Thermal and hydraulic characteristics of a geothermally influenced trout stream : the Firehole River of
Yellowstone National Park
by Dalton Earl Burkhalter
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY in Zoology
Montana State University
© Copyright by Dalton Earl Burkhalter (1979)
Abstract:
The Firehole River in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, is thermally enriched by the effluents of
three geyser basins and numerous other geothermal features. During summer months temperatures in
the lower reaches frequently exceed levels considered lethal for trout, however, self-propagating
populations of brown and rainbow trout exist there year-round. Hydraulic and thermal characteristics of
this stream were measured from July, 1974, to September, 1977, as part of a broader study of the
thermal environment and biology of these resident trout populations. The river discharge averaged 2.1
and 7.5 m^3/s, respectively, at stations separated by 18.5 km above and below the bulk of the thermal
inflow. About 1.5-2.5 m^3/s was estimated to enter the Firehole from geothermal features in the study
reach, representing approximately 20-40% of total discharge during non-runoff periods.
The upper (unheated) station mean temperature ranged from 2.0 to 14.5 C, while the lower (heated)
station mean ranged from 12.0 to 26.0 C. The lower station averaged about 11 C higher than the upper
station. The highest temperature recorded at the lower station was 29.5 C and although this exceeds the
upper lethal limit for trout, no fish kills were observed.
The power added to the river between the upper and lower stations by geothermal features was
estimated as 425 MW. Average monthly solar insolation on a horizontal surface from sun and sky
during critical summer months ranged from 5.2 to 7.2 kW-h/m^2-day averaging about 78% of possible
clear-sky insolation. The thermal loading from solar insolation on the river surface between upper and
lower stations was estimated in the annual range 26-108 MW.
Thermal infrared (IR) imagery was utilized to thermally map the river throughout the reaches where
thermal inflows occur. The IR imagery identified five areas in the river where significant thermal
gradients occur, some of which very probably influence fish movements. THERMAL AND HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A GEOTHERMALLY INFLUENCED
TROUT STREAM: THE FIREHOLE RIVER OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
by
DALTON EARL BURKHALTER
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in'
Zoology
Approved:
ChairmanJ~HExa^arfng CommTfftfee
Ock
ad, Major Department
Graduate Dean
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
November, 1979
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is indebted to many for their aid in the study.
Dr.
Calvin Kaya was the Principal Investigator for the project of which this
study was a part.
He assisted in the collection of field data and in
preparation of the manuscript.
Drs. John Wright and George Roemhild
critically reviewed the manuscript.
Messrs. Lynn Kaeding, Fred Nelson,
and Dick Oswald assisted in collection of field data.
Personnel at the
Old Faithful Ranger Station generously allowed installation of recording
equipment.
Mr. Aubrey Haines, former Yellowstone Park historian, kindly
provided information on historical place names in the Park.
Special thanks are due Mr. John Varley, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, for coordinating research activities in the Park and provid­
ing access to Library materials.
Dr. Morris Skinner, Colorado State
University, was helpful in arranging an overflight with thermal IR
equipment.
The U.S. Forest Service, Boise Fire Laboratory, performed
the overflight and generously loaned equipment for data reduction.
Special thanks go to Mr. Harley Leach, Electronics Research Laboratory,
for his indispensable help in digitizing the IR data.
Finally, special appreciation goes to my wife and children, to my
parents, and to my wife's parents.
Their encouragement and support
was indispensable.
The study was funded in part by a U.S. Department of Energy grant
under Contract No. EY-76-S-06-2228, Task Agreement 2.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
V I T A ..........................................................
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT....................... .................... '. . . iii
LIST OF T A B L E S ..................................................
LIST OF FIGURES
................................................
A B S T R A C T ............ ............................................
v
vi
ix
INTRODUCTION ..................................
I
DESCRIPTION OF STUDYA R E A ............................
7
M E T H O D S .........................................................
11
R E S U L T S .........................................................
20
D i s c h a r g e ............................. ". .............. .. . 20
Temperature ............
. . . . . . .
................... ' 2 5
Infrared i m a g e r y .....................................
28
Heat rate fromgeothermal inflows ..........................
57
Solar i n s o l a t i o n ...............•..........................
59
D I S C U S S I O N ....................................
65
A P P E N D I X .......................................
76
REFERENCES CITED ......................................
. . . . .
83
V
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
Page
Annual discharge of Madison River 13 km below
Hebgen Reservoir ...........................................
2.
Discharge at various locations along the Firehole
River and its tributaries (m /s ) .......... .............. 23
3.
Mean daily insolation (E ) measured at Old Faithful
Ranger Station compared with mean calculated clear-sky
insolation (E ) and values estimated from Bennett
(1965) . . . 1T . . . . . .
..........................
22
62
I
4.
Mean monthly power added to Firehole River between
Stations A and B from solar insolation (E" ) and geo­
thermal inflows ("E ) and the ratios "E /E f S' /(E +E )
and E /(E +E ) . .g ................. T A
.S . A l . . .
S
S g
............... 77
5.
Station A temperature data (C)
6.
Station B temperature data ( C ) .......... ................ 78
7.
Temperature data at noted locations on the Firehoie
River and its tributaries (C)
8 . Air temperature at Old Faithful Ranger Station (C) . . . . .
9.
10.
63
79
80
Total insolation from sun and sky on a horizontal surface
at Old Faithful Ranger Station.
1976 . . . . . . . . . .
811
0
*
Total insolation from sun and sky on a horizontal surface
at Old Faithful Ranger Station. 1977
82
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
Page
Map of lower 28 km of Firehole River and its location
in Yellowstone National Park . ............................
8
2.
Typical solar insolation records for clear day (top)
and partly cloudy day (bottom) . ............................ 13
3.
Typical photograph of IR imagery obtained from the C.R.T.
16
4.
Typical line printer output utilizing shading to display
IR imagery ........ . . . . . . ............... . . . . .
17
5.
Typical line printer output utilizing a field of digits
to display IR i m a g e r y ...........................
19
6 . Hydrographs for Stations A and B ................. ..
21
7.
26
Average monthly mean temperature
at indicated locations .
8 . Average 5-day mean temperature for indicated years . . . .
9.
10.
11.
12.
29
Mean temperature histograms and average monthly means
at Station A .................. ............................ 30
Mean temperature histograms and average monthly means
at Station B . . ............... .................. ..
Average 5-day mean air temperatures for indicated years
at Old Faithful Ranger Station .............................
31
32
Mean air temperature histograms and monthly average means
at Old Faithful Ranger Station . . . . . .................
33
IR imagery of Firehole River from Station A to Old
Faithful Geyser
....................... . . . . . . . . .
34
14.
IR imagery of Firehole River in Upper Geyser Basin . . . .
35
15.
IR imagery of Firehole River below confluence of Iron
Spring C r e e k .............................
16.
,IR imagery of Firehole River entering Midway Geyser Basin
13.
37
vii
Figure
Page
17.
IR imagery
of Firehole River below Midway Geyser Basin . .
33
18.
IR imagery
of Firehole River in Lower Geyser Basin . . . .
39
19.
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Nez Perce
C r e e k ....................................................
40
20.
IR imagery of Firehole River below Nez Perce Creek . . . .
41
21.
Temperature of Firehole River and tributaries (+) from
IR i m a g e r y ...................................................
22.
23.
24.
25.
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Iron Spring
Creek illustrating thermal gradients .......................
45
Thermal gradients in Firehole River at confluence of
Iron Spring C r e e k ..........................................
46
IR imagery of Firehole River at Excelsior Geyser
illustrating thermal gradient
. . . .....................
47
Thermal gradient in Firehole River below inflow of
Excelsior Geyser ............................................
Thermal gradient in Firehole River below Excelsior Geyser
27.
IR imagery of Firehole River at upper end of Lower Geyser
Basin illustrating thermal gradient
.......................
29.
