Introduction to Geography
Chapter I Outline
I. Geography
A. Study of the interaction of physical and human phenomena at individual places
B. Interaction
1. Forms patterns
2. Organizes space
C. Subfields
1. Physical geography
2. Human geography
3. Cultural geography
4. Cartography
5. Geographic information systems
D. Historical development
1. Eratosthenes was a Greek scholar
a. Earth is round
b. Accurate calculation of Earth’s circumference
2. Non-European
a. Islamic advances
b. Chinese writings
c. Korean Kangnido world map
3. Revival of European geography
a. Regional geography
b. Systematic geography
4. Human-environment tradition
a. Two-way interaction
b. Began by Alexander von Humboldt
E. Why study geography
II. Contemporary approaches in geography
A. To analyze geographic information
B. Three approaches are used
III. Area analysis
A. Two kinds of location
1. Absolute (site)
a. Exact location and its characteristics
b. Measured by latitude and longitude
2. Relative (situation)
a. Changes as technology changes
b. Influences accessibility
c. Related to globalization
B. Types of regions
1. Formal regions are based on some uniformity
2. Function regions are based on interaction
3. Vernacular regions are based on popular perceptions
IV. Spatial analysis
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A. Distribution
1. Position, placement, arrangement of phenomena throughout space
2. Measured by
a. Density
b. Concentration
c. Pattern
B. Movement
1. Distance is measured by
a. Units of length (miles)
b. Time
c. Cost
2. Friction of distance
3. Distance decay
4. Diffusion
a. How something spreads over space through time
b. Relocation diffusion
c. Contiguous diffusion
d. Hierarchical diffusion
e. Barriers to diffusion
V. Physical and human systems
A. Systems
1. Interdependent group of items that interact in a regular way to form a unified whole
2. Shows interrelationships
B. Earth’s physical systems
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
5. All four “spheres” interact with each other
6. Humans interact with each “sphere”
7. Ecosystems and ecology
C. Human-environmental interaction
1. Two way process
2. Culture
3. Cultural landscape is the result of human modifications of the natural landscape
VI. Describing Earth
A. The geographic grid
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Chapter 1
1. Latitude and longitude
2. Greenwich Mean Time and time zones
3. International Date Line
B. Maps
1. Two-dimensional representation of a portion of Earth’s surface
2. Show only selected information
C. Features of maps
1. Scale
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a. Small-scale shows a large area with less detail
b. Large-scale shows a small area with more detail
2. Projection
a. Distortion occurs when making a flat map
b. Conformal maps distort size
c. Equal-area maps distort shape
3. Insets and other map conventions
D. Geographic information technology
1. Transformations of human activity by computers
2. Automated cartography
3. Remote sensing uses satellites and airplanes
a. Collects large amounts of data
b. Many uses
4. Global positioning systems
a. Accurately pinpoints locations
b. Many applications
E. Geographic information systems
1. Special database software in which spatial information is important
2. Raster versus vector data
3. Acquiring digital geographic information
4. Powerful tool with many applications
F. Integration of Information Technologies
1. Digital storage of information
2. Relational databases
VII. Critical issues for the future
A. Issues for the next century
1. Global environmental change
2. Effects of population growth
3. Disparities in wealth leading to conflict
4. Food production and distribution
B. Geography contributes important perspectives
1. Interdisciplinary
2. Global
3. Applied research
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Chapter 2 Outline
I. Introduction
A. Weather is the day-to-day changes
B. Climate is the long run summary of weather
II. Energy and weather
A. Solar energy
1. Makes the atmosphere and its processes function
2. Derived from thermonuclear reactions in the Sun
B. Amount of incoming solar radiation varies
1. Earth’s orbit and tilt
a. Time of day
b. Latitude
c. Season
2. Amount intercepted at a given location
a. Angle of incidence
b. Day length
c. Distance from the Sun
3. Equinoxes (March and September) and solstices (June and December)
C. Storage of heat
1. Water stores large amounts
2. Land stores small amounts
3. Land temperature changes faster than water temperature
D. Heat transfer between the atmosphere and Earth
1. Radiation
a. Radiant energy is transmitted by electromagnetic waves
b. Most incoming solar radiation is shortwave
c. Most outgoing energy is longwave
d. Most shortwave passes through the atmosphere
e. Some longwave is trapped by greenhouse gases
2. Latent heat
a. Heat stored in water and water vapor
b. Transfers large amounts of energy
E. Heat exchange and atmospheric circulation
1. Convection
a. Movement in any fluid when part of the fluid is heated
b. Warm air (and water) rises
2. Advection
a. Horizontal movement of air
b. Moves large amounts of air and latent heat
III. Precipitation
A. Variations in precipitation affect human activities
B. Condensation
1. Water from vapor to liquid
2. Relative humidity
3. Leads to precipitation
a. When the pressure of moisture exceeds the saturation vapor pressure
b. When clouds contain tiny particles (condensation nuclei)
C. Causes
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1. Convection
a. Rising air leading to adiabatic cooling
b. Clouds form and condensation occurs
c. Thunderstorms with gusty winds and intense rain develop
d. Major cause of precipitation
2. Orographic precipitation
a. Mountains force air upward
b. Cooling, clouds, condensation, precipitation
c. Windward side has precipitation
d. Leeward side is rain shadow with less precipitation
3. Frontal uplift
a. Cold air mass pushes under a warm air mass
b. Warm air rises
c. Cooling, clouds, condensation, precipitation
d. Cold fronts and warm fronts
IV. Circulation patterns
A. Fundamental causes
1. Differences in atmospheric pressure
2. Coriolis effect
B. Global atmospheric circulation
1. Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
a. Much solar radiation causes air to rise creating low pressure and rain
b. Creates the trade winds
c. Pushes warm, dry air toward the midlatitudes
2. Subtropical high-pressure zones
a. Air descends causing high pressure
b. Creates arid climate
3. Midlatitude low-pressure zones
a. Convergence of warm air and polar air
b. Causes the westerlies
4. Polar high pressure zones
a. Cold causes high pressure
b. Very little moisture
C. Seasonal variations
1. January
a. ITCZ is a few degrees south of the equator
b. Pattern of the other zones is more consistent in the Southern Hemisphere
2. July
a. ITCZ is north of the equator
b. Low pressure over Asia causing the monsoon circulation
D. Global ocean circulation
1. Winds as well as differences in seawater temperature and salinity cause currents
2. Currents form circular patterns (gyres)
a. Warm water moved toward the poles
b. Cold water moved toward the equator
E. Storms
1. Vary from huge monsoons to local thunderstorms
