Late Qing Reforms: 1890s-1911
Qing intellectuals and officials increasingly
aware they exist not at the center of the world,
but in a world of Nation-states
Speed becomes essential: in the hostile world of
predatory nation-states, China can’t wait around
for decades to get strong—must act now, and
act fast to survive
Process—nation-building and the revolution are
not simply overnight events, but unfold in phases,
and are operating simultaneously
The 100 Days Reforms of 1898
Kang Youwei (1858-1927): Launches reforms of
1898
 Constitutional monarchy, local elected
assemblies
Kang’s interpretation of Confucianism—not a
conservative philosophy looking back to the
golden age of the past—Kang sees it as a
progressive ideology—”Confucius was a
reformer”

New Policy Reforms: 1901-1911
Political Changes:
Abolish Confucian Examination system
Constitutionalism, Provincial Assemblies

Consequences:
Breakdown of old political system—real questions
about who/where power lies
Confucianism no longer key to political power
Educational Reforms:
Create new schools to teach “modern” subjects to
students
Part of a process of creating “citizens” through
education
Consequences:
New schools bring young generation together in
new ways—become centers for radical activism

Military Reforms
Recognition of the need to completely modernize and
overhaul military to protect dynasty from imperialism
New military training academies set up, with
Western/Japanese instructors
Consequences:
Militarization of politics
Talented young cadets rise quickly to political posts—
future warlords


New Social Groups are Empowered by Qing
Reforms:
Merchants, once the bottom of Confucian
order, now top
Military as a path to power
Students/Youth
Women