Thermal gradient in Firehole River at upper end of
Lower Geyser B a s i n ............. ... .............. ..
50
51
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Sentinel
Creek illustrating thermal gradient
.......................
30.
Thermal gradient in Firehole River below Sentinel Creek
31.
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Nez Perce .
Creek illustrating thermalgradient
. . . . ...............
32.
48
49
26.
28.
43
.
Thermal gradients in Firehole River below Sentinel
Creek (I) and below Nez Perce C r e e k ................... ..
52
53
543
*
2
55
viii
Figure
33.
34.
Page
Total daily insolation (averaged over 5-day periods)
from sun and sky on a horizontal surface at Old
Faithful Ranger Station ..........
. . . . . . . . . . .
603
4
Daily solar insolation histograms and monthly averages
at Old Faithful Ranger Station ...........................
61
ix
ABSTRACT
The Firehole River in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, is
thermally enriched by the effluents of three geyser basins and numerous
other geothermal features. During summer months temperatures in the
lower reaches frequently exceed levels considered lethal for trout,
however, self-propagating populations of brown and rainbow trout exist
there year-round. Hydraulic and thermal characteristics of this stream
were measured from July, 1974, to September, 1977, as part of a broader
study of the thermal environment and biology of these resident trout
populations.
^
The river discharge averaged 2.1 and 7.5 m J/s, respectively, at
stations separated by 18.5 km above and below the bulk of the thermal
inflow. About I .5-2.5 m^/s was estimated to enter the Firehole from
geothermal features in the study reach, representing approximately
20-40% of total discharge during non-runoff periods.
The upper (unheated) station mean temperature ranged from 2.0
to 14.5 C, while the lower (heated) station mean ranged from 12.0 to
26.0 C. The lower station averaged about 11 C higher than the upper
station. The highest temperature recorded at the lower station was
29.5 C and although this exceeds the upper lethal limit for trout,
no fish kills were observed.
The power added to the river between the upper and lower stations
by geothermal features was estimated as 425 MW. Average monthly solar
insolation on a horizontal surface from sun and sky during critical
summer months ranged from 5.2 to 7.2 kW-h/m2-day averaging about 78%
of possible clear-sky insolation. The thermal loading from solar
insolation on the river surface between upper and lower stations was
estimated in the annual range 26-108 MW.
Thermal infrared (IR) imagery was utilized to thermally map the
river throughout the reaches where thermal inflows occur. The IR
imagery identified five ardas in the river where significant thermal
gradients occur, some of which very probably influence fish movements.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal enrichment of natural waters and its effects on resident
organisms have received extensive attention in the literature (Krenkel
and Parker 1969; Parker and Krenkel 1970; McKee and Wolf 1963).
The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has published recommendations for
temperature regimes for some freshwater fishes (National Academy of
Sciences and National Academy of Engineering 1972).
Numerous articles
deal with heat budgets a.nd with modeling of thermal inflows to lakes
and streams (Jackman and Yotsukura 1977; Jobson 1973; Bauer and
Mackenroth 1974; Morse 1970; Brown 1969, 1972; Raphael 1962; Wright and
Horrall 1967).
Sources of thermal enrichment have historically included geo­
thermal features (relatively few locations), impoundments, municipali­
ties, industries, and electric power generating facilities.
The
demand for electric power is approximately doubling every ten years in
the U.S.
Fossil-fueled and nuclear-fission plants will provide the '
major share of the increase in power production in this century.
Hydroelectric power is, for all practical purposes, fixed at present
capacity and alternate energy sources (solar, wind, etc.) and nuclear
fusion are too far away to assume a significant share of the load
(Krenz 1976).
Fossil-fueled steam electric plants have reached a practical
limit of about 40% efficiency and fission plants are somewhat lower in
efficiency due to materials and safety considerations (Krenz 1976;
-2Parker and Krenkel 1970).
Nuclear power plants transfer essentially
all waste heat to cooling water; fossil-fueled plants transfer about
two-thirds to cooling water and the remainder occurs as stack loss
(Parker and Krenkel 1970).
Electric power generation through conver­
sion of magnetohydrodynamic energy may yield efficiencies up to 80%
(Rosa 1968) but this process is confined to the experimental stage at
this time.
Although cooling towers are utilized in many instances in trans­
ferring waste heat to the atmosphere, many present and future instal­
lations use, and will use, once-through cooling with a natural body of
water receiving the final heat load.
As the population increases and
demand for manufactured goods and electric power continues to rise,
ever increasing demands will be placed on our natural waters for
cooling.
As a result, the pronounced changes in biological communi­
ties which accompany thermal enrichment will continue to be more
widespread.
Heat assimilated from exogenous sources (i.e. geothermal,
industrial, or power generation) manifests itself as "excess tempera­
ture" in a flowing stream.
Excess temperature is defined as any
increase over the natural stream temperature which would exist in the
absence of any exogenous source.
Excess temperature decays through
dissipation of heat to the surrounding environment, primarily to the
atmosphere.
Conduction to the stream bottom is generally considered
-3lnsignificant and is usually ignored.
An exception is claimed by
Brown (1969, 1972) in which conduction into the stream bed amounted to
20-25% of total energy transfer for shallow streams with a bedrock
bottom.
Four mechanisms of heat exchange at a water surface are recog­
nized.
They are shortwave and longwave radiation, evaporation (or
condensation) and conduction (Jackman and Yotsukura 1977).
Shortwave
radiation (contained in solar radiation) contributes the greatest
individual component of natural heat flux.
Positive values (heat flux
2
into the water is positive) in excess of I kW/m
summer months.
insolation.
are common during
Longwave radiation contributes a lesser amount to solar
A percentage of solar insolation is reflected off the
water surface.
Reflected radiation expressed as a percent of total
incoming radiation is known as the albedo of the surface.
The albedo
of water is typically about five.
Longwave radiation is essentially the only constituent of back
radiation from the water surface.
Back radiation is temperature
dependent and can amount to a negative 300-450 W/m
range 0-30 C.
2
for water in the
Back radiation, H^, follows the Stefan-Boltzmann
equation,
4
H =EffT
r
-4where e is emissivity (0.97 for water),
O
is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant (5.67 x 10 ^ W/m^-K^), and T is absolute temperature in K.
Evaporative heat flux is dependent on wind speed and relative
humidity and can amount to negative values of 400 W/m
atmosphere and moderate wind speeds.
2
for a dry
Positive values can occur when
conditions result in condensation on the water surface.
heat flux,
Evaporative
is given by Jackman and Yotsukura (1977) as,
He=XNuAp
where X is latent heat of vaporization (2,495 J/kg), N is a mass
transfer coefficient (typical value, 2.42 x 10 ^ kg/m-N), U is wind
speed (m/s), and Ap is the difference between the saturation vapor
pressure at the temperature of the surface and the partial pressure of
2
water vapor in the surrounding air (N/m ).
Conductive heat flux is dependent on evaporative heat flux and
the ambient air temperature.
2
or negative 200 W/m .
Typical values can amount to a positive
Conductive heat flux, H^, is given by Bowen
(1926) as,
H =BH
c
e
where Hg is evaporative heat flux and B is the Bowen ratio,
B= 6.lxlO_ 4PAT/Ap
where AT is the temperature difference between air and water (positive
for air temperature > water temperature), P is atmospheric pressure
2
in N/m , and Ap is the difference in pressure as defined for H , above.
-5Although the decay of excess temperature is complex and nonlinear,
linearized approximations exist which work well for excess temperatures
within about 10 C of natural temperatures (Bauer and Mackenroth 1974;
Jackman and Yotsukura 1977).
Use of a model of this type allows
prediction of decay of excess temperature with downstream flow.
Dissipation of excess heat is a gradual process and can extend over
long distances.
Jackman and Yotsukura (1977) cite five of seven
studies in which the remaining excess heat amounted to more than 50%
of the initial excess at points 30 km downstream.
An integral part of the assessment of impacts of thermal enrich­
ment on biological systems is .the description and quantitation of
thermal loading.