2. Modified by El Niño/La Niña
3. Tropical cyclone (hurricane or typhoon or cyclone)
a. Intense low pressure
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b. Strong winds, much rain, and storm surges
c. Weakens over land
4. Midlatitude cyclone
a. Low pressure along polar fronts
b. Weaker than tropical cyclones
c. Sometimes leads to tornadoes
V. Climate
A. Summary of weather conditions over many years
B. Two main components
1. Temperature
a. Varies over time and space
b. Affected by elevation and topography
2. Precipitation
a. Varies over time and space
b. Transpiration and potential evapotranspiration
VI. Classifying climate
A. Uses patterns of temperature and precipitation as related to water availability for
vegetation
B. Köppen system
1. Most recognized system
2. Used distribution of vegetation to reflect temperature and precipitation
3. Uses A, B, C, D, and E to identify five main types
VII. Earth’s climate regions
A. Humid low-latitude tropical climates
1. Humid tropical (Af, Am)
a. Beneath the ITCZ
b. Warm, humid, rainy
c. Little seasonal variation
d. Tropical rainforests
2. Seasonal humid tropical (Aw)
a. Has a distinct dry season
b. Often caused by shifts in the ITCZ
c. Sometimes caused by the monsoon circulation
d. Less plant growth during dry season
B. Dry climates
1. Desert (BWh, BWk)
a. Beneath subtropical high-pressure zones
b. Very dry, especially on western sides of continents, high temperatures
c. Little vegetation
2. Semiarid (BSh, BSk)
a. More rainfall
b. Between deserts and humid regions
c. Steppes or grasslands
C. Warm midlatitude climates
1. Humid subtropical (Cfa, Cw)
a. Beneath subtropical high-pressure zones, especially on eastern sides of continents
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b. More seasonal variations
c. Mostly deciduous vegetation
2. Marine west coast (Cfb, Cfc)
a. On west coasts
b. Moderate temperatures
c. Plentiful precipitation, drizzle
d. Mostly evergreen vegetation
3. Mediterranean (Cs)
a. Dry summers
b. Cool, rainy winters
c. Vegetation has to survive dry period
D. Cold midlatitude climates
1. Humid continental (Dfa, Dwa, Dfb, Dwb)
a. Only in Northern Hemisphere
b. Warm summers
c. Cold winters
d. Deciduous and some evergreen vegetation
2. Subarctic (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd)
a. Very cold winters
b. Modest precipitation
c. Conifers (boreal forest)
E. Polar climates
1. Tundra (ET)
a. Cold throughout the year
b. Permafrost
c. Treeless tundra vegetation
2. Ice-cap (EF)
a. Very cold, quite dry
b. No vegetation
VIII. Climate change
A. Over geologic time
1. Glacial periods during the Pleistocene Epoch
a. Shifts in climate back and forth
b. Most recent colder episode was about 18,000 years ago
2. Little Ice Age from 1500 to 1750
B. Causes
1. Astronomical and geologic hypotheses
2. Human activities
a. Changing the atmosphere
b. Removing vegetation
C. Global warming
1. Many uncertainties making predictions difficult
2. Caused by increased carbon dioxide
3. Consequences
a. Sea level rise
b. New patterns of precipitation
c. More storms
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4. Controversy over how to respond to global warming
IX. Critical issues for the future
A. Understand the atmosphere more completely
B. Evaluate possible human responses to climate change
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Chapter 3 Outline
I. Introduction
A. Geomorphology
1. Study of landforms
2. Study of processes
a. Endogenic build landforms
b. Exogenic erode
II. Plate tectonics
A. Moving crust
1. Tectonic plates move with mantle
2. Driven by Earth’s interior heat
3. Consequences
a. Location of the continents
b. Mountain building
c. Earthquakes
d. Volcanoes
B. Boundaries between plates
1. Divergent
a. Very slow movement
b. Usually with seafloor spreading
2. Convergent
a. Seafloor crust goes beneath lighter continental crust
b. Melted crust leads to volcanic activity
3. Transform
a. Plates are sliding past each other
b. San Andreas fault and earthquakes
4. Upward plate movements create mountains
C. Rocks
1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic
4. Minerals
a. Substances that comprise rocks
b. Sima are denser than sial
c. Continental shields usually have rich deposits
d. Affect the kinds of soil that develop
5. Shape landforms
a. Along faults
b. Faster removal of weak rock material
III. Slopes and streams
A. Weathering
1. Breaking rocks into pieces
2. Chemical methods
a. Acids attacking rocks
b. Leaching
c. Oxidation
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d. Decomposition of calcium carbonate
3. Mechanical methods
a. Temperature changes
b. Freezing water
c. Plant roots
B. Moving weathered material
1. Gravity
2. Mass movement
a. Soil creep
b. Landslides
3. Surface erosion
a. Runoff
b. Creates rills, streams, rivers
4. Streams, drainage, and erosion
a. From groundwater
b. From overland flow
c. Drains a drainage basin
d. Discharge is the volume of water carried per unit of time
e. Erode and deposit material
f. Floodplains
g. Meanders
h. Deltas
5. Erosion in dry areas
a. Relatively rapid
b. Alluvial fans
6. Human activities increase erosion
a. Removing vegetation
b. New agricultural lands
c. More intensive agriculture
d. Urban development
IV. Ice, wind, and waves
A. In some places, these forces are more powerful than running water
B. Glaciers
1. Layers of moving ice
2. Types
a. Alpine
b. Continental
3. Grinds and scrapes
4. Deposits
5. Melting
a. Moraines
b. Outwash plains
C. Past glaciations
1. Variations in temperatures cause more or less glaciation
2. Much glaciation 18,000 to 20,000 years ago
3. Many effects on today’s topography
4. Effects on human activities in North America
a. Soils
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b. Water supply
c. Transportation routes
D. Wind
1. Most important in dry areas
2. More impacts when vegetation is lacking
3. Features
a. Sand dunes
b. Desert pavement
c. Loess
E. Coastal erosion
1. Waves
a. Powerful force
b. Caused by winds
c. Can travel long distances
2. Longshore current
a. Caused by wave action
b. Carries sediment
3. Sea-level changes
a. Tides
b. Storms
c. Climate change
4. Human activities
a. Many humans and much development along coasts
b. Efforts to protect human development
V. Dynamic Earth
A. Rates of landform change
1. Usually very slow
2. Faster when processes are strong and materials are weak
3. Eventually affects human activity
B. Environmental hazards
1. Common over geologic time
2. Uncommon over human time frames
3. Damage
a. Humans deciding the risk is worth it
b. In the long run often made worse by protective measures
4. Humans adapt to the environment
5. Humans modify the environment
VI. Critical issues for the future
A. People need to live with landforms, not try to change them
B. There are many hazards that people should try to avoid
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Chapter 4 Outline
I. Introduction
A. Interaction among all Earth’s systems
B. Biogeochemical cycles
1. Recycle substances
2. Supply necessary substances to the biosphere
II. Biogeochemical cycles
A. Laws of conservation
1. Energy
2. Matter
B. Pathways by which energy and matter are transformed and recycled
C. Hydrologic cycle
1. Water
a. Crucial to life
