SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE
ENLIGHTENMENT, &
ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM
Chapter 18
I. Scientific Revolution
16th & 17th centuries
A. New world view
B. Causes of the Scientific Revolution:
1) Contributions of medieval
intellectual life & universities
2) Recovery of classical text during the
Renaissance
3) Challenges of navigation in over sea
voyages
4) Improvements in scientific
instruments (ie. telescope)
C. Nicolaus Copernicus
(1473-1543)
1. Heliocentric view – Sun
centered universe
a. geocentric view: Aristotle
& Ptolemy
2. Religious reaction
3. On the Revolutions of
Heavenly Spheres
(1543)
Illustration
published
in On the
Revolutions
of Heavenly
Spheres
D. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
1. Built best observatory in
Europe
2. Collected data
that Kepler
would use
E. Johann Kepler (1571-1630)
1. Assistant to Brahe
2. First great Protestant scientist
3. Mathematically proved
heliocentric universe
4. 3 laws of planetary
motion:
1) elliptical orbits
2) no uniform speed of planets
3) time of orbit related to
distance from the sun
Kepler’s Model of the Universe
Kepler’s
“Edifice” of
Astronomy
F. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
1. Laws of motion using
experimental method.
a. acceleration
b. inertia
2. Telescope
3. Validated Copernicus’
heliocentric theory
4. Inquisition of Pope Urban VIII
G. William Harvey (1578-1657)
On the Circulation of Blood
(1628)
H. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
1. Empiricism - emphasizes
evidence, especially as
discovered in experiments
2. Inductive method - kind of
reasoning that constructs or
evaluates general propositions
that are derived from specific
examples (opposite of
deductive reasoning)
I. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
1. Discourse on Method:
deductive reasoning
2.“cognito ergo sum”:
“I think, therefore I am”
3. Cartesian Dualism
a. reduced all substances to
“matter” and “mind”
(physical & spiritual)
Scientific Methodology
Uses both inductive & deductive
reasoning
J. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
1. Principia: Integrated
astronomy of Copernicus and
Kepler with physics of Galileo.
2. Universal
gravitation
3. Ideas became
basis of deism
during
Enlightenment
K. Relationship b/w science and religion
1. No attempt to secularize science in
17th & 18th centuries
a. Creation of universe still seen as
supernatural
2. Counter Reformation in Italy stunted
science there (e.g. Galileo)
3. Protestant countries and France not
moved ahead scientifically
L. Scientific Societies: Royal Society,
1662
M. Consequences of the Scientific
Revolution
1. Rise of International scientific
community
2. Introduction of new knowledge
3. Improvements in exploration
4. Experimentation led to the Agricultural
Revolution
5. Led to the Enlightenment
6. Few changes in economic life and
living standards for the common
person
II. The Enlightenment: Secular world view
A. Three central concepts:
1. natural science and reason
a. Man’s intellect apart from God
2. Social Science
a. scientific method capable of
discovering laws of human
society
3. Progress
a. humans are capable of creating
better societies and people
B. Philosophes - reformers
1. Bernard de
Fontenelle
(1657-1757)
a. Conversions on the
Plurality of Worlds
(1686)
helped to make science
more understandable to
a broader audience =
increased popularity of
science
2. Pierre Bayle
(1647-1706)
a. Historical & Critical
Dictionary (1697)
human beliefs had been
extremely varied & often
mistaken
Skepticism –
nothing could be known
beyond all doubt
3. John Locke (1632-1704)
a. Two Treatises on Civil Government
a. state of nature
b. consent of governed
c. social contract
d. natural rights
b. Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (1690)
Quinn
Rules
a. Pioneered empiricist approach
to knowledge
b. tabula rasa - the mind is a
blank tablet, human
development is determined
by education & social
institutions
4. Baron de Montesqueiu (1689-1755)
a. Spirit of the Laws (1748)
1) separation of powers
2) checks and balances
3) Impact on future constitutions
b. Persian Letters(1721)
used wit to combat cruelty &
superstition
5. Voltaire(Francois-Marie Arouet)
(1694-1778)
a. Deist
b. Genius for social criticism
Ecrasez l’infame
“Crush the infamous thing”
c. The Candide (1759)