With increasingly greater heat loads to be assimi­
lated and more numerous sources to monitor, analysis of assimilative
capacity and excess temperature becomes exceedingly complex.
The
biologist or engineer is faced with greater demands upon time and
equipment to accomplish the task of quantifying biological impacts,
temperature changes, and dissipation of excess heat to the atmosphere
from the water surface.
The present work was done, in partj to
develop and apply some rather novel methods and techniques for
describing the physical aspects of the more complex occurrences of
thermal enrichment in streams.
The balance of the work was done using
standard procedures to describe the hydraulic parameters of a stream
in conjunction with an overall assessment of. the impacts of thermal
—6—
enrichment on resident trout populations (Kaya 1977, 1978a; Kaeding
and Kaya 1978; Kaya et al. 1977).
The stream studied was the Firehole River in Yellowstone National
Park, Wyoming.
This stream receives effluent from three major geyser
basins of Yellowstone Park as well as numerous other geothermal
features.
The distribution of thermal features along the river is
complex and is such that recovery can not occur from one inflow to the
next.
Mid-summer water temperatures in the warmest part of the river
frequently exceed values considered as ultimate upper incipient lethal
temperatures for trout (National Academy of Sciences and National
Academy of Engineering 1972; Hokanson et al. 1977).
In spite of these
temperature regimes, viable trout populations exist and have been selfpropagating since cessation of stocking in 1955 (Jones et al. 1978).
A comprehensive and accurate description of these complex tempera­
ture distributions and the obtaining of, routine hydraulic and meteorologic data formed an important part of the overall study.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
The Firehole River is wholly contained within Yellowstone
National Park (Fig. I).
Its sources originate just under the east side
of the continental divide at elevations approaching 2,560 m.
From
Madison Lake (el. 2,506 m) near the headwaters, it is a small cold
stream flowing about 14.5 km to Kepler Cascades, which forms a natural
barrier to upstream fish movement.
Station A (2,317 m) was located
about 0.5 km above Kepler Cascades for measurement of discharge and
temperature.
The stream is essentially uninfluenced by geothermal
inflow above Kepler Cascades.
About 3 km below this point the Old Faithful Geyser area (2,246
m) is encountered.
This is part of the Upper Geyser Basin and the
first significant thermal contributions occur here.
The stream flows
4 km from here to its confluence with Iron Spring Creek (2,210 m ) .
The Little Firehole River joins Iron Spring Creek just above its
junction with the main.Firehole.
The Little Firehole River is a small
cold stream while Iron Spring Creek is warmed by numerous thermal
inflows.
Above the confluence of the Little Firehole River, Iron
Spring Creek averages somewhat higher in temperature than the main
Firehole.
From Kepler Cascades to the Old Faithful Area, the river flows
through a deep narrow canyon with a gradient of about 1.5%.
The sub­
strate is a mixture of bedrock, boulders, sand, and gravel.
The
bedrock is rhyolite lava which occurs throughout the Firehole drainage
—8—
*fcr— Kepler Cascades
\
Old Faithful Geyser
V
Upper
Geyser
Basin
I _-Iron
\
Spring Cr.
I
I
I
/
Little
Flrehole R
Madison R
Midway
Geyser
Basin
Gibbon R.
Excelsior
Geyser
Flrehole R
Yellowstone
National
Park
Lower
Geyser
Basin
Sentinel Cr
Perce Cr.
Kilometers
Flrehole Cascades
Flrehole Falls
Madison R
Gibbon
Madlsony
Junction
Figure I.
Map of lower 28 km of Firehole River and its location
in Yellowstone National Park. Note north arrow on inset
differs in direction from principal map.
—9—
basin (Alt and Hyndman 1972).
From Old Faithful to Iron Spring Creek
the river flows through a wide valley and is largely unshaded and
shallow.
The gradient is about 0.60%.
The substrate is bedrock with
limited areas of sand and gravel.
Below the confluence of Iron Spring Creek the river flows 7 km
(gradient 0.25%) through alternate meadow and forest to Midway Geyser
Basin (2,201 m) where a second concentration of geothermal features
discharges into it.
The most notable of these is the presently steady
3
flow (0.17 m /s, Allen and Day 1935) from the dormant Excelsior Geyser.
Prior to its cessation of activity in 1888 this was a giant geyser '
erupting to 91.5 m and causing the Firehole River to rise appreciably
(Haines 1977).
From Iron Spring Creek to Midway, the substrate is
bedrock mixed with boulders and gravel.
From Midway the river deepens in a 4 km reach to a point about I
km upstream from Sentinel Creek.
Station B (2,189 m) was established
here for measurement of discharge and temperature.
The stream from
Midway to Station B is largely unshaded and flows alternately over
bedrock, gravel, and m u d .
Station B was in the Lower Geyser Basin
and below the bulk of the thermal inflows.
About I km below Station B , Sentinel Creek (small and cold,
2,186 m) joins the Firehole.
Nez Perce Creek (2,181 m) joins the
Firehole 2 km below Sentinel Creek.
Virtually all thermal inflows of
the Firehole have occurred above this point.
From Station B to Nez
-10Perce Creek the river is unshaded and flows over bedrock, gravel, and
mud.
From Midway to Nez Perce Creek the gradient is about 0.25%.
From Nez Perce Creek the river flows 6.5 km (gradient 0.25%) to
Firehole Falls (an upstream barrier to fish movement) and thence 1.5
km to its confluence with the Gibbon River at Madison Junction (2,073
m).
The combined flows become the Madison River at this point.
The
Firehole flows largely through forest below Nez Perce Creek and is in
a deep canyon from Firehole Cascades to Madison Junction.
Below Nez
Perce Creek the substrate is bedrock, large boulders, and gravel.
The reach between Stations A and B is about 18.5 km and contains
an elevation difference of 128 m.
Geothermal features contribute significant amounts of Na+ , HCO^,
Cl , and SiOg to the river which becomes progressively richer in these
substances as it flows through the succeeding geyser basins (Wright
and Mills 1967; Allen and Day 1935).
Above Firehole Falls the river has populations of brown trout
'(Salmo tvutta) ,
(Salmo gairdneri),
rainbow trout
(SalVel^inus fontinalis)
and brook trout
in various patterns of distribution.
These
are the only fish species present in this stream reach which was
historically barren of fish.
Firehole beginning in 1889.
Trout were artificially planted in the
They have been self-sustaining since the
cessation of stocking in 1955.
METHODS
Water temperature was measured with a standard mercury-in-glass
thermometer or a hydrographic thermometer (Whitney Corporation).
Continuous temperature recordings were made with Ryon submersible 30day thermographs.
Air temperature was recorded by the National Park
Service at the Old Faithful Ranger Station by a mercury-in-glass
minimum-maximum thermometer.
Mean daily temperature was defined as the
simple average of the daily minimum and maximum.
Temperatures from air
and water were entered into a computer program written by the author
to calculate monthly means, minima, maxima, 5-day means, etc.
Discharge was determined with a Price, type A A , current meter
(the Gurley Co.).
Procedures used in measurements and calculations
followed those of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1967).
Stage-
discharge relationships were established at Stations A and B to verify
accuracy of the measurements.
These relationships were analyzed with
the aid of a polynomial regression program; r-values of 0.99 (P<.01)
were achieved.
Discharge volumes were obtained by integration of
hydrographs.
Solar insolation was measured with a radiometer (Fowlkes Engi­
neering, Bozeman, Montana) utilizing a silicon photovoltaic cell.
This type of radiometer is much less expensive than the standard
thermopile-type and provides accuracy to ± 5% (Sel^uk and Yellot
1962).
This instrument was calibrated against a Kipp and Zonen
pyronometer.
Total radiation (power) from sun and sky incident on
-12a horizontal surface was recorded on strip chart (Fig. 2) by a Rustrak
battery-operated continuous recorder.