b. Able to exist as to a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth
c. Lots of heat involved in changing water between its three states
d. An excellent solvent
2. Storage places
a. Atmosphere
b. Lithosphere
c. Hydrosphere
3. Processes
a. Evaporation
b. Condensation
c. Precipitation
d. Runoff
D. Water budgets
1. Accounting of all the inflows and outflows of water in a given system over a given
time period
2. Evapotranspiration
a. Transpiration by plants plus evaporation
b. Varies throughout the year
c. Potential is compared to actual evapotranspiration
3. Water budget diagrams for nine locations
4. Soil
a. Stores water
b. Infiltration capacity
c. Supports vegetation
E. Vegetation and the hydrologic cycle
1. Forests illustrate the interaction of vegetation with water budgets
2. Plants often use and transpire lots of water
3. Deforestation affects precipitation patterns
III. Carbon, oxygen, and nutrient flows
A. Cycles
1. Very important in sustaining life
2. Parts
a. Carbon dioxide
b. Carbohydrates
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c. Water
d. Oxygen
e. Energy
3. Processes
a. Photosynthesis by plants
b. Respiration by plants, animals, and decomposers
c. Combustion of fossil fuels
4. Photosynthesis varies with the availability of solar energy
B. Deforestation
1. Greatest in tropical areas
2. Releases stored carbon to the atmosphere
IV. Soil
A. Interface between the lithosphere and the biosphere
B. Formation
1. Climate is important
2. Weathering of parent material
3. Water plays an important role
4. Plant and animal activity
C. Components
1. Rocks and rock particles
2. Humus
3. Dissolved substances
4. Organisms
5. Water from rainfall
6. Air
7. Found in layers known as soil horizons
D. Numbers
1. Eleven soil orders
2. Thousands of individual soils
E. Climate, vegetation, soil regions
1. Humid tropical and subtropical soils
2. Arid region soils
3. Midlatitude humid soils
4. Midlatitude sub humid soils
F. Soil problems
1. Declines in nutrient levels
2. Erosion
3. Increasingly intensive agriculture accelerates
G. Soil fertility
1. Ability to support plant growth
2. Agriculture
a. Needs to maintain and improve
b. Commercial fertilizer replacing organic fertilizer (manure)
V. Ecosystems
A. An interacting collection of plants and animals and their physical environment
B. Elements
1. Producers
2. Consumers
3. Decomposers
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4. Materials and energy
C. Processes
1. Solar energy drives
2. Food chains and trophic levels
a. Food moves between levels
b. Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
3. Plant and animal success
a. Competition for available resources
b. Adaptations to better compete
c. Humans often dominate
4. Community succession
a. Initial plants are replaced
b. Ultimately, a climax community
c. May occur slowly or more quickly
D. Biodiversity
1. 10,000,000 or more species on Earth
2. Increases options and adds stability
3. Extinction
a. Habitat loss
b. Other reasons
4. Biosphere reserves
VI. Biomes
A. Groups of ecosystems
B. Strongly related to climate and vegetation patterns
C. Forest biomes
1. Tropical rainforest
2. Midlatitude broadleaf deciduous forest
3. Needle leaf or boreal forest
4. Temperate rainforest
D. Savanna, scrubland, and open woodland biomes
1. Savanna
2. Chaparral
E. Midlatitude grassland biome
1. Tall grass prairie
2. Short grass prairie or steppe
F. Desert biome
G. Tundra biome
H. Natural and human effects
1. Many links between plants, soils, climate, and humans
a. Climate most important among the natural factors
b. 37 percent of land is cropland or permanent pasture
2. Desertification
a. Humans settling in semiarid regions
b. Results in land degradation
VII. Critical issues for the future
A. Human impact is substantial now and will continue
B. Need for more scientific study
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Chapter 5 Outline
I. Introduction
A. Uneven global distribution of population
1. Differences in births and deaths
2. Variations in emigration and immigration
B. Demography
II. Global population patterns
A. Statistics
1. 6.3 billion total
2. Major concentrations
a. East Asia with about 1.6 billion
b. South Asia with about 1.4 billion
c. Europe with almost 1.0 billion
3. Ninety percent of the people on less than 20 percent of the land
4. More than half of Earth’s land has less than 1 person per square kilometer
B. Population density
1. Measures
a. Arithmetic density
b. Physiological density
c. Carrying capacity
2. Determinants
a. Temperature
b. Precipitation
c. Topography
d. Soils
e. History
f. Politics
III. World population growth
A. Statistics
1. Population in 1930 was 2 billion
2. Seventy-seven million added each year
B.
C.
D.
E.
3. Growth is slowing
a. Average growth between 1965 and 1970 was 2.06 percent
b. Between 2000 and 2005 it was 1.22 percent
Basic demographic concepts
1. Crude birth rate
2. Crude death rate
3. Natural increase or decrease
4. Total fertility rate
5. Replacement rate
Population projections
1. Prediction based on trends and assumptions
2. Difficult to do
Population growth varies
1. Poor countries are faster than rich countries
2. Doubling time
Population pyramids
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1. Age and gender
2. Young at the bottom; elderly on top; females on one side, males on the other
3. Indications
a. Future population growth
b. Dependency ratio
F. Demographic transition
1. Historical pattern of growth
2. Stage one
a. High birth and death rates
b. Little population growth
3. Stage two
a. Death rates and infant mortality rates decline because of higher incomes and
better medical care
b. Birth rates stay high because of a continuing desire to have children
(as workers, caregivers)
c. Growth is high
5. Stage three
a. Low birth and death rates
b. Birth rates decline because of urbanization, industrialization
c. Low growth
6. Suggests economic development as a means of slowing population growth
G. Is the demographic transition still relevant?
1. Fertility is decreasing faster than expected
2. Decreases found in countries that are not experiencing economic development
3. New reasons for decreased fertility
a. Family planning programs
b. Modern contraceptive technology
c. Mass media
4. Factors against population control
a. Costs of contraceptives, etc.
b. Religion
c. Low status of women
d. Preference for male children
5. Selected birth control programs
a. China’s is successful, restrictive, and controversial
b. India’s is fairly successful, relies on advertising and sterilization
c. Iran’s is fairly successful and represents a change in policy
d. Mexico’s family planning clinics have reduced fertility
e. Brazil has urbanization and women working outside the home
H. Increases in death rates
1. Epidemiology is the study of the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases
2. Epidemiological transition
3. Wars and natural disasters
4. Russia because of chaos associated with many changes
5. Potential spread of disease by terrorists
6. Drug-resistant pathogens
7. Development of new diseases
8. Increase of known diseases
9. More obesity
10. More smoking
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I. Is Earth overpopulated?
