive isotopes
Temperature
Solution
Acid
Chemical bonds
Ions
Ionic bonds
Covalent bonds
Hydrogen bonds
Polar molecule
Chemical reactions
Reactants
Products
Heat
Base
Buffer
Solute
Questions:
1) What 4 elements are most abundant in living matter?
2) Why is H2O classified as a compound when O2 is not?
3) A nitrogen atom has 7 protons, and the most common isotope of nitrogen has
7 neutrons. A radioactive isotope of nitrogen has 9 neutrons. What are the
atomic numbers and mass numbers of the stable and radioactive forms of
nitrogen?
4) Why are radioactive isotopes useful as tracers in research on the chemistry of
life?
5) What holds together the ions in crystal of table salt (NaCl)
6) What is chemically nonsensical about the structure (H-C=C-H)
7) Explain why you can fill a glass of water slightly above the rim.
8) Which of the following elements is least abundant in your body? Carbon,
Oxygen, Phosphorus, Iron.
9) Which of the following are compounds? MgCl2, H2, Fe, C2H6
10) A chemical compound is to an _____________, as a body organ is to a tissue.
11) An atom can be changed into an ion by adding or removing ______________.
An atom can be changed into a different isotope by adding or removing an
_____________. But if you change the number of ____________, the atom
becomes a different element.
12) The lower the pH of a solution the more ______________ the solution becomes.
13) Why water is considered a polar molecule?
14) A single carbon atom can form a maximum of _______ covalent bonds?
15) An atom with a positive charge has ________.
a) More protons than neutrons
b) More neutrons than protons
c) More electrons than protons
d) More protons than electrons
16) Explain the difference between ionic and covalent bonds.
Chapter 3: Molecules of Life
Key terms:
Organic compounds
Hydrocarbons
Functional groups
Macromolecules
Polymers
Monomers
Dehydration reaction
Hydrolysis
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide
Isomers
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide
Cellulose
Glycogen
Starch
Hydrophilic
Lipids
Hydrophobic
Unsaturated
Saturated
Atherosclerosis
Triglyceride
Hydrogenation
Trans fat
Steroids
Proteins
Structural proteins
Storage proteins
Contractile proteins
Transport proteins
Enzymes
Amino acid
Peptide bond
Polypeptide
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
Denaturation
Nucleic acid
DNA
RNA
Nucleotides
G, A, T, C, and U
Structure of DNA
- sugar-phosphate backbone
- nitrogenous base
Double helix
Complementary base-pairing
Questions:
1) What is the given name for the following reaction?
Galactose + glucose → lactose + water
2) Proteins are polymers constructed from ______________ monomers.
3) Saturated fats are saturated with what?
4) DNA nucleotides include?
5) Animals store carbohydrates as? Plants? What is cellulose?
6) Name 3 differences, and 3 similarities of DNA and RNA.
7) If one strand of DNA double helix is ATCGGCAATTGC, What is the
sequence to the second strand?
8) Humans and other animals cannot digest wood because?
9) Most proteins can easily dissolve in water. Knowing that, where within
the overall three-dimensional shape of a protein would you most likely
find hydrophobic amino acids?
10) What could be the effects of changing one amino acid within a protein
chain?
Chapter 4: Tour of the Cell
Key Terms:
Light microscope
Cell theory
Electron microscope
Scanning electron microscope
Transmission electron
microscope
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
Plasma membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Phospholipids
Phospholipid bilayer
Fluid mosaic
Extracellular matrix
Cell junctions
Gene
Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Chromosome
Nucleolus
Ribosomes
mRNA
Endomembrane system
Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Central vacuole
Chloroplasts
Stroma
Grana
Mitochondria
Cristae
Cytoskeleton
Mircotubules
Flagella
Cilia
Questions:
1) List the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. ( drawings may help) (yes!!!!)
2) Name three structures in plant cells which animal cells lack.
3) Why do phospholipids tend to organize into a bilayer in aqueous solutions?
4) What polysaccharide is the primary component of plant cell walls?
5) What is the relationship between chromosomes and chromatin?
6) What is the function of ribosomes?
7) What is the role of mRNA in making protein?
8) What makes rough ER rough?
9) What is the relationship between the Golgi apparatus and the ER in a
protein secreting cell?
10) What does photosynthesis accomplish?
11) What is cellular respiration?
12) Compare and contrast Cilia and Flagella.
13) The two basic types of cells are?
14) The endomembrane system includes?
15) ___________ code for the structure of proteins.
16) If a cell’s lysosomes burst the cell would _______________.