Power-time curves were inte­
grated with a compensating polar planimeter.
Monthly means, maxima,
minima, and 5-day averages were calculated by computer.
Infrared (IR) imagery from Station A to below Nez Perce Creek was
obtained by an overflight conducted by the U.S. Forest Service, Boise
Fire Laboratory, Boise, Idaho.
The equipment was developed for use in
forest fire detection (Wilson et al. 1971) but is used to advantage
to map water surface temperatures (Boettcher et al. 1976; Skinner and
Ruff 1973).
The IR imagery was calibrated with mercury thermometer
data obtained by observers stationed along the river during the over­
flight (ground-truth data).
IR imagery may be used to determine stream surface temperature
because of back radiation from the water surface which obeys the
Stefan-Boltzmann law (see introduction).
The detector and associated
equipment sense the radiative power from the desired target.
The
signal is converted to a voltage whose magnitude is proportional to
absolute temperature.
Radiative power at a given temperature does not all occur at the
same frequency but instead follows a wavelength distribution curve
known as Planck's law.
The peak radiative power occurs at a unique
wavelength for any given temperature and this wavelength is found from
Figure 2.
Typical solar insolation records for clear day (top) and partly cloudy day
(bottom). Dark horizontal lines were an aid to integration of curves.
—14—
Wien’s displacement law,
XT=2897o6ym-K
where A is the wavelength of peak radiative power and T is the absolute
temperature.
For water in the range 0-30 C the radiative power peaks
in the thermal infrared region in the range 9.6-10.6 ym.
These rela­
tions are described in detail by Skinner and Ruff (1973).
■ The IR equipment contained a scanner with a detector sensitive in
the 8-11 ym range.
The analog signal from the scanner was amplified
and sent to a cathode-ray tube (C.R.T.) whose scan rate was synchro­
nized with the IR scanner.
The C.R.T. image was recorded on an
ordinary negative-type black and white film moving past the C.R.T. ■
The film entered a rapid processor and emerged some 20 .seconds later
developed and fixed providing a real-time IR image of the terrain
below.
The IR imagery appeared as areas of varying silver'density
with a direct correlation between density and temperature.
At a
later time photographic positives were printed from the negatives.
At the same time the scanner signal was going to the C.R.T. it
was also being recorded on magnetic tape for post-flight data analysis.
The analog data were digitized and stored on magnetic tape by Mr.
Harley Leach of the Electronics Research Laboratory at Montana State
University.
Digitized data consisted of frames.
Each frame consisted
of selected segments of 512 scan lines (ca. 0.7 km of river reach)
with each scan line equally divided into 512 parts.
Each of these
-15digitized parts was designated a picture element or "pixel" and
represented the average radiation from approximately 2 . 3 m
2
(a square,
1.5 m on a side).
Each frame consisted, then, of 512
eight bits (I byte) for storage.
2
pixels.
Each pixel required
Storage requirements for each frame
were then 262,144 bytes or about 2.1 million bits.
Each frame was
played individually through a digital-to-analog converter and into an
oscilloscope.
The oscilloscope image was recorded by Polaroid film
allowing a visual check on the accuracy and limits of each digitized
frame (Fig, 3).
The photographs of the real-time C.R.T. image and the Polaroid
prints of the digitized frames provided only graphic representation of
the data.
A quantitation of the digital data was necessary to realize
the full benefits of the IR imagery process.
Computer programs, written by the author, were used in conjunction
with others written by Mr. Harley Leach to read the digitized data
from magnetic tape and to assign temperature values using the groundtruth data obtained at the time of the overflight.
The temperatures
were output as.imagery on a standard line printer by an overprinting
technique (Fig. 4).
Macleod (1970).
delimited.
Symbols used in the overprinting were taken from
This imagery allowed the river to be accurately
—16—
Figure 3.
Typical photograph of IR imagery obtained from the C.R.T.
The display illustrates a digital-to-analog conversion of
data stored on magnetic tape. Pictured is Old Faithful
Area.
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Figure 4.
Typical line printer output utilizing shading to display
IR imagery. Density is inversely correlated with temper­
ature. Area featured is confluence of Sentinel Creek.
-18A second part of the output (also from a standard line printer)
consisted of the same imagery represented by a field of digits (one
digit per pixel) overprinted so that a temperature range of 0-29 C
could be coded (Fig. 5).
With the two parts of the printout at hand,
the water surface temperature of the delimited river reach could be
obtained quickly and accurately (accuracy ca. ±1 C).
Furthermore,
temperature gradients from thermal or cold-water inflows could be
easily observed for the extent of their persistence.
Isotherms were constructed by connecting points of equal tempera­
ture along temperature interfaces.
Tracings of river and isotherms
made from several adjacent printouts assembled together provided
graphic and quantitative presentations of temperature distributions
and gradients.
-19It-=.
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I
$ =5C; 5- 15 C ;5 - 2 5 C
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5 5 3 3 3 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 9 * * * * 1 1 4 3 . 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 5 5 6 7 7 77 8 9 9 ( 1 9 8 6 6 5 5 5 5 3 5 4 * 5 6 6 5 4 1 ^ g e V S 6 5 2 » S * S * » e s
6 6 76 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 4 1 v f i f i i 2 2 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 6 7 767 7 766 7 7 7 7 8 9 9 9 3 8 6 3 5 5 4 4 5 3 5 4 1 5 6 6 5 5 5 M 6 8 2 V p * * S S * e S a a
6 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 6 5 6 5 4 1 1 * 1 1 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 76 7 7 6 6 3 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 3 0 * 7 6 3 5 4 4 5 6 6 6 5 S 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 W a * L L b , f * * * * * *
5566666676665553367777777767876444445677766777765554456675222221445366635*4455}*
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5 5 3 6 7 * 6 6 6 7 6 6 3 3 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 5 6 7 7 77 7 7 6 6 3 3 5 6 6 7 7 6 7 7 7 6 5 3 4 3 3 5 5 6 5 4 2 1 1 11 ) 2 2 2 l 4 1 1 1 4 a * l * * 5 5 1 1 e *
8 22
222
1
Figure 5.
Typical line printer output utilizing a field of digits
to display IR imagery. River was delimited by hand. Area
featured is same as in Figure 4.
RESULTS
Discharge
Hydrographs for Stations A and B are shown in Figure 6 for
September, 1975, through September, 1977.
It may readily be observed
that discharge in 1976 was significantly higher than in 1977.
For the
comparable periods of May-September, the 1976:1977 discharge volume
ratios were:
Station A, 2.8; Station B , 1.8.
The lesser difference
at Station B was likely due to a fairly constant and significant volume
of thermal water entering the Firehole above Station B.
Station A more
accurately reflected surface runoff which was low due to unusually
light snowpack in the winter of 1976-1977 followed by a drought in 1977
(Jones et al. 1978).
A comparison with the Madison River provides a perspective of the
Firehole runoff for these two years.
Annual discharge volumes of the
Madison River (measured 13 km below Hebgen Reservoir and adjusted for
storage in the reservoir) have been determined for many years by the
U.S. Geological Survey.
A comparison of discharge volumes for the
years 1974-1977 with the long-term average volume (Table I) shows 1976
38% above average and 1977 12.6% below average, a volume ratio of 1.58
(1976:1977).
This ratio is lower than that for either Station A or B
but it must be considered that this ratio is from a much greater water­
shed and full, instead of partial, water years.
The value is close
enough, however, to suggest that the discharge volume of the Madison is
indicative of the Firehole for 1976 and 1977.
Based on this comparison
hectare-m
Break in data from September,
1975
-21
hectare-i
Station B
hectare-m"
Station A
Figure 6 .
Hydrographs for Stations A and B.
are shown.
hectare-m
Discharge volumes for comparable time periods
-22the discharge volume of the Firehole was below normal for 1977, a con­
clusion supported by visual observations and by Jones et al.
Table I.
(1978).