d. Enlightened despotism –
you could only hope for a
good & fair monarch
6. Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
& Jean le Rond d’Alembert
a. Encyclopedia
1. glorified science & industrial arts
2. questioned religion & immorality
3. criticized intolerance, injustice, and
out-of-date institutions
4. showed that human beings could use
the process of reasoning to expand
human knowledge
C. Women & the Enlightenment
1. Madame de Chatelet 2. Madame de Geoffren
a. translated Principia
a. Salon: gathering of
b. criticized the
French elites to
discrimination of
discuss enlightened
women
theories
b. Rococo Style
D. Later Enlightenment
1. After 1750 became more skeptical.
2. Last 30 years of 18th c. revolutionary,
radical, and aggressively dogmatic
3. David Hume - skepticism
4. Paul d’Holbach – System of Nature
* mechanism & atheism
5. Jean de Condorcet – Progress of
the Human Mind
* 9 stages of human development
6. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
a. Considered part of Enlightenment
* founder of Romantic movement
b. state of nature: man a “noble savage”
c. Social Contract (1762)
 General Will
d. Emile (1762) - education
III. Enlightened Despotism
A. Philosophes believed enlightened
monarchs could initiate reform
s
1. Benevolent absolutism could lead to
progress.
2. People not capable of ruling
themselves.
3. Results of enlightened despotism:
a. Religious toleration
b. Simplified legal codes
c. Promotion of practical
education
d. diminished use of torture
4. Continued military expansion
and state-building
B. “Catherine the Great” of Russia
(r. 1762-1798)
1. Conspired against husband Peter III
to gain the throne.
2. One of greatest rulers in European
history
3. Imported western culture
Gregory Orlav
4. Domestic reforms
a.
Restricted practice of torture
b. Allowed limited religious toleration.
c. Tried to improve education
d. Strengthened local gov’t.
5. Pugachev Rebellion (1773): True Tsar
serf uprising
C. Partitions of Poland: 1772, 1793, 1795
1. Poland: weak decentralized republic
with an elected king
2. Catherine the Great’s victories against
the Turks threatens to disrupt the
balance of power
3. Frederick of Prussia proposed the
partition of Poland by R.A.P.
Frederick II “the Great”
C. Frederick II “The Great” (r. 1740-1786)
1. “First servant of the state”
2. Abolished serfdom on crown lands
3. Religious freedom
4. Education in schools & universities
5. Codified laws: legal security for all
6. Abolished torture
7. Fostered industry and agriculture
8. Yet, social structure remained
stratified.
a. Serfdom remained on non-crown
lands
b. extended privileges of nobility,
especially the Junkers
c. Middle class had trouble moving up
D. Maria Theresa (r.1740-1780)
*succeed Charles VI
1. Greatly strengthened and centralized
government
2. promoted commerce
3. weakened power of nobles by taxing
them.
4. Gained support of Hungarian nobility
5. Some serfs freed.
D. War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
1. Frederick the Great of Prussia seized
Silesia from Austria’s Maria Theresa
in 1740.
2. Prussia violated Pragmatic Sanction
(of 1713)
3. War between France & England in
America
Frederick’s Acquisitions of Silesia
and Poland
4. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)
a. Prussia retained Silesia.
1) doubled population and resources
b. Prussia emerged as a Great Power
and greatest among German
powers.
E. Joseph II (r.1765-1790)
1. Co-regent with Maria Teresa until 1780
a. Enlightened reforms:
* Abolished serfdom in 1781
* More freedom of the press
* Religious tolerance
to Protestants & Jews
* Controlled Catholic Church
* Reformed judicial system
* Expanded state education
F. Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
1. Prussia vs. France, Russia & Austria
a. Austria sought to regain Silesia.
Russia concerned about Prussian designs
Poland
b.
on
c. “Diplomatic Revolution” of 1756
* Britain came to Prussia’s aid
d. England defeated France (French & Indian War)
e. Czar Peter III took Russia out of the war
G. Treaty of Paris (1763)
1. France lost Canada to Britain
2. Britain gained control of India
3. Prussia permanently retained
Silesia
French & Indian War: 1754 & 1763
H. King Louis XV (r.1715-1774)
1. Parlement regained right
to approve decrees
a. refused Louis’ tax
increases
2. Nobility gained power
3. Rene de Maupeou (chancellor)
* reduced judicial opposition
4. Increased Debt of the State