17) What characteristic of mitochondria suggests that they might have
evolved from free living bacteria?
18) Prokaryotic cells are characteristic of the domains _____________ and
______________.
19) List the functions of the following organelles.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Microtubules
Chloroplasts
Lysosomes
20) Place the following organelles in the order that represents the flow of
genetic information from DNA through the cell.
Golgi, Nuclear pores, Ribosomes, Nucleus, rough ER.
Chapter 5: The Working Cell
Key Terms:
Energy
Kinetic energy
Conservation of energy
Potential energy
Heat
Chemical energy
Calorie
ATP
ADP
ATP cycle
Enzymes
Activation energy
Substrate
Active site
Induced fit
Enzyme inhibitors
Transport proteins
Passive transport
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Hypertonic
Hypotonic
Lysing
Flaccid (wilts)
Turgid
Osmoregulation
Plasmolysis
Active transport
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Signal transduction pathway
Questions:
1) Describe the energy transformations that occur when you climb to the top of a
hill.
2) Which form of energy is most difficult to put to work?
3) Illustrate the ATP cycle. (simple)
4) What affect does an enzyme have on the activation energy of a chemical
reaction?
5) What is the usual energy source for active transport?
6) What is the primary difference between passive and active transport?
7) Why does removing a phosphate group from the triphosphate tail in a
molecule of ATP release energy?
8) Explain how an inhibitor can disrupt the action of an enzyme even though it
does not bind to the enzymes active site.
9) A ____________________ is a process that links the reception of a cell signal to
a response within the cell.
10) Give examples of the following transport.
a) Passive
b) Active
Chapter 6: Cellular Respiration
Key terms:
Photosynthesis
Autotrophs
Heterotrophs
Producers
Comsumers
Cellular respiration
Redox reactions
Oxidation
Reduction
NAD+
NADH
Electron transport chain
Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle
ATP synthase
Fermentation
Questions:
1) Although they are self-feeders, photosynthetic autotrophs are not totally selfsufficient. What chemical ingredients do they require in order to synthesize
sugar?
2) What is misleading about the following statement? “plants perform
photosynthesis, whereas animals perform cellular respiration.”
3) How is breathing related to your cellular respiration?
4) What is the potential energy source that drives ATP production by ATP
synthase?
5) Of the three stages of cellular respiration, which occurs in the cytosol, outside
mitochondria?
6) How many molecules of ATP are generated per molecule of glucose during
fermentation? How many can be generated during cellular respiration?
7) Of the three stages of cellular respiration, which produces the most ATP
molecules per glucose?
8) In glycolysis, _____________ is oxidized and ______________ is reduced.
9) The energy released from glucose by the process of cellular respiration is in
the form of ________________________.
10) The final electron acceptor of aerobic respiration is _______________________.
11) What is the correct sequence of the stages in cellular respiration?
12) What must pyruvic acid be converted to before it can enter the citric acid
cycle?
13) In cellular respiration most ATP is produced directly as a result of _________.
14) What metabolic pathway is common to both aerobic and anaerobic processes
of sugar breakdown?
15) Illustrate the metabolic pathway of cellular respiration.
Chapter 7: Photosynthesis, Using light to make Food
Key Terms:
Chloroplasts
Stomata
Stroma
Thylakoids
Grana
Light reactions
Calvin cycle
Wavelength
Electromagnetic spectrum
Chlorophyll a
Photon
Photosystem
Primary electron acceptor
NADP+
NADPH
C3 plants
C4 plants
CAM plants
Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gasses
Questions:
1) For chloroplasts to produce sugar from carbon dioxide in the dark they would
require an artificial supply of the molecules ___________ and _______________.
2) What are the primary inputs and outputs of the Calvin cycle?
3) Why are leaves green? What causes the color change in the fall?
4) Why is water required as a reactant in photosynthesis?
5) What is the function on NADPH in the Calvin cycle?
6) Where do plants get the carbon they need to grow?
7) Draw a photosynthesis roadmap for studying.
Chapter 8: Cellular Reproduction, cells from cells.
Key terms:
Chromosomes
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Chromatin
Histones
Nucleosome
Sister chromatids
Centromere
Interphase
Cell cycle
G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase
Mitotic phase
Mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Mitotic spindle
Cleavage furrow
Cell cycle control system
Benign tumor
Malignant tumor
Metastasis
Cancer
Carcinomas
Sarcomas
Leukemias
Lymphomas
Radiation therapy
Chemotherapy
Somatic cell
Karyotype
Homologous chromosomes
Sex chromosomes X, Y
Autosomes
Diploid
Haploid
Gametes
Zygote
Meiosis
Tetrads
Crossing over
Chiasma
Nondisjunction
Genetic recombination
Trisomy 21
Down syndrome
Questions:
1) List three things that happen during meiosis that do not happen during
mitosis.