Annual discharge of Madison River 13 km below Hebgen
Reservoir (Adjusted for storage in the reservoir) (U.S.G.S.
1974-1977).
Discharge
(ha-m)
Avg. Discharge
(ha-m)
1974
113,937
88,564 (65)2
+28.6
1975
.110,545
88,811 (66)
+24.5
1976
123,237
89,279 (67)
+38.0
1977
77,894
89,094 (68)
- 12.6
Water Year"*"
% Deviation
from avg.
Water year is defined as October of previous year through September
of noted year.
Number in () indicates years of record upon which average is based.
Discharge data for Stations A and B and for other locations, when
available, are given in Table 2.
The mean discharge at Station A for
3
the period September, 1975, through September, 1977, was 2.1 ± 0.8 m /s
(P=.05, N=19).
The difference in average non-runoff discharge (dis­
charge during periods of low flow when surface runoff was minimal)
between Station A and a point just above Iron Spring Creek was
3
0.4 ± 0.7 m /s (P=.05, N=7).
Most of this difference was probably due
to thermal inflow from the Upper Geyser Basin although gains or losses
to the groundwater may have influenced the value.
Allen and Day
-23Table 2.
Discharge at various locations along the Firehole River and
its tributaries (m^/s).
CO
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N
-24(1935), who estimated thermal inflow by summing discharge from each
3
feature, gave 0.25 m /s as the thermal inflow for this same reach.
After its confluence with the Little Firehole River, Iron Spring Creek
3
had a non-runoff average of 2.5 ± 0.6 m /s (P=.05, N=7) while the main
Firehole just above the mouth of Iron Spring Creek averaged 1.8 ± 0.8
3
m /s (P=.05, N=7).
Iron Spring Creek probably contributes more dis­
charge than the main Firehole throughout the year except possibly
during peak runoff periods.
A large percentage of Iron Spring Creek
originates from thermal features which tend to sustain its discharge
throughout non-runoff months.
After joining with Iron Spring Creek the Firehole appeared to
maintain a steady flow (when uninfluenced by snowmelt) until it
reached Midway Geyser Basin.
of discharge.
3
At Midway the river gained 1-2 m /s
3
Alien and Day (1935) gave 0.37 m /s as the thermal
contribution from Midway.
A significant quantity of thermal inflow at
Midway is indicated by a temperature differential of 2-3 C between
points above and below.
Underwater thermal springs (Argyle 1966) may
contribute inflow undetected by Allen and Day.
From Midway to Station B the late-summer discharge remained
essentially constant although many thermal features enter within this
reach.
3
Allen and Day (1935) estimated an inflow of about 0.5 m /s of
thermal water in this reach although it was not detected by discharge
-25differential in the present study. It is quite possible that losses to
the groundwater account for the apparent discrepancy.
The mean dis-
charge at Station B (for all measurements) was 7.5 ± 2.2 m /s (P=.05,
N=20). The net inflow from thermal features above Station B was esti3
mated as I .5-2.5 m /s (20-40% of total non-runoff discharge).
Below Station B the most significant thermal contribution is Ojo
3
Caliente Spring (0.006 m /s) (Allen and Day 1935).
Sentinel Creek
(0.3 m /s) receives some thermal water but maintains an average temp­
erature about 10 C lower than the Firehole and so is considered a cold
3
tributary.
Nez Perce Creek (2.0 m /s) is the last significant tribu­
tary to the Firehole and it was generally cooler than the Firehole by
3-5 C.
Below Nez Perce the river continued to Madison Junction with
no grossly apparent change in discharge.
Temperature
Water temperature at Stations A and B was continuously recorded
for all or part of 1974-1977 except for occasional interruptions due to
equipment failure or difficulty of access to the recorders during
winter.
periods.
Temperature at other locations was recorded for shorter
Air temperature at Old Faithful was obtained for most of the
period January, 1975, through September, 1977.
Monthly means (average
of the daily mean temperatures) of water and air temperature are pre­
sented in Figure 7.
These same data plus average monthly highs,
lows, and extremes are presented in Appendix Tables 5-8.
Above Midway
■Geyser Basin
Station
Iron Spring
Cr.
Flrehole R.
above Iron
< Spring C r / X /
Sentinel Cr.
Station
Little— —
. Flrehole R
Air temperature at
Old Faithful Ranger
Station
JA
Figure 7.
S O N
Noncontlnuous data
i I i I I I i i i i
DJ F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
Average monthly mean temperature
J A S O N D J
at indicated locations.
F M A M J J A
S
-27Average monthly mean temperature at Station A ranged from 2.0 C
(December, 1974) to 14.5 C (July, 1977).
Lower temperatures could
have occurred during periods when records were not continuous.
This
temperature range is typical of mountain streams in this area.
Average monthly means at Station B , in contrast, ranged from 12.0 C
(January, 1974) to 26,0 C (July, 1977).
higher than Station A.
Station B averaged about. 11 C
Highest temperature values recorded during
the study period were 20.0 C for Station A and 29.5 C for Station B.
These values occurred during the summer of 1977 (Tables 5 and 6).
As earlier stated. Sentinel Creek averaged about 10 C lower than
Station B during the late summer.
The temperature values recorded
above Midway were intermediate between Stations A and B.
The Little
Firehole averaged about 4 C higher than Station A while Iron Spring
Creek was about 8 C higher than Station A.
The temperature of the
main Firehole just above Iron Spring Creek was intermediate between
Stations A and B.
Mean monthly air temperature ranged from -12.5 C
(January, 1975) to 15.5 C (July, 1975).
Temperature transects of the river indicated that mixing was
complete both laterally and vertically except in the vicinity of
thermal or cold-water inflows.
These exceptions are described in
detail under infrared imagery, below.
The periods of high temperature were of the most interest with
respect to survival of trout populations and, therefore, the summer
-28months merited additional analysis.
Figure 8 presents 5-day averages
of mean temperature for Stations A and B.
The curves are plotted so
that the years 1975-1977 may be directly compared.
The 1977 summer
temperature (a summer of below-average runoff) was consistently higher
than that of 1975 and 1976.
This is shown more clearly by Figures 9
and 10 in which are plotted the percentage of days in which the mean
temperature equalled or exceeded a given value.
These histograms
reveal that temperature was significantly higher in June, 1977, and
decreasingly so in July, August, and early September (all data are
adjusted to correspond to the month of least continuous data).
Figure 11'shows 5-day averages of mean air temperature and Figure
12 shows the percentage of days that mean air temperature equalled or
exceeded a given value for the summer months of 1975-1977.
June, 1977,
was significantly warmer in comparison while July, 1977, was cooler and
August and September were only slightly warmer than the same months in
1975 and 1976.
Infrared imagery
IR imagery (obtained 21 October 1976) of the Firehole River from
just above Station A to below Nez Perce Creek is presented in Figures
13-20.
Although the imagery closely resembles a visible light photo­
graph, it is a record of thermal IR only.
Higher temperatures appear
as less dense areas in the photographic positives.
Thermal features
-29-
25
1977
1975
Station B
20
1976
1977
1975
10
Station A
1976
5
Noncontinuous data
j_______________I_______________I______________ I______________
June
Figure 8.
July
Aua.
Average 5-day mean temperature
Sept.
for indicated years
i
X 75=7-0
X76=S-O
X75=IS-O
X75=IS-O
X76=12-5
X
X77=IS.5
X77= H .5
X77=IS-O
76=
X75=Il-O
X 76=10*
-5
I l - S
X77=Il-S
76 76
77 77 77 77
77 77
IOO
a.
25.
77
77
77
77
77
60-
I
u>
?
77
40-
days >
indic a t e d tempe r a t u r e
80
»=
20
75
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ju n e
Figure 9.
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I
Temperature,
July
10 11 12 13 14
76
10 11 12
C
I
August
ISept.
