EXCHANGES,
CHANGES AND
COLLAPSES:
INTERACTIONS AT THE
END OF THE CLASSICAL
AGE
THE CLASSICAL WORLD
WARFARE
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External Collapse: Foreign Wars
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Nomadic Invasions
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Agriculturalist Migration leads to war
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Rome (Eastern Roman Empire) and Sassanids
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War lasted on and off two hundred years
War exhausted both empires
Eastern Roman Empire bribed Germans, Huns to go west
Internal Collapse: Civil Wars
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In Rome
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Rival generals seeking to gain emperorship
Conflicts between Arabs under Zenobia, Monophysites in Egypt with Romans
In China and India
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Germans migrated into empire to avoid Huns
Romans too weak to resist German take over
Great Power Wars
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Huns in Mediterranean, Persia, India
Kushans in India
Central Asians (Xiong-nu) in China
Rival dynasties struggle to reestablish control in China, India
Often exacerbated by nomadic invasions
Results
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Depopulation of many areas; Destruction of agriculture
Loss of trade as warfare, piracy stop flow
Spread of diseases
LAND AND SEA ROUTES
OCEAN TRADE NETWORKS
Trade regulated not controlled by locally dominant states
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Most merchants accepted an unwritten code of conduct
Trade was largely peaceful and protected by dominant powers
Powers cooperated to protect against pirates
The Indian Ocean to China Trade Network
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Based on the monsoon patterns
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NE Winds blow ships towards India, SE Asia
SW Winds blow ships towards Arabia, Africa
Intricate System of stopovers, entrepots required
Indian Ocean divided into three zones
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Western zone dominated by Arabs, Persians, Ethiopians
Middle Zone between India and SE Asia dominated by Indians
Eastern Zone from SE Asia to China dominated by Chinese
Major ports called entrepots at exchange points along divisions
Goods exchanged tended to be luxuries with exception of rice, wood
Trade in the Hellenistic Mediterranean
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Dominated by Greeks, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Jews, later Arabs
Besides various commodities, also slave trade
Links to Indian Ocean network through Egypt, Ethiopia
LAND TRADE ROUTES
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Most famous called Silk Road
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Trade goods
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Overland trade routes linked China to Mediterranean basin
Sea-lanes joined Asia and Mediterranean basin into one network
Silk and spices traveled west
Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China
Mediterranean provided glassware, jewelry, art, perfumes, textiles
The organization of long-distance trade
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Trade Diasporas
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Merchants of different regions handled trade in stages
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Similar to Indian Ocean to China trade network
Controlled, protected most of length by Central Asian nomads
Many smaller routes connect to Silk Road
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Ethnic groups settled along trade routes who handle trade between stops
From one end to another one ethnic group facilitated trade
Merchants tended to be Armenians, Nestorians, Jews
Arabs controlled desert routes into Arabia between Egypt, Persia
Arameans, Nestorians control much of SW Asia
Bactrians, Sogdians, Kushans control routes into India
Romans Trade Imbalance
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Romans loved luxuries but had few finished goods others wanted to trade
Romans forced to trade their gold, silver to buy goods
CULTURAL EXCHANGES:
BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM
Buddhism in Central Asia
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First present in oasis towns of central Asia along silk roads
Further spread to steppelands
Spread by merchants traveling from India to China
Hellenized Bactrians, Kushans heavily influenced by Buddhism
Buddhism in China
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Foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, 1st century B.C.E.
Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, 5th century C.E.