2) What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle?
3) Most genes come in alternative forms called _______________________.
4) Mitosis starts with one diploid cell and results in two daughter
____________ cells, while meiosis starts with one diploid cell and results in
four __________________ cells.
5) Cancer is caused by the abnormal regulation of the __________________.
6) Draw out the cell cycle.
7) Draw out the Human life cycle
8) Illustrate the phases of mitosis.
9) Illustrate the phases of meiosis.
Chapter 9: Patterns of Inheritance
Key Terms:
Self-fertilize
Cross-fertilization
True-breeding
Hybrids
Genetic cross
P generation
F1 generation
F2 generation
Monohybrid cross
Alleles
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Dominant allele
Recessive allele
Law of segregation
Punnett square
Phenotype
Genotype
Loci
Dihybrid cross
Law of independent assortment
Test cross
Rule of multiplication
Wild-type traits
Pedigree
Inbreeding
Incomplete dominance
Codominance
Pleiotropy
Polygenic inheritance
Chromosome theory of inheritance
Recombination frequency
Linkage map
Sex-linked gene
Carrier –a heterozygous individual
Questions:
1) What is meant by “self-fertilizing” of a plant?
2) How can two plants that have different genotypes for flower color be identical
in phenotype?
3) What is a wild type trait?
4) Why is a testcross unnecessary to determine whether a snapdragon with red
flowers is heterozygous or homozygous?
5) What are linked genes?
6) In guinea pigs black coat (B) is dominant over white coat (b). In a cross
between two black coated guinea pigs, the following progeny were obtained:
8 black coated guinea pigs
3 white coated guinea pigs
From these data, determine the genotypes of the parents of the guinea pigs
produced from this cross.
7) In tomato plants, tall plant alleles (D) are dominant over dwarf plant alleles
(d), and red fruited alleles (Y) are dominant over yellow fruited alleles (y). A
homozygous tall, red-fruited plant is crossed with a homozygous dwarf,
yellow-fruited plant.
What are the potential types and proportions of offspring from this
cross?
What is the outcome if two plants from the F1 generation are crossed?
8) How would you determine the genotype of a tall, red-fruited tomato plant?
What would be the results of the test-cross if the tall, red-fruited plant was:
homozygous for both genes?
heterozygous for only height?
heterozygous for only fruit color?
heterozygous for both genes?
9) Dave is color blind. Color blindness is sex-linked and the allele which is
responsible for this driving menace is recessive to the allele for normal color
vision. Judith, Dave’s wife, has normal vision. Dave and Judith had twelve
offspring, all of which had normal vision. Their children were equally
distributed as to sex. What is Judith’s most likely genotype? Could she be a
carrier? Why or why not?
Chapter 10: the Structure and Function of DNA
Key Terms:
Nucleotides
Polynucleotides
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
DNA polymerases
Complementary
base-pairing
Template
Transcription
Translation
Genetic code
Codons
TATA box
RNA polymerase
RNA elongation
Messenger RNA
Cap and Tail
Introns
Exons
RNA splicing
Transfer RNA
Anticodon
Ribosomal RNA
Stop codon
Mutations
Silent
Missense
Nonsense
Insertion and
deletion
Reading frame
Mutagens
Bacteriophages
Virus
Influenza virus
HIV
Retrovirus
Reverse
transcriptase
Questions:
1) How does complementary base pairing make the replication of DNA possible?
2) What is the function of DNA polymerase in DNA replication?
3) What are transcription and translation?
4) How many nucleotides are necessary to code for a polypeptide that is 100
amino acids long?
5) How does RNA polymerase know where to start transcribing a gene?
6) What is the function of the ribosome in protein synthesis?
7) Once polypeptide synthesis starts, what are the three main steps by which it
grows?
8) What would happen if a mutation changed a start codon to another codon?
9) What happens when one nucleotide is lost from the middle of a gene?
10) Describe one way some viruses can perpetuate their genes without
destroying the cells they infect.
11) What are three ways that a virus gets into a plant?
12) Why is HIV called a retrovirus?
13) Describe the process by which the information in a gene is transcribed and
translated into a protein.
14) Illustrate a summary of transcription through termination.