Mean temperature histograms and average monthly means at Station A
1-11
x^_=25.0
xlf=24.0
16.0
18.0
25.0
^7=26.0
x,,=23.0
22.5
21.5
24.0
x77=24
75
100-
77 77
77 77
77 77
77 77
temperature
60
indic a t e d
80-
40-
days ^
77 77
<»= 20 -
Jun e
Figure 10.
16-30
I
Temperature, C
J u l y 13-31
I
A u g u s t 11-31
I
S e p t . 1-12
Mean temperature histograms and average monthly means at Station B
-32-
15
Temperature
u
1977
1975
1976
5
— — — — Noncontinuous data
j_________
June
Figure 11.
___________ I
July
Auaust
I
September
Average 5-day mean air temperatures for indicated years
at Old Faithful Ranger Station.
X-C=IS .5
X 7 C = IS . 0
7.5
8.5
11.0
x
75 75
77 77 77
'°=1 4 . 0
x7C.= 12.0
H .0
^
76
=
Figure 12.
I
9.0
10.5
Il-O
75
Temperature,
June
10.0
X 7 C =
July
I
75
77 75
C
August
I
Sept.
1-12
Mean air temperature histograms and monthly average means at Old Faithful Ranger
Station.
-34-
Figure 13.
IR imagery of Firehole River from Station A to Old Faith­
ful Geyser. Temperature (C) of river is in left margin;
tributary temperature is noted with tributary name. Photo­
graphic density is inversely correlated with temperature.
Figure 14.
IR Imagery of Firehole River in Upper Geyser Basin.
Temperature (C) of river is in left margin. Photographic
density is inversely correlated with temperature.
(Con­
tinuous with Figure 13.)
—3 6—
Figure 15.
IR imagery of Firehole River below confluence of Iron
Spring Creek. Temperature (C) of river is in left margin;
tributary temperature is noted with tributary name. Photo­
graphic density is inversely correlated with temperature.
(Continuous with Figure 14.)
-37-
Figure 16.
IR imagery of Firehole River entering Midway Geyser Basin.
Temperature (C) of river is in left margin. Photographic
density is inversely correlated with temperature.
(Continuous with Figure 15.)
Figure 17.
IR imagery of Firehole River below Midway Geyser Basin.
Temperature (C) of river is in left margin. Photographic
density is inversely correlated with temperature.
(Continuous with Figure 16.)
-39-
Figure 18.
IR imagery of Firehole River in Lower Geyser Basin. Temp­
erature (C) of river is in left margin; tributary
temperature is noted with tributary name. Photographic
density is inversely correlated with temperature.
(Continuous with Figure 17.)
—40-
Figure 19.
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Nez Perce
Creek. Temperature (C) of river is in left margin;
tributary temperature is noted with tributary name. Photo­
graphic density is inversely correlated with temperature.
(Continuous with Figure 18.)
-41-
Figure 20.
IR imagery of Firehole River below Nez Perce Creek.
Temperature (C) of river is in left margin. Photographic
density is inversely correlated with temperature.
(Continuous with Figure 19.)
-42appear white; all thermal features appear the same temperature (same
density) because the IR equipment was set to the temperature range of
the river and saturated at about 27 C.
Most thermal features at their
sources are considerably warmer than 27 C and, therefore, saturated
the IR signal.
River and tributary temperatures as determined from
the IR imagery are plotted against distance downstream from Station A
in Figure 21.
After leaving Station A (temperature, 5 C), the river enters the
Upper Geyser Basin and passes Old Faithful Geyser (Figs. 13, 14 and
21).
Temperature increased to 14 C just above the confluence with Iron
Spring Creek (Figs. 15 and 21).
The Little Firehole River (11 C)
joins Iron Spring Creek (17 C) which in turn joins the main Firehole
resulting in a temperature of 16 C below Biscuit Basin.
The river
flowed at this temperature until normal decay resulted in a tempera­
ture of 15 C at a point above Midway Geyser Basin (Figs. 16 and 21).
The temperature rose to 18 C as the river entered Midway Geyser Basin
(Figs. 17 and 21) reaching 19 C below Excelsior Geyser.
From
Excelsior the temperature alternated between 18 and 19 C and was 18 C
at Station B (Figs. 18 and 21).
point just above Sentinel Creek.
The temperature decayed to 17 C at a
Below Sentinel Creek (6 C) the
temperature increased to 21 C before the confluence of Nez Perce Creek
(Figs. 19 and 21).
Below Nez Perce (15 C) the temperature decreased
25r
Upper
Oeyser
Basin
I------- 1
Midway
Geyser
Basin
Lower
Geyser
Basin
Nez Perce Cr
Twpereture
o
Figure 21
Temperature of Firehole River and tributaries (+) from IR imagery.
-44to 20 C and then with no further thermal inflows, decayed to 17 C at
a point 3.5 km below Nez Perce Creek (Figs. 20 and 21).
Special notice should be made of pronounced thermal gradients
(both positive and negative)„
These occur at the confluence of Iron
Spring Creek, Excelsior Geyser, a point in Lower Geyser Basin, and the
confluences of Sentinel and Nez Perce Creeks with the Firehole.
These
areas are shown as photographic enlargements of the imagery (Figs.
22, 24, 27, 29 and 31) and as isotherms constructed from computer
printouts (Figs. 23, 25, 26, 28, 30, and 32).
The confluence of Iron Spring Creek and the Firehole is marked
by a variety of gradients both positive and negative (Figs. 22 and
23).
A gradient is considered positive when the temperature increases
from bank to mid-stream or in a downstream direction.
Iron Spring
Creek (17 C) is joined by the Little Firehole River (11 C) about 100
m upstream from the Firehole.
A positive lateral gradient (bank to
mid-stream) of 13-17 C was established which was still present at the
confluence of the main Firehole (14 C ) .
At this point a second
positive gradient of 14-17 C was established.
Directly below the con­
fluence both banks were cooler than mid-stream, a condition which was
soon degraded by lateral mixing.
Small thermal inflows from Biscuit
Basin altered the stream temperature for only a short distance.
Mixing
appeared complete about 400 m below the confluence of Iron Spring Creek
when the temperature reached a uniform 16 C.
-45-
Figure 22
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Iron Spring
Creek illustrating thermal gradients. Numbers are
temperature (C).
-46-
iron
SPRING
LITTLE F lR E HOLE
CR
R
'— 14
THERMAL
INFLOWS
METERS
Figure 23.
Thermal gradients in Firehole River at confluence of Iron
Spring Creek. Isotherms in C. Mid-stream arrows indicate
flow direction.
Figure 24.
IR imagery of Firehole River at Excelsior Geyser
illustrating thermal gradient. Numbers are temp­
erature (C) .
-48-
THERMAL
INFLOWS
ME TfRS
Figure 25.
Thermal gradient in Firehole River below inflow of Excel­
sior Geyser.
Isotherms in C . Midstream arrows indicate
flow direction.
-49-
Figure 26.
Thermal gradient in Firehole River below Excelsior Geyser.
Reaches are continuous 1-r and left reach is continuous
with Figure 25. Isotherms in C. Mid-stream arrows indi­
cate flow direction
—50-
Figure 27.
IR imagery of Firehole River at upper end of Lower Geyser
Basin illustrating thermal gradient. Numbers are temp­
erature (C) .
-51-
THERMAL
INFLOWS
(ARROWS)
M E TE RS
Figure 28.
Thermal gradient in Firehole River at upper end of Lower
Geyser Basin. Isotherms in C . Mid-stream arrows indicate
flow direction.
Figure 29.
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Sentinel
Creek illustrating thermal gradient. Numbers are temp­
erature (C) .
SENTINEL CR^
METERS
Figure 30.
Thermal gradient in Firehole River below Sentinel Creek.
Midstream arrows indicate flow direction.
Isotherms in C.
Figure 31.
IR imagery of Firehole River at confluence of Nez Perce
Creek illustrating thermal gradient. Numbers are temp­
erature (C) .
-55-
NEZ
PERCE CR:
METERS
Figure 32.