Many early conversions during time of troubles in China
Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia
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Spread by Hindu merchants; later Buddhist missionaries
Conversion of local ruling elites so they could control lucrative trade
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Rulers referred to themselves as rajas ("kings")
Adopted Sanskrit as written language
Many rulers converted to Buddhism, others promoted Hindu cults
Buddhist or Hindu advisors in government
Rise of new civilizations due to influence: Khmer, Srivijava, Mahajavit
Many of first Christian “heresies” were Buddhist influenced
SPREAD OF INDIAN FAITHS
SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
FORMS OF BUDDHISM
SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
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Christianity in the Mediterranean basin
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Built upon existing Jewish, Phoenician, Greek trading areas
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Christian communities flourished especially in areas connected to trade
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Paul of Tarsus visited mostly trading areas; was followed by many others
Ephesians, Corinthians, Thessalonians were all trading areas
Apostles, missionaries used protected trade routes to move about
Mark converted Egypt by tradition
Christianity in Southwest Asia
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First converts poor, women, merchants attracted by Christian message
First converts often at lowest end of social pyramid
Leading Christian cities (Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, Rome)
Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran by 2nd century C.E.
Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the 7th century C.E.
Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire
St. Thomas by tradition carried Christianity to trading cities of S. India
Monophysites – Another Interpretation of Christianity
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A Christian sect developed in southwest Asia
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Nestorians emphasized human nature of Jesus, 5th century C.E.
Copts of Egypt and Ethiopia emphasize his divinity
Armenians, Georgians, Egyptians, Ethiopians 1st nations to convert
Condemned by General Church councils as a heresy
Strong influence in Arabia, possibly influencing Muhammad
Communities in central Asia, India, and China, 7th century C.E.
Tended to be trusted because had no official states to support, protect them
CULTURAL CHANGES IN
MEDITERRANEAN
Prominence of Christianity
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Constantine's edict of Milan made Christianity a legitimate religion
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Called Council of Nicaea to solve conflicts within Church (Nicene Creed)
Ordered a book (byblos) to be complied of agreed upon Christian works
Emperor Theodosius made Christianity official state religion, 380 C.E.
St. Jerome translated Bible into Latin
St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought
St. Ulfias converted Germans to Arianism
The institutional church
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Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians
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No one dominant belief about Christianity
Current belief was an outgrowth of compromise, discussion
Many early schisms and controversies
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Established standardized hierarchy of church officials
Bishop of Rome (Pope) became spiritual leader (Petrine Doctrine)
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Donatists: should those who adjure Christianity be allowed to return
Arians: Christ is solely human
Monophysites: Christ is divine, human; each part is separate, one is dominant
Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople patriarchal cities
After Rome, Christianity served as a cultural foundation
SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
SPREAD OF MANICHAEISM
Mani and Manichaeism
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Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew influence from Christianity and
Buddhism
Perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and
evil
Offered means to achieve personal salvation
Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards
Differentiation between "the elect“ and the "hearers"
Spread of Manichaeism
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Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean
region
Special appeal to merchants as hearers
Appeared in all large cities of Roman empire, 3rd century C.E.
St. Augustine was one of the most prominent who practiced it
Persecutions
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The Sasanid (Persian) rulers suppressed Mani's movement
Roman authorities also persecuted Manichaeans
Manichaeism survived in central Asia
SPREAD OF
MANICHAEISM
SPREAD OF EPIDEMICS
Pandemic vs. Epidemic
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Epidemic is a disease which strikes all groups in one region
Pandemic is a disease which strikes simultaneously many
regions
Often spread by war, trade, missionaries
Epidemic diseases
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Common epidemics in Rome and China
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Smallpox, measles, bubonic plague
Mediterranean: population fell ¼ from 1st to 10th century
C.E.
China: population fell ¼ from the 1st to 7th century C.E.
Persia, Ethiopia effected; India seems to have been missed
Effects of epidemic diseases
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Chinese and Roman economies contracted; trade stiffled
Small regional economies emerged
Epidemics weakened Han and Roman empires
FALL OF THE HAN DYNASTY
Internal decay of the Han state
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Problems of factions and land distribution
The Yellow Turban rebellion, 184 C.E.