Chapter 12: DNA Technology
Key Terms:
Recombinant DNA Technology
Biotechnology
GMO’s
Vaccine
Plasmids
Restriction enzymes
DNA ligase
Restriction fragments
DNA fingerprinting
Polymerase chain reaction
Genetic marker
Repetitive DNA
Short tandem repeats
Gel electrophoresis
Human Genome Project
Proteomics
Human gene therapy
Questions:
1) What is recombinant DNA technology?
2) Corn that carries a bacterial gene is an example of a ________________
organism.
3) Why are plasmids valuable tools for producing recombinant DNA?
4) Why is only the slightest trace of DNA at a crime scene often sufficient for
forensic analysis?
5) What are STRs, and why are they useful for DNA fingerprinting?
6) Name three types of DNA that do not code for another molecule
7) What is the difference between genomics and proteomics?
8) Why are bone marrow stem cells ideally suited as targets for gene therapy?
9) How can viruses be used in gene therapy to treat human disorders?
10) How many fragments are produced when a linear piece of DNA containing 3
EcoRI restriction sites is digested with EcoRI? Draw a diagram.
Chapter 13: How Populations Evolve
Key terms:
Natural selection
Evolutionary adaption
Evolution
Fossils
Gradualism
Fossil record
Biogeography
Comparative anatomy
Comparative
Embryology
Homology
Molecular biology
Modern synthesis
Population
Population genetics
Polymorphic
Gene pool
Hardy-Weinberg
formula
Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium
Microevolution
Genetic drift
Bottleneck effect
Founder effect
Gene flow
Mutations
Directional selection
Disruptive selection
Stabilizing selection
Questions:
1) What is gradualism? How did Darwin apply that idea to the evolution of life?
2) What are the two main points in Darwin’s The Origin of Species?
3) What is homology?
4) Define Natural Selection and give an example.
5) What is the smallest biological unit that can evolve?
6) Define microevolution.
7) Compare and contrast the bottleneck effect and the founder effect as causes
of genetic drift.
8) What is the best measure of Darwinian fitness?
9) What environmental factor accounts for the relatively high frequency of the
sickle-cell allele in tropical Africa?
10) Why might new diseases pose a greater threat to cheetah populations than to
mammalian populations having more genetic variation?
Chapter 14: How Biological Diversity Evolves
Key Terms:
Macroevolution
Speciation
Species
Prezygotic
Postzygotic
Allopatric
speciation
Sympatric
speciation
Punctuated
equilibrium
Exaptation
Geological time
scale
Radiometric dating
Taxonomy
Binomial
Species
Genus
Family
Orders
Classes
Phyla
Kingdoms
Domains
“Dumb Kids Play
Chess on Fat Guys’
Stomachs”
Phylogeny
Phylogenetic tree
Convergent
evolution
Three domain
system
Cladistics
Questions:
1) Contrast micro and macro evolution.
2) What is speciation?
3) How does the punctuated equilibrium model account for the relative rarity of
transitional fossils linking newer species to older ones?
4) Explain why the concept of exaptation does not imply that a structure evolves
in anticipation of some future environmental change.
5) In the three domain system, which two domains contain prokaryotic
organisms?
Chapter 15: the Evolution of Microbial Life
Key Terms:
Spontaneous
generation
Biogenesis
Ribozymes
Bacteria
Archaea
Cocci
Bacilli
Spirochetes
Endospores
Photoautotrophs
Chemoautotrophs
Photoheterotrophs
Chemoheterotrophs
Pathogens
Exotoxins
Endotoxins
Bioremediation
Protists
Symbiosis
Endosymbiosis
Protozoans
Flagellates
Amoebas
Pseudopodia
Forams
Apicomplexans
Ciliates
Plasmodial slime
molds
Cellular slime
molds
Algae
Plankton
Dinoflagellates
Diatoms
Seaweeds
Questions:
1) What is a ribozyme?
2) Why are some archaea referred to as extremophiles?
3) How do bacteria help restore the atmospheric CO2 required by plants for
photosynthesis?
4) Which organelles of eukaryotic cells probably descended from endosymbiotic
bacteria?
5) Why are protists especially important to biologists investigating the
evolution of eukaryotic life?
6) What three modes of locomotion occur among protozoans?
7) What metabolic process mainly distinguishes algae from protozoans?
8) To what nutritional classification do you belong?
9) Contrast exotoxins with endotoxins.