Thermal gradients in Firehole River below Sentinel Creek (I)
and below Nez Perce Creek. Reaches are continuous 1-r and
left reach is continuous with Figure 30. Isotherms in C.
Mid-stream arrows indicate flow direction.
-56The next significant gradient occurred at Midway Geyser Basin
with the inflow from Excelsior Geyser (Figs. 24-26).
A negative
lateral gradient of 27-18 C (as earlier mentioned the IR equipment
saturated at 27 C) occurred below Excelsior Geyser which degraded
slowly by lateral mixing and disappeared about 1.8 km downstream at a
temperature of 19 C.
This gradient persisted downstream much farther
than concluded by Argyle (1966).. He assumed degradation of the
gradient occurred within a 300 m reach below the lower Excelsior
Geyser inflow although his data indicated a gradient very similar to
that found in the present study.
The next gradient occurred at an area near the beginning of Lower
Geyser Basin (Figs. 27 and 28).
A negative gradient of 27-19 C
occurred due to thermal springs along the bank.
This gradient decayed
over a reach of about 500 m when the temperature stabilized at 19 C.
The most Interesting gradient, from the aspect of its influence
on resident trout populations (Kaya et al. 1977), occurred at the con­
fluence of the cold tributary. Sentinel Creek (Figs. 29, 30, and 32).
As Sentinel Creek (6 C) entered the Firehole (16-17 C) a positive
lateral gradient of about 7-17 C occurred.
13-19 C about 500 m downstream.
warmed due to lateral mixing.
This gradient decayed to •
With downstream flow the west bank
At the same time the east bank warmed
from thermal influences (some visible and some possibly submerged) and
possibly from solar heating of the somewhat shallower depths in this
-57reach.
The gradient established by the confluence of Sentinel Creek
persisted for about I km downstream (about 600 m above Nez Perce
Creek).
The temperature approached a uniform 21 C just above Nez
Perce Creek (15 C).
At Nez Perce Creek (Figs. 31 and 32) a positive
gradient of 15-19 C was established which decayed over a reach exceed­
ing 500 m.
'
Heat rate from geothermal inflows
An estimate of the thermal power added to the Firehole River by
thermal inflows can be made by assuming that the river is thermally
homogeneous (i. e „ in the absence of thermal influences no longitudi­
nal temperature gradient would exist at a given point in time) between
Stations A and B.
Any temperature differences, at the same point in
time, would then be due entirely to thermal additions.
This assumption
is believed reasonable since the ambient conditions are comparable at
Stations A and B „
Increased water temperatures normally associated
with downstream flow would be offset by greater average depth in the
lower reaches, a factor which would tend to reduce the heat exchange
that would normally result from the somewhat higher air temperatures
and less shading found there.
The temperature that water would enter the Firehole from all
sources in the absence of geothermal heating was assumed to be that of
the river at Station A.
The heat rate due to thermal inflows above
—58~
any given point was calculated as the product of the discharge at that
point, the temperature difference between that point and Station A,
and the specific heat of water.
From these calculations the average
power added by thermal inflows (during non-runoff periods) was: Upper
Geyser Basin (not including Iron Spring Creek), 59.7 ± 14.2 MW (P=.05,
N=6); Iron Spring Creek, 80.2 ± 19.4 MW (P=.05, N=8); Firehole River
between Stations A and B, 303 ± 59 MW (P=.05, N=I6).
The above values do not account for heat lost due to excess
temperature decay.
An estimate of this decay may be made for the river
between Stations A and B by observing the behavior of temperature from
Biscuit Basin to above Midway Geyser Basin arid downstream from Nez
Perce Creek (these reaches have little or no geothermal inflow and
continuous temperature decay may be observed within the reaches;
Figs. 15, 16, and 19-21).
These observations were made on a dav of
average climatic conditions with calm winds, air temperature above
freezing, and clear skies.
reaches was about 0.5 C/km.
The average temperature decay in these
This decay rate multiplied by 18.5 km
(distance between Stations A and B) and then by a discharge of 3.16
3
m /s (average non-runoff discharge at Station B divided by two) results
in an estimated 122 MW of power dissipated between Stations A and B.
If this is added to the previously calculated value of 303 MW, the
total heat rate due to geothermal inflows between Stations A and B
was approximately 425 MW.
No compensation could be made for possible
-59influent reaches where heat could be lost to the groundwater.
Inter­
estingly, Allen and Day (1935) estimated 448.5 MW for the same reach
of river by measuring the heat rate for each individual thermal
feature.
Solar insolation
Solar insolation for the summers of 1976-1977 is plotted as 5-day
averages in Figure 33 and as monthly histograms in Figure 34.
The
monthly mean insolations are shown in Table 3 compared with calculated
clear-sky insolation and with values estimated from Bennett (1965)
who presents average monthly insolation maps for the United States
prepared from long-term measurements at numerous locations.
Clear-sky
values were calculated using angular relationships of the earth and
sun and assuming that the average, monthly, clear-sky power was
present daily (i.e. cloudless days).
The daily energies and clear-
sky powers measured at the Old Faithful Ranger Station are presented
in Appendix Tables 9 and 10.
Comparative insolations for the two summers were: May 14-31 of
1976, greater by 15.5%; June of 1976, less by 1.5%; July of 1976,
greater by 2.9%; August of 1976, greater by 11.1%; September 1-12 of
1976, less by 15.4%; overall, summer of 1976, greater by 2.2% (a
difference which is not significant when the ±5% accuracy of the
solarimeter is considered).
The measured monthly insolation ranged
—60—
Theoretical
olear-Bky
Insolation
May
Figure 33.
June
July
August
September
Total daily insolation (averaged over 5-day periods) from
sun and sky on a horizontal surface at Old Faithful Ranger
Station.
6.7
-76
6.8
x
77
5.2
6.0
76 76
100 -I
I
O'
I
Jun e
Figure 34.
Ju l y
Augu s t
Sept.
1-12
Daily solar insolation histograms and monthly averages at Old Faithful Ranger
Station. Abscissa is solar energy from sun and sky on a horizontal surface.
-62Table 3.
Mean daily insolation (E ) measured at Old Faithful Ranger
Sjtation compared with mean calculated clear-sky insolation
(Ec) and values estimated from Bennett (1965).
Ec
Days
Year
E
TH ,/y
(kW-h/m )
23-31
1976
1977
6.7
5.8
8.9
0.75
0.65
6.7
June
1-30
1976
1977
6.7
6.8
9.1
0.73
0.75
7.6
July
1-31
1976
1977
7.2
7.0
8.8
0.82
0.80
7.6
Aug.
1-31
1976
1977
6.0
5.4
7.6
0.79
0.71
6.7
Sept.
1-14
1976
1977
5.2
6.0
6. 4
0.81
0.94
5.2
Month
May
E /E
Bennett (1965)
(kW-h/m^)
(kW-h/m2)
from 65--94% of calculated clear-sky energy and these values were
generally lower than those from Bennett (1965) (Table 3).
These
measured values appear reasonable as Bennett's measurements were, in
general, from lower dryer elevations.
The thermal loading between Stations A and B from solar insola­
tion (Table 4) was calculated as the product of the mean, monthly
2
insolation and the river surface area (383,980 m , obtained by planimetering the IR imagery).
The loadings for June through August were
calculated from the measured insolation averaged for 1976 and 1977.
The loads for the remaining months (when no or incomplete data were
-63Table 4.
Mean monthly power added to Firehole River between Stations
A and B from solar insolation (Eg ) and geothermal inflows
(Eg) and the ratios E s/Eg , Es/(Es+Eg) and E g/ (Eg-FEg).