1. Some say yes; others say no
2. Malthus and Malthusian theory
a. Population will grow faster than food
b. Positive and preventative checks
c. Incorrect so far, but the future is not known
IV. Other demographic patterns
A. Sex ratios
1. More males than females are born naturally
2. Vary widely from area to area
3. Reasons for variations
a. Preference for male children
b. Use of medical methods to determine the sex of the fetus before birth
c. Abortion of unborn females; female infanticide
d. Women tend to live longer
e. Wealth
f. Medical care
g. Status of women
B. Aging
1. Earth’s population is becoming older for the first time in history
2. Changes to society
3. Programs to care for the elderly are needed
V. Migration
A. Basic ideas
1. A common human action
2. Causes
a. Push factors
b. Pull factors
3. Voluntary
a. Migration chain
b. Sojourners
4. Involuntary or forced
a. Slavery
b. Refugees and internally displaced persons
5. Undocumented or illegal
6. Indigenous peoples (natives) are often harmed
B. Prehistoric migrations
1. Humans are all one species
2. Humans eventually migrated globally
C. Migrations since 1500
1. Europeans to the Americas
a. Massive numbers came and settled
b. Much death and poor treatment among native populations
c. Uneven assimilation of natives today
2. African Diaspora
a. Voluntary and involuntary
b. Slaves to the Islamic world and the Americas
c. Blacks are significant population groups in many countries
d. Black American culture important in Africa today
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3. Europeans to Asia and Oceania
a. Relatively few settled in Oriental Asia
b. Russian overland expansion
c. British migration to Australia and New Zealand
4. Europeans to Africa
a. Went to places with favorable and familiar conditions
b. South Africa, apartheid, its aftermath
5. Migrations from India
a. Many destinations and new homes
b. Often very successful, sometimes persecuted
6. Overseas Chinese
a. Similar to Indian migration
b. Many destinations, economically successful, face hostility
c. Example of Indonesia
VI. Migration today
A. Large numbers of international migrations
B. Economic and political push and pull forces remain strong
C. Some countries want to keep their people
D. Refugees
1. Fear persecution
2. Have special rights
3. Hard to distinguish from those wanting better economic opportunities
E. Consequences of international migration
1. Immigrants often not welcomed
a. Too many of them
b. Possess cultural differences
c. Take jobs
2. Migrants are increasingly exploited
3. Push and pull forces are likely to grow in the future
E. Migration to Europe
1. Large numbers
2. Problems lead to restrictions including making citizenship harder to obtain
F. Migrations of Asians
1. Loss of educated, skilled people
2. Send money (remittances) to home country
3. Japan’s very restrictive immigration may change as need for workers grows
G. Migration to the United States and Canada
1. Remain important destinations
2. More from Asia and Latin America
3. Rapid increase in Hispanic population
4. Current issues
a. Problems associated with immigrants
b. Costs
c. Melting pot idea versus multiculturalism
VII. Critical issues for the future
A. Poor countries lose talented, educated scientists and others
B. United States and other advanced countries gain substantially from foreigners with
education
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Chapter 6 Outline
I. How cultures change
A. Cultural evolution or evolutionism
1. Cultures evolve from within
2. Varro’s stages of cultural evolution
a. Hunter-gatherers
b. Pastoral nomadism
c. Settled agriculture
d. Urbanization and industry
3. Historical materialism
a. Technology advances allowing greater control over the environment
b. Technology is the important part of cultural evolution
c. Cornucopian, not Malthusian
4. Environmental determinism
5. Possibilism
B. Cultural diffusion or diffusionism
1. Cultures evolve through contact with other cultures
a. Acculturation
b. Powerful force
2. Reasons why diffusionism is very strong today
a. Improved transportation and communication
b. More trade of goods and ideas
3. Some ideas develop independently at two or more places
4. Folk culture
a. Preserves traditions
b. Relatively isolated
c. Amish
5. Popular culture
a. Welcomes new innovations
b. Mass appeal and mass consumption
c. Much diffusion
d. United States has the largest relatively homogeneous popular culture
C. Grouping humans together
1. Identifying or labeling people
a. Important and significant to understanding
b. Often used by the media and others
c. Difficult to be accurate
2. Culture groups and subculture groups
a. Based one or many cultural attributes
b. Culturally similar people may not see themselves as being grouped together
c. Culturally different people may see themselves as being grouped together
3. Races
a. Biological concept
b. Based on skin color, shape of eyes, blood types, and other characteristics
c. Racism
4. Ethnic groups
a. Biological and/or cultural concept
b. Negative connotation
c. Ethnocentrism
d. There is not necessarily any “right” or “wrong” cultural characteristics
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5. Personal identity
a. Based on religion, region, language, gender, economic status, etc.
b. Determined by the individual
c. Modified by the group and society
6. Behavioral geography
a. How the world is perceived
b. Mental maps
c. Cognitive behavioralism says that people react to their environment as they
perceive it
d. Cultural differences in perception
e. Proxemics and territoriality
II. Culture realms
A. Area throughout which a culture is found
B. Large, global
C. Definition problems
1. Lack of agreement
2. Criteria
a. Vary according to purpose
b. Should be meaningful
3. Important because people are labeled by their cultural realm
D. Visual characteristics
1. Posted signs
2. Clothing
3. Goods in stores
4. Building materials
5. Architecture
a. Impacts of climate
b. Preferred styles
6. Statues and monuments
7. Rural settlement patterns
a. Clustered in villages
b. Scattered individual farmsteads
E. Forces that stabilize patterns of cultural realms
1. Inertia and fixed patterns
2. Historical geography
3. Historical consciousness
a. People’s sense of history
b. Preserve the past
F. Trade
1. Important force for diffusion
a. Exports of one culture are imports of another
b. People interact and make choices
2. Reduces self-sufficiency
3. Increases economic possibilities
a. Draw on the larger world and its resources
b. Specialize on your best products
c. Higher standard of living
4. Traditional products replaced by export products
5. Part of economic geography
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G. Trends
1. More trade, more diffusion
2. Nearly all parts of the world affected
3. Little isolation remains
4. Popular culture overwhelming folk cultures
5. Friction of distance is less
6. Activities are footloose
7. Communication advances
a. Electronic highway
b. Cyberspace
8. Huntington’s possible clash of “civilizations”
H. Patterns change continuously
1. Many redistributions
2. Geographers need to provide understanding
III. Global diffusion of European culture
A. Widespread
B. Massive impact
C. Progress or unwanted acculturation
D. Europe’s explorations, discoveries, and conquests
1. Early civilizations were relatively isolated from each other
2. Europe’s voyages connected the world
3. Led to Commercial Revolution
a. Much increased trade
b. Improved ships and navigation
4. Europe as a clearing house of knowledge
a. Borrowed from other cultures
b. Diffused ideas and things from culture to culture
c. Redistributed ideas and people
E. Economic growth and power
1. Industrial Revolution
a. 1750 to 1850
b. Inanimate power
c. New machines
d. Pushed Europe ahead of the rest of the world
2. Agricultural Revolution (in Europe)
a. More food production
b. Released labor to the industrial cities
3. Commercial activities
a. European contacts led to demand for foreign goods
b. Plantations
c. New port cities
d. Better transportation
4. Conquests
a. To protect trade and investments
b. Almost every country was conquered
c. Legacy lingers in many places
F. Cultural imperialism
1. Substitution of one set of cultural traditions for another
2. Reasons
21
a. Christianity
b. European ways are superior
3. Methods
a. By force
b. Training and schooling of local elites
c. Reference group behavior