10) Give an example of bacteria, archaea, and protists
Chapter 16: Plants, Fungi, and the Move onto Land
Key terms:
Roots
Shoots
Mycorrhizae
Stomata
Cuticle
Lignin
Vascular tissue
Xylem
Phloem
Gametangia
Bryophytes
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
Mosses
Gametophyte
Sporophyte
Spores
Alternation of generations
Fossil fuels
Ferns
Conifers
Pollen
Seed
Ovules
Germinate
Flower
Sepals
Petals
Stamen
Filament
Anther
Carpel
Style
Stigma
Ovary
Fungi
Absorption
Hyphae
Mycelium
Questions:
1) Name some adaptations of plants for living on land
2) What mode of nutrition is used by both plants and algae?
3) What structures are common in all four major plant groups?
4) What is a fruit?
5) Contrast the mode of sperm delivery in ferns with sperm delivery in conifers.
6) What are the four main types of organs of a flower?
7) What are mycorrhizae?
8) Contrast the heterotrophic nutrition of a fungus with your own heterotrophic
nutrition.
9) You discover a new species of plant. Under a microscope, you find that it
produces flagellated sperm. A genetic analysis shows that its dominant
generation has diploid cells. What kind of plant do you have?
Chapter 17: Evolution of Animals
Key terms:
Animals
Ingestion
Blastula
Larva
Metamorphosis
Radial symmetry
Bilateral symmetry
Body cavity
Invertebrates
Sponges
Cnidarians
Gastrovascular cavity
Polyp
Medusa
Flatworms
Roundworms
Complete digestive
tract
Annelids
Segmentation
Arthropods
Exoskeleton
Molting
Arachnids
Crustaceans
Millipedes
Centipedes
Insects
Entomology
Molluscs
Radula
Gastropods
Bivalves
Cephalopods
Echinoderms
Endoskeleton
Water vascular system
Chordates
Vertebrates
Cartilaginous fish
Lateral line system
Bony fishes
Operculum
Amphibians
Tetrapods
Amniotes
Amniotic egg
Reptiles
Ectotherms
Endotherms
Mammals
Monotremes
Marsupials
Eutherians
Primates
Anthropoids
Hominoids
Questions:
1) What mode of nutrition distinguishes animals from fungi, both of which are
heterotrophs?
2) Why is animal evolution during the early Cambrian referred to as an
“explosion”?
3) A round pizza displays __________ symmetry, while a fork displays
_____________ symmetry.
4) How does the digestive tract of a jelly differ from that of a roundworm?
5) In what fundamental way does the structure of a sponge differ from that of
all other animals?
6) A sea anemone is a member of the phylum ___________ while a blood fluke is
a member of the phylum _____________.
7) Which major arthropod group is mainly aquatic?
8) Be able to compare and contrast each animal phylum.
9) Know three characteristics and an example of each animal phylum.
10) What is an amniotic egg?
11) What are two main hallmarks of mammals?
12) To which group of mammals do we belong? To which subgroup do we belong?
13) Humans first evolved on which continent?
14) Is it possible that a Homo sapiens individual ever met a Neanderthal?
15) Did humans evolve directly from chimpanzees?
16) Is human phylogeny more like a multibranched bush or a ladder?
17) Which evolved first – bipedalism or big brains?
Chapter 19 and Owl Pellet lab: Ecology
Key Terms:
Ecology
Trophic levels
Food chain
Primary Producers
Autotroph
Primary productivity
Consumers (Heterotrophs)
Primary consumers (herbivores)
Secondary consumers (carnivores)
Tertiary consumers (carnivores)
Quarternary consumers (top
carnivores)
Decomposers (dentrivores)
Food webs
Energy pyramid
Ecological efficiency
Ecosystem
Community
Population
Dominant species
Keystone species
Foundation species
Biotic potential
Carrying capacity
Environmental resistance
Mutualism
Parasitism
Questions:
1) An aquarium population of guppies has reached a stable population size. We
decide to add twice as much guppy food per day to the aquarium, but this
turns out to have no effect on population size. What is the most likely
explanation for this observation?
2) A community’s feeding relationships of producers and consumers is referred
to as the community’s ___________ structure.
3) Name a few ways in which species can interact within a community.
4) I’m eating a cheese pizza. At which trophic level(s) am I feeding?
5) In the “who eats whom” dynamics of a food web, even consumers of of the
highest level in the ecosystem eventually become food for _____________.
6) In a shrubland ecosystem, which is likely to have the greatest total biomass:
the sum of all insects or the sum of all birds that feed on the insects?
7) Why is a pound of bacon so much more expensive than a pound of corn?
8) How can a keystone predator help maintain species diversity within a
community?
9) Understand some examples of food chains (see Fig 19.21) and the difference
between food chains and food webs. Draw these out to study.
10) According to the energy pyramid model, why is eating grain-fed beef a
relatively inefficient means of obtaining the energy trapped by
photosynthesis?