Collapse of the Han dynasty
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Generals usurped political authority, emperor was a puppet
By 220, generals abolished Han, divided empire
Nomadic peoples invaded, further dividing old Han Empire
Cultural Change in Post-Han China
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Sinicization of nomadic peoples
Withering of Confucianism
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Confucianism failed to maintain order; too aristocratic
More individuals turned to Daoism, Buddhism: both offered hope
Daoism changed to a religion of salvation
Popularity of Buddhism
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Buddhism received strong support from nomadic rulers
Between 4th/6th centuries C.E., Buddhism well established
Buddhism often supported by nomads, lower classes, women
Many made donations of land, money to Buddhists
Buddhism merged with Chinese traditions: became religion
THREE KINGDOMS
INTERNAL DECAY OF ROME
Barrack Emperors
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Between 235 and 284 C.E., generals frequently seized the throne
Most barracks emperors died violently in coups, assassination
The sheer size of the empire became a problem of control
Emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.)
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Divided the empire into two administrative parts
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Tetrarchy: Rule by Four
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Western Roman Empire ruled from Rome
Eastern Roman Empire ruled from Nicomedia
Two Emperors called Augustus; basically political emperor
Two Associated rulers called Caesars: basically war emperor
Reforms saved empire for 200 years
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Froze social classes; created feudalism
Persecuted Christians to unite empire
Reformed Roman army and defenses to fight invaders
The emperor Constantine
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Constantine seized power, claimed to be sole emperor
Established a new capital city
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Constantinople on Bosporus
Area was richer, easy to defend, more Christian; better base of power
Legalized Christianity through Edict of Milan
COLLAPSE IN INDIA
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Guptan Dynasty
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Lacked strong central government
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Civil war between regional leaders
Invasions by Central Asia including White Huns
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Relied on provincial rule, type of feudalism
Regional leaders often stronger than emperor
Dynasty’s worries
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Provinces only owed tribute, tax, respect to central ruler
Provincial rulers viewed emperor as related to gods
But local areas largely self-governing
Beaten off by Guptans but seriously weakened empire
Continued raids by Huns, Central Asians kept empire in turmoil
Large scale migrations from Northern India to Southern parts
Dynasty ceased to exist; attempted revival failed
Regional states broke off, constant warfare follows
Harsha’s Revival did not last
Rajput (Northern Princes) warfare disrupted region
GUPTAN EMPIRE
NOMADIC INVASIONS
Germanic migrations
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From northern Europe, lived in eastern, northern parts of empire
Most notable were Goths
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Visigoths settled in Spain, S. France; Ostrogoths settled in Italy
Settled as agriculturalists, mercenary soldiers and allies of Rome
Created a modified law of German tradition and Roman law
Roman authorities kept Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer
The Huns
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Called Xiong-nu by Chinese; Chinese defeated them, sent west
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Huns invaded Roman Empire
White Huns invaded India
Black Huns invaded Persia
Under Attila, Huns began expeditions from the mid-5th century C.E.
Soon disappeared after the death of Attila in 453 C.E.
The collapse of the western Roman empire
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Under Huns' pressure, Germanic peoples moved into Roman empire
Established settlements in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa
Goths and Vandals sacked Rome on two separate occasions
Germanic general Odovacer deposed the Roman emperor, 476 C.E.
Imperial authority survived in eastern half of empire (Byzantines)
Nomadic states in Western Europe, North Africa
INVASIONS AND MIGRATIONS
WHAT REMAINED?
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Cosmopolitan Culture
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Interregional Contacts
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Most of the areas retained their faith, social structures
New faiths often served to preserve old ways
Most areas retained idea of former classical ways as an ideal
Most disruptions to top hierarchy especially aristocrats, rulers
While not eliminated were often severely lessoned
Regions tended to fall back on themselves, older traditions
Which collapse was worse?
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Roman was very severe because it was so dramatic
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Eastern Empire survived but it was no longer Latin
New rulers were radically different from previous rulers
Christianity was relatively new, different from older Latin traditions
Sassanid collapse worst; culture disappeared under Islam
Indian, Chinese collapses was hardly noticed
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Traditions remained; elites remained often running new local states
Ancient religious hierarchies often still in place locally, nationally