d. By degrading the weaker culture
4. Many aspects were evaluated through European eyes
5. Self-westernization
a. European ways were the reference point for the entire world
b. Non-Western leaders followed European ways
c. Turkey, China, Japan, too (non-colonies)
6. After independence
a. Still based on European ways
b. Internal colonialism by native elites on their own people
G. Westernization today
1. Diffusion continues
a. Wealthy all over the world buy Western products
b. Young all over the world adopt Western styles
c. Media and television quicken the process
2. Tourism
3. Non-Western professionals
a. Educated in Europe and the United States
b. Live all over the world
4. Flows of capital
H. United States’ dominance
1. Very strong
2. 9/11 attacks
3. American policy is viewed negatively by others
4. American economic and military power
5. Spread of U.S. popular culture
a. Democracy of the marketplace
b. Cultural imperialism
c. Pros and cons of consumerism
6. American freedoms are admired
7. Political influence
a. Democratization
b. American mistakes and inconsistencies
IV. Critical issues for the future
A. Preservation of non-Western cultures
B. Coping with globalization
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Chapter 8 Outline
I. Introduction
A. Scientific knowledge may add greatly to food supplies
B. Economics and politics affect the distribution of food
II. Food supplies over the last 200 years
A. Malthus was wrong
B. Reasons for increased supplies
1. Added croplands
2. Successful introduction of new crops to new areas
a. Potato
b. Maize
3. Genetic engineering
4. Transportation improvements
a. Refrigerated vehicles
b. Larger, faster equipment
c. Allow movement to hungry areas
d. Allow areas to be more productive because they can specialize
5. Better storage
6. Green Revolution
a. Better varieties
b. Higher yields
7. Scientific revolution in agriculture continues
a. New fertilizers, pesticides
b. New farm machinery
III. Agriculture today
A. The success of agriculture varies geographically
B. Hunting and gathering to subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture
C. Subsistence agriculture
1. Food for oneself and family
2. Polyculture gives way to monoculture
2. Few farmers who are entirely subsistence
3. Characteristics
a. Much labor
b. Little technology
D. Commercial agriculture
1. Food for sale
2. Most subsistence farmers sell or trade at least a little of their production
3. Characteristics
a. Little labor
b. Much capital investment in machinery, fertilizers, etc.
c. Larger and larger farms
d. Products sold to large food-processing companies
E. Types of agricultural systems
1. Cereals and potatoes are often staple crops
a. High yielding
b. Relatively nutritious
2. Nonagricultural land is usually too hot, cold, or dry
23
3. Types
a. Irrigated areas
b. Nomadic herding
c. Low-technology subsistence farming
d. Intensive rice farming
e. Asian mixed cereals and pulses
f. Mixed farming with livestock
g. Prairie cereal farming
h. Ranching
i. Mediterranean agriculture
j. Plantation farming
F. Determinants of agricultural productivity
1. Natural environment
2. Capital investment
IV. Livestock
A. Domesticated along with plants
B. About 20 billion
C. Uses
1. High quality protein in meats and dairy products
2. Hides, wool, and other materials
3. Draft animals to pull plows, etc.
D. Consumption of grains
1. Indirect
a. More than 40 percent of all grain is fed to livestock
b. Economic development leads to more meat consumption
c. More people could be fed if less was fed to livestock
d. Chickens are the most efficient
e. Some religions restrict the consumption of meat
2. Direct by humans
E. Problems in animal production
1. Pollution from feedlots
2. Desertification
3. Deforestation
4. Greenhouse gases produced
5. Overgrazing
6. Animal wastes
F. Dairy farming and value added
1. Mostly in developed regions
2. Perishable, so expensive to transport
3. Value added by manufacturing milk into cheese
V. Von Thünen model
A. Land use around an isolated city
B. Isotropic plain
C. Transport costs most important factor
D. Circular pattern results
1. Crops with higher transport costs close to the city
2. Grazing in outermost zone
VI. Future food supplies
24
A. Food supplies can probably continue to keep pace with population growth
B. Reasons
1. Many advanced methods are not yet widely diffused
2. Current conditions and technology can still be improved
a. More and better irrigation
b. Better transportation and storage
3. New crops
a. Most food is from a few plant species
b. Thousands of other species might be used
c. Halophytes (saltwater crops)
d. Green Revolution applied to other crops
e. Use of many varieties offers protection from disease
f. Cultures have to be willing to eat new foods
4. New technologies
a. Biotechnology
b. Recombinant DNA (gene splicing) creates genetic modifications
c. Cloning
d. Great current usefulness and future potential
5. Resistance to new technologies
a. Fears that genetics is tampering too much with nature
b. Creating unsafe foods
c. Damaging natural species
d. Religious concerns
6. Global warming
VII. Distribution and production of food
A. Amount of calories and nutrients available varies
B. Nearly all countries import and export at least some food
C. Food is often poorly distributed
D. Problems in increasing food production
1. Diminishing returns for fertilizers
2. Lack of financial incentives
a. Heavy taxes discourage farming
b. Government controlled prices for food are low
3. Land ownership
a. Farmers do not own their land so there is little reason to improve it
b. Land ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few elites
c. The wealthy elites do not farm as productively as possible
d. Collective farming in Communist areas
e. Communal ownership reduces incentive
f. Obtaining loans is hindered by the Ejidos system in Mexico
g. Privatization can help a lot
4. Commercial crops in poor countries
a. Farmers grow cash crops for sale instead of food crops
b. Farmers might not be better off
c. Illegal drugs are the world’s most successful cash crops
E. Agricultural policies in rich countries
1. Tariffs on imports
2. Subsidies to farmers
25
3. Reasons
a. Protect domestic farming
b. Increase national security
c. Preserve traditional agricultural communities
d. Farmers have political clout
e. Urban consumers do not protest
4. Consequences
a. Low prices in world markets
b. Farmers in poor countries cannot compete
c. Distort the patterns of agricultural production and trade
5. Calls to reduce tariffs and subsidies
VIII. Fishing
A. Important source of protein
B. Traditional fishing
1. Supports about 30 million people
2. Hard and dangerous
3. Being replaced by modern fishing
C. Modern fishing
1. Commercial activity
2. Demand
a. Increasing
b. Direct consumption, but also fishmeal and oils
3. A few countries’ fleets catch most of the fish
4. Problems
a. Over fishing
b. Every important species threatened
c. Pollution
d. Ozone depletion
5. International agreements
a. Attempts to control fishing, but many arguments
b. Exclusive economic zones of coastal countries
6. Aquaculture
a. Domestication of fish
b. Promising
IX. Critical issues for the future
A. New agricultural technology has great potential
B. Technology not affordable for many in poor countries
26
Chapter 9 Outline
I. Resources
A. Anything from nature that people need or want
B. Specific elements from the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere
C. Determinants
1. Cultural values
a. What people choose to use and value
b. Swamps were viewed negatively and drained, but now are wetlands
2. Technological level
a. Have to be able to use something
b. Potential resources are not resources now because technology is lacking
c. Human needs and desires drive the development of technology
3. Economics
a. Supply and demand
b. Externalities
D. Substitutability
1. For many needs and desires there are several resources that could be used
2. Economics determines choices
3. Sometimes there are no substitutes
E. Nonrenewable resources
F. Renewable resources
II. Minerals and energy
A. Introductory ideas
1. Minerals and energy are essential to modern industrial societies
2. Valuable properties
a. Strength
b. Malleability
c. Weight
d. Chemical properties
e. Beauty
3. Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age
4. There are 92 naturally occurring elements, plus thousands of combinations
5. A given mineral’s importance changes over time and place
a. Demand changes
b. Technology changes
c. Economic conditions change
B. Uneven distribution of deposits
1. Many important minerals concentrated in just a few countries
2. Leads to cartels
C. Effects of high prices
1. Demand falls, depletion slows
2. New technology is encouraged
3. Substitutes are found
4. New deposits are brought into production
5. Recycling is more feasible
D. Solid waste
1. People in rich countries throw away a lot
2. Sanitary landfills
27
a. Daily layer of soil
b. Difficult to find sites for new ones
c. Environmental dangers
3. Incineration
a. Reduces the bulk of the waste
b. Creates energy
c. Release of toxic substances
4. Recycling
a. Reduces pollution and resource depletion
b. Expensive
c. Inconvenient
d. Lacks markets
E. Energy resources
1. Renewable energy forms are abundant but not used a lot
2. Much use of fossil fuels
F. Fossil fuels
1. Nonrenewable
2. Formed in swampy conditions over geologic time
3. Replaced wood
4. Represent stored sunlight
5. Distribution
a. Uneven
b. China and the United States lead in coal
c. The Middle East and Venezuela have much oil
d. Russia has large amounts of natural gas
6. Use is much higher in rich countries
a. The United States consumes 20 percent of the world’s commercial energy
b. Substantial imports are needed
7. Oil prices
a. Historically were low
b. OPEC drove prices upward
c. High prices were harder on poor countries
d. Prices have varied in recent years
8. Future for fossil fuels
a. Rates of depletion
b. Finding new reserves
c. Unconventional sources like oil shale
d. Using energy more efficiently
e. Coal and natural gas substituting for oil
f. Coal is especially environmentally damaging
G. Nuclear power
1. Fission or fusion
2. Small amount yields much energy
3. Problems
a. Possible accidents
b. Disposal of radioactive waste
c. Public opposition
d. Expensive
H. Renewable energy resources
1. Biomass
28
a. Burning of wood or biomass wastes
b. Fuel for vehicles
2. Hydroelectric power
a. Important, clean source of electricity
b. Land use impacts
3. Solar
a. Has the most long run potential
b. Collection of heat for buildings, etc.
c. Photovoltaic cells
d. Wind power
I. Transition from fossil fuels
1. New options emerging
2. Fossil fuels are still more versatile, so will persist
3. Market driven
4. Shortages of electricity
III. Air and water resources
A. Pollution
1. Impurities in the environment
2. Caused by humans
3. Resource use leads to wastes and pollutants
B. Air pollution
1. Natural and human sources
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Sulfur oxides
4. Nitrogen oxides
5. Hydrocarbons
6. Particulates
7. Acid deposition
a. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides become acids in the atmosphere
b. Damage to lakes, fish, and plants
c. Associated with industrial regions
8. Urban air
a. Concentrated mixture of pollutants
b. Photochemical smog
c. Weather factors
9. Improvements in rich countries, but often worse in poor countries
C. Water pollution
1. Water is crucial
2. Point versus no point sources
3. Concentration and dilution
4. Oxygen in water
a. Crucial to aquatic plants and animals
b. Biochemical oxygen demand
5. Drinking water
a. Untreated wastewater is a problem
b. Contamination causes many diseases
6. Toxic substances
a. Very harmful
b. Love Canal
29
c. Expensive to clean up
D. Reducing air and water pollution
1. Pollution control
a. Common approach
b. Removal of pollution before it reaches the environment
2. Pollution prevention
a. Becoming more common
b. Not producing as much pollution in the first place
3. Recycle wastes
IV. Forests
A. Natural resource conflicts
B. Uses
1. Valuable resources
a. Wood and pulp
b. Sustained yield
2. Ecology
a. Habitat for other organisms
b. Biodiversity
c. Carbon storage
3. Recreation
a. Place for hiking, camping, and solitude
b. Relief from urban life
C. Management
1. Conflict over multiple uses
2. Marketplace forces
3. Government involvement
V. Critical issues for the future
A. Increasing depletion
B. More environmental damage
C. Greatest concerns in the developing countries
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Chapter 10 Outline
I. Cities and urban geography
A. Introductory concepts
1. City
a. Concentration of people and activities
b. Provides a variety of services
2. Hinterland
3. Primate city
4. Urbanization
a. People clustering in cities
b. About one half of the world’s population lives in urban areas
B. Urban geography
1. Study of functions and roles
2. Study of variations in urbanization
3. Study of internal patterns
II. Urban functions
A. Early functions
1. Centers of worship
2. Home for women and children
3. Centers of government
4. Protection
5. Agglomeration
a. Advantages to clustering
b. Causes division of labor
B. Economic sectors
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
C. Economic bases
1. Basic sector
2. Non basic sector
3. Multiplier effect
III. Locations of cities
A. Site
1. Characteristics of the location
2. Becoming less important
B. Situation
1. Relative location
a. Other cities
b. Transportation routes
c. Break-of-bulk points
2. Causes a large city even though site may be poor
a. Asian coastal cities
b. Mexico City
C. Central place theory
1. Isotropic plain
2. Market towns surrounded by hinterlands
3. Hexagons
31
a. Hinterlands
b. Fill the entire area
c. Distances for customers are minimized
4. Hierarchies
a. Different sizes of places
b. Different sizes of hinterlands
c. Fewer large places and hinterlands
d. More small places and hinterlands
e. Nested pattern of hexagons
5. Disruptions of the pattern
6. Use in Brazil
IV. World urbanization
A. Early urbanization in Europe
1. Britain
a. Improvements in agriculture released workers
b. Labor-intensive industries in cities
c. Many hardships
2. British experience repeated around the world
3. Migration to colonies relieved some of the problems
B. Contemporary urbanization
1. Rapid increase
a. Problems in rural areas
b. City images suggest opportunity
c. Urban death rates are much less
d. More difficult to emigrate somewhere else
2. Problems
a. Not enough jobs
b. Infrastructure overwhelmed
c. Poor living conditions
d. Cultural tensions
C. Government policies to reduce rural to urban migration
1. Forcibly restrict or send back
2. Bulldoze squatters’ settlements
3. Make cities less desirable
a. Limit housing
b. Limit jobs, new business
4. Improve rural areas
a. Agriculture
b. Education
c. Infrastructure
D. Vitality of cities
1. Positive aspects of urbanization
2. Many entrepreneurs
3. Informal or underground economy
a. Especially important in poor countries
b. Arguments to make legal
V. Internal patterns
A. Basic models and patterns
32
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Concentric zone
Sector
Multiple-nuclei
Peripheral
Social factors
a. Congregation
b. Segregation
6. Environmental concerns
7. Government
a. Effects on land use
b. Zoning
B. Planning
1. The ideal city
a. Howard and garden cities
b. Le Corbusier and skyscrapers surrounded by open space
c. More humane environments
2. Latin America
a. Commercial spine extending outward
b. High income in the central city
c. Poor on the outskirts
3. Western forms superimposed on traditional forms
4. Islamic
a. Importance of religion and the central mosque
b. Houses face inward toward courtyards for privacy
c. Winding streets
d. Organized into quarters
VI. American cities and suburbs
A. Suburbanization
1. Important feature of American urban areas
2. Reasons
a. Dirty and noisy industries
b. New immigrants were different
c. Lure of the countryside
d. Transportation advances
e. Federal Housing Administration programs
f. Veterans Administration housing programs
g. Income tax advantages with home ownership
3. Consequences
a. Many suburbs
b. Much home ownership
c. Sprawl
d. High infrastructure costs
e. High energy costs
f. Leapfrogging
g. Loss of farmland
h. Social homogeneity and marketing
i. Restrictive covenants
j. Jobs created
k. Exurbs and edge cities
l. New commuting patterns
33
m. Congestion
4. Census Bureau terms
a. Metropolitan statistical area
b. Consolidated metropolitan statistical area
B. New patterns
1. New urbanism
a. Less use of automobiles
b. Create small town life
2. Suburbanization continues
3. Shopping from home
a. Growing
b. Damages traditional retailing
4. Telecommuting
a. Twelve million the United States
b. Flexible
c. Saves energy, reduces congestion, etc.
C. Central cities
1. Conditions
a. Loss of economic activity
b. Population decline
c. Loss of many entry-level jobs
d. Influx of additional unskilled migrants
e. Worsening housing and neighborhoods
f. Some increases in white-collar jobs
g. Gentrification
h. Immigrants have helped
i. Service jobs are low paying
j. African American successes and problems
k. Lingering poverty
2. Explanations
a. Spatial mismatch hypothesis
b. Network hypothesis
3. Efforts to redistribute jobs and housing
a. Urban enterprise zones
b. Use brown fields
c. Move poor to the suburbs
d. Transportation to suburban jobs
D. Governing urban areas
1. Annexation issues
2. Central cities surrounded
3. Special purpose districts
4. Metropolitan area governments
VII. Critical issues for the future
A. Numerous urban problems
B. Creating healthy and sustainable urban environments
Chapter 12 Outline
I. Analyzing and comparing national economies
A. Labels
34
1. Rich and poor
2. Developed and underdeveloped or developing
B. Measures of output and standard of living
1. Gross domestic product
a. Total value of all goods and services produced
b. Was $31.1 trillion in 2001
2. Gross national income
a. GDP and flows of foreign investment income
b. Can be larger or smaller than GDP
3. Problems
a. Amounts are underestimated when households are more self-sufficient
b. Overstates the importance of modern areas
c. Illegal activities are missed
d. Exchange rates vary
e. Environmental damage not included
f. Leads to green imperialism
g. Does not cover non-economic aspects of life
4. Improvements
a. Purchasing power parity
b. Including resource depletion and environmental damage
5. Human development index
a. Life expectancy
b. Literacy rate
c. School enrollment
d. Income
e. Norway highest; Sierra Leone lowest
C. Sectoral evolution
1. Preindustrial societies
2. Industrial societies
3. Postindustrial societies
4. New economy
a. Software and hardware
b. Internet
5. Contributions to GDP vary
D. Reasons for differences in wealth
1. Good resource endowment
a. Helpful
b. Not essential
2. Adding value to raw materials
a. Key factor
b. Manufacturing adds value
c. Just selling raw materials does not build much wealth
d. Essential to economic development
3. Culture and poverty
II. Industrial location
A. Countries want industry
B. Weber’s ideas
1. Transportation costs
a. Material-oriented manufacturing
35
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
b. Market-oriented manufacturing
2. Labor force
3. Still relevant
Additional location factors
1. Transportation is relatively less expensive
2. Value added becoming greater
3. Capital availability
4. Technology
5. Government regulations
6. Political stability
7. Inertia
Poor countries
1. Problems
a. Small markets
b. Competing with rich countries’ industries
c. Political instability
d. Lack of capital
e. Low levels of education
2. Advantages
a. Raw materials
b. Cheap labor
c. Friendly government regulations
Changes in location factors
1. Factors change their patterns
2. Manufacturing changes in response
United States
1. Importance of manufacturing declining
2. Deflation because of imports
Japan
1. Lack of natural resources
2. Much value adding
a. Hard-working, cooperative people
b. Helpful government
Technology and manufacturing
1. Technology becoming more important
2. Makes industry and services more footloose
III. National economic policies
A. Political economies
1. Communist system
a. Government ownership
b. For the workers
2. Capitalist system
a. Private enterprise
b. Profit maximization
c. Laissez-faire capitalism
d. State-directed capitalism
e. Privatization and its impacts
f. Crony capitalism
3. Most countries have mixed economies
B. Variations in wealth within states
36
1. Attempt to achieve economic growth
2. Frontier areas
a. Undeveloped regions that lag behind
b. Parts of the Amazon Basin, Siberia, China, and others
3. Regional inequality
4. Programs to help lagging region
a. Establishment of agencies
b. Subsidies to business
c. Tax breaks
d. Location of government facilities
e. Construction of infrastructure
C. National infrastructures
1. Transportation
a. Political considerations
b. Promote economic development
c. Opportunity cost
d. Just-in-time manufacturing
e. Tap routes
f. Competition between modes
2. Communication
IV. National trade policies
A. Variations in the amounts of international trade
B. Goals
1. Economic growth
2. National security
3. Protection of national culture
C. Two methods of using trade for economic growth
1. Import-substitution
a. Protect domestic infant industries
b. Eventually domestic industries grow and can compete
c. Economies of scale help
d. Inefficient production persists
e. Consumers pay more
2. Export-led
a. Encourages foreign investment
b. Sell to the international market
c. Free trade
d. Laissez-faire approaches
e. More successful method
3. China’s policies
4. Taiwan’s policies
D. Third World?
1. Originally, countries that did not align with either side during the Cold War
2. First World
3. Second World
4. Poor label
5. Masks many variations
37
V. Global economy
A. Increased international trade
1. More regional specialization
2. Greater productivity
3. New cultural possibilities
4. Caused by easier transportation and communication
B. Foreign direct investment
1. Major part of economic globalization
2. Creates multinational or transnational corporations
a. Huge and powerful
b. Hard to regulate
3. Sought by many developing countries
4. Countries using the export-led method are more attractive
5. Majority between rich countries
C. Tertiary activities
1. International trade of services
2. Substantial amounts of money
3. United States is the world leader
4. White collar jobs being moved to places with lower costs
D. Financial systems
1. Very large international flows of money
a. Trade in stocks and bonds
b. Trade in currencies
2. Many global cause and effect linkages
E. Tourism
1. Large international flows of money
2. Tourist potential
a. Accessibility
b. Accommodations
c. Attractions
3. Ecotourism
4. Possible damage to culture and environment
F. Regulation of the global economy
1. GATT
2. WTO
3. International Standards Organization (ISO)
4. Disagreements
VI. Critical issues for the future
A. Disagreements over international economic policies
B. Uncertainty
Chapter 13 Outline
I. Introduction
A. International cooperation is needed on many concerns
B. Types of groupings
1. International organizations
2. Supranational organization
38
4. Blocs
II. Disappearance of Empires
A. British
1. Huge empire is largely gone
2. Many former colonies in the Commonwealth of Nations
3. Northern Ireland and other issues
B. French
1. Lost colonies to the British
2. Gained new colonies especially in Africa
3. Now most are independent
4. Four remain as Overseas Departments of France
C. Ottoman
1. Lost areas to the British and French
2. Legacies of border disputes and conflict
D. Russian
1. Across northern Asia, not the oceans
2. Becomes the Soviet Union
a. Russification
b. Fifteen ethnically based republics
c. Self sufficiency
d. Centralized state control
3. Soviet Union breaks apart
a. Gorbachev
b. Glasnost and peristroyka
c. Events and policies could not be controlled
d. Fifteen new countries
e. Economic struggles
f. Ethnic tensions
4. Recent developments
a. Social and economic decline
b. Corruption
c. Resistance to change
d. American activities in Central Asia
E. American
1. Most areas became states
2. Panama
a. Intervention
b. Canal
c. Drug trafficking
3. Liberia
4. Puerto Rico
a. Possible 51st state
b. Poor compared to the other states
III. New unions
A. European Union (1993)
1. Background
a. Divided by the Iron Curtain
b. North Atlantic Treaty Organization
39
c. Warsaw Pact
d. Marshall Plan
e. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
f. European Coal and Steel Community (1952)
g. European Economic Community (1957)
h. European Atomic energy Community (1957)
i. European Community (1967)
j. Share common cultural characteristics
k. Fifteen members currently
l. Ten more joining in 2004
2. Types of economic organizations
a. Free trade area
b. Customs union
c. Common market
3. Rationale
a. Prevent war
b. Encourage economic growth
c. Increase role in world affairs
4. Government and administration
a. European Commission
b. Council of Ministers
c. European Parliament
d. European Court of Justice
5. Integration
a. One market for goods
b. One market for capital
c. One transport system
d. Thinking as a region
e. Common social policies
f. Common environmental policies
6. Future
a. Challenge of additional members
b. Possible complete unification and integration
B. North American Free Trade Agreement (1994)
1. Canada, Mexico, and the United States
2. Background
a. Canada and the U.S. are world’s largest trade partners
b. Free Trade Act between Canada and the U.S. (1988)
3. Canadian fears of more domination by the U.S.
4. Controversial in all three countries
5. Free trade
6. Easier investment flows
7. Mexico
a. More difficult to integrate
b. Cheaper labor
c. Maquiladoras
d. Politics
8. Overall results
a. More trade
b. More investment
c. Mixed results concerning employment levels
40
d. Continued opposition by environmental groups and labor organizations
e. Caribbean economies hurt
C. Other groups
1. Free Trade Area of the Americas (in progress)
2. Andean Pact
3. Caribbean Union and Common Market
4. MERCOSUR
5. Association of Southeast Asian Nations
6. Southern African Development Coordination Conference
7. African Union
8. Arab League
IV. Global government
A. Goes against state sovereignty
1. Can states do whatever they want within their borders?
2. Should outside forces intervene?
B. League of Nations
C. United Nations (1945)
1. 191 countries are members
3. General Assembly
4. Security Council
a. Most powerful
b. Permanent members
c. Sending peacekeeping and peacemaking forces
5. Secretariat
6. International Court of Justice
7. Special agencies
a. Universal Postal Union
b. Food and Agricultural Organization
c. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
d. Many others
8. Activities
a. Discussions of global issues
b. Promoting peace
c. Military actions
d. Monitoring of elections
e. Regulation of business practices
f. Protecting persecuted peoples
g. Promoting human rights
h. International justice
D. Nongovernment organizations
1. Special interest groups
a. International in scope
b. Pressure governments
c. Sometimes a positive influence
d. Sometimes violent
2. Al Qaeda
a. Anti-American
b. Difficult to fight
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E. National sovereignty
1. Can outside forces intervene?
2. Jurisdiction of international courts
F. “Axis of evil”
1. American idea
2. Iran, Iraq, and North Korea
3. Anti-American views
4. Grievances against the United States
5. Threaten world peace
G. Human rights
1. How defined
2. How promoted or protected
H. Global agreements on the world’s open spaces
1. The Arctic and Antarctica
a. Competing claims
b. Arctic Council
c. Antarctic treaty
d. Develop or preserve
2. Oceans
a. Open waters, the high seas
b. Territorial waters
c. Sovereignty to three mile limit
d. Exclusive economic zone of 200 miles
e. Jurisdiction over fishing and mining
f. Innocent passage
g. Disputes between coastal countries
h. Pollution
3. Landlocked states
a. 42 countries, plus others with no ports
b. Use navigable river
c. Obtain corridor of land to the coast
d. Negotiate to use a port and transportation to that port
e. A significant disadvantage
4. Airspace rights
5. Jurisdiction over outer space
V. Protecting the global environment
A. Patterns
1. Rich countries still pollute more
Political Regionalization and Globalization
2. Poor countries’ share of pollution is increasing
a. Industrialization
b. Population growth
3. Poor countries are using more and more resources and energy
4. Rich countries are increasing energy efficiency
B. Development, pollution, and quality of life
1. Quality of life
a. Income buys goods and services
b. Environment provides air, water, space, etc.
c. Both are needed
2. Balancing economic development and environmental quality
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a. Hard to have both
b. Choices have to be made
c. Poor countries and people have fewer choices
d. Costs of production being moved to poor countries
3. Need sustainable development
a. Wealth-building without environmental damage
b. Hard to do
C. Ozone depletion
1. Damage to the protective ozone layer
2. Montreal Protocol
D. Global warming
1. Controls on emissions of greenhouse gases
2. Disagreements
a. Emission targets
b. United States versus Europe
c. Compromises reached
VI. Critical issues for the future
A. Overcoming differences in cultural values
B. Disparities between poor and rich countries
C. Use of geography’s broad perspective
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