E
S
Month
(MW)
E 2
g
(MW)
E /E
s g
(%)
. E /(E +E )
(%)
E /(E +E )
g
s g
(%)
7.3
6.8
93.2
10.4
9.4
90.6
S
S
g
January
31
425
February
44
M
March
64
11
15.1
13.1
86.9
April
85
11
20.0
16.7
83.3
May
101
It
23.8
19.2
80.8
June"*"
103
Il
24.2
19.5
80.5
July^
108
Il
25.4
20.3
79.7
August"*"
87
Il
20.5
17.0
83.0
September
70
Il
16.5
14.1
85.9
October
49
Il
11.5
10.3
89.7
November
33
11
7.8
7.2
92.8
December
26
11
6.1
" 5.8
94.2
Calculated from measured values averaged for 1976 and 1977.
Remainder of values calculated as a percentage of theoretical d e a r sky insolation.
2
Considered constant throughout the year.
available) were estimated by multiplying the theoretical clear-sky
insolation by 0.78 (mean of E^/E^, Table 3) and then by 0.95 (I albedo of water).
Table 4 also contains the estimated geothermal
}•
-64loading (considered constant throughout the year) between Stations A
and B and a comparison of loadings from solar insolation and geo­
thermal sources.
DISCUSSION
The geothermal power added to the Firehole River between
Stations A and B was estimated as approximately 425 MW.
This inflow,
which is distributed along about 18.5 river kilometers accounts for an
average temperature increase of 11 C of Station B over Station A.
From
Figure 21 it might appear that the bulk of the geothermal energy enters
in the Upper Geyser Basin as the temperature increased 11 C from
Station A to just below Iron Spring Creek while it increased only 4 C
from Midway Geyser Basin to Station B and 4 C from Sentinel Creek to
Nez Perce Creek.
Actually less than half of the geothermal energy
added between Stations A and B entered from the Upper Geyser Basin
including Iron Spring Creek.
Since the river discharge increases down­
stream, a given geothermal inflow results in a lesser temperature
increase compared with the same inflow into a smaller upstream dis­
charge.
Furthermore, the higher excess temperature existing in the
Middle and Lower Geyser Basins results in a greater temperature decay
rate which tends to.offset the temperature increases resulting from
thermal inflows.
The 4 C temperature increase from Sentinel Creek to
Nez Perce Creek suggests that significant thermal additions occur in
this reach.
Only a few, small, geothermal features were observed
visually or on the IR imagery (Fig. 18).
These inflows by themselves
were not of sufficient volume to account for the observed temperature
increase.
Sugmerged thermal springs, inflow from geothermally
-66inf luenced groundwater, and solar insolation may have accounted for
the differential.
The reasonably constant 425 MW entering the Firehole between
Stations A and B would represent the waste heat discharged to a
3
receiving water (of about 6-7 m /s discharge) by a 230 MW nuclear
power plant (at 35% efficiency) or from a 425 MW fossil-fueled plant
(at 40% efficiency with one-third the waste heat as stack loss).
Coincidentally, in the latter, waste heat transferred to the receiving
water equals net power production under these particular circumstances.
These plants would be small by today's standards where 1,000 MW plants
are common.
Solar insolation contributes a significant heat load to the
river between Stations A and B ranging from an average 108 MW in July
(25.4% of geothermal power input) to 26 MW in December (6.1% of geo­
thermal).
Although geothermal loading continues throughout the year
as the dominant thermal factor, solar insolation is the greatest single
factor in the diel fluctuations of stream temperature since geothermal
inflows are essentially constant throughout the day.
VAlues of 71-82%
of possible clear-sky insolation in July and August resulted in an
average 3-4 C fluctuation in water temperature.
If 90-100% of clear-
sky insolation were present the diel fluctuations could be increased
an additional I C and the average temperature raised a corresponding
amount.
-67A one-dimensional excess temperature computer model (Bauer and
Mackenroth 1974) was applied to the two reaches used earlier in esti­
mating dissipation of heat in the calculation of geothermal input
(Results section).
These reaches exhibited continuous temperature
decay within the reach boundaries.
if the observed decays
The objectives were to determine
could be explained by heat transfer to the
atmosphere using reasonable values of wind speed, current speed, air
temperature, and average depth.
The temperatures obtained from the
IR imagery of 21 October 1976, were used as input to the model.
The first reach investigated extended about 3.7 km from below
Biscuit Basin to a point above Excelsior Geyser.
The excess tempera­
ture at the beginning of the reach was taken as 11 C over an estimated
natural temperature of 5 C (water temperature = 16 C, Figs. 15, 16,
and 21).
The observed decay in this reach was I C.
The second reach
was a 3 km section below Nez Perce Creek and had an excess temperature
of 14 C over a natural temperature of 5 C (water temperature = 19 C,
Figs. 19-21).
The observed decay in this reach was 2 C.
Estimated wind speeds of 2.25-3.50 m/s, average depth of 0.5 m,
air temperature of 4-8 C, current speed of 0.5 m/s, and a mass
transfer coefficient of 2.68 x 10 ® (Jackman and Yotsukura 1977) were
used.
Calculated decay values were less than observed by about 0.1
degree/degree of decay.
Manipulation of variables such as increase in
wind speed or decrease in depth could have resulted in better
-68agreement between calculated and observed values, however, conduction
to the stream bottom (largely composed of bedrock) may have accounted
for the remaining heat transfer (10% in these cases) not accounted for
by transfer to the atmosphere.
Loss of heat to bedrock accounted
for 20-25% of the total heat transfer in studies by Brown (1969, 1972).
The Firehole River appears to have the ability to absorb a rela­
tively large amount of "outside" heat and yet maintain viable popula­
tions of brown and rainbow trout in the warmest reaches.
In evaluating
this ability several factors which contribute to a low natural
temperature (and consequently lower stream temperature after geothermal
additions occur) must be considered.
Solar insolation has already been discussed with respect to its
relationship to water temperature.
Other factors which tend to sup­
press the natural temperature of the Firehole are moderately low
relative humidity and consistent breezes (Wright and Horrall 1967),
cool sources originating from snow melt and groundwater, moderately
low daytime air temperature, cool nighttime air temperature, and
relatively clear nighttime skies.
Most of these factors also contri­
bute to rapid decay of excess temperature through back radiation,
evaporation, and conduction to the atmosphere.
There is also the
suggestion from the data that conduction to bedrock in the stream
bottom may account for significant heat transfer.
In the absence of
any of these factors or with higher solar insolation or greater heat
-69input from exogenous sources, higher water temperature
would certainly
result.
Kaya (1978b) determined an upper incipient lethal temperature of
26.2 C for juvenile Firehole rainbow trout acclimated at 21 or 24.5 C.
In the Lower Geyser Basin summertime water temperature frequently ex­
ceeded this value. The highest mean monthly temperature recorded (26 C
in July, 1977) was only slightly less than this upper incipient lethal
temperature.
The same study determined that for juvenile Firehole
rainbow trout acclimated at 24.5 C , a I C increase in test temperature
caused the time to 50% mortality to be reduced by a factor of 3.9.
These findings would strongly suggest that any increase in maximum or
mean temperature in the river in the Lower Geyser Basin would very
likely have deleterious effects on the resident trout populations.
Although temperature values recorded at Station B were frequently
well above the 26.2 C upper incipient lethal temperature determined by
Kaya (1978b), no fish kills were observed during this study.
Mortali­
ties apparently associated with high temperature have been reported
previously.
Roeder (1961) cited temperatures above Nez Perce Creek in
July, 1961, as high as 32.6 C and indicated the presence of an
associated fish kill.
An unusual event was reported by Park Ranger
B. Riley McClelland (1960) in which he described hundreds of fish
crowding into Iron Creek (Iron Spring Creek) and the Little Firehole
River on 17 July 1960.
About 150 dead fish were found near the
-70Firehole Cascades.
The river temperature at this time at a point above
Nez Perce Creek was measured at 28.3 C , a value lower than the 29.5 C
maximum measured in the present study in which no fish kill was
observed.
In the absence of continuous recording, however, the highest
temperature which preceded McClelland's observations is not known.
Sentinel Creek appeared to be an important cold-water refuge
during July and August.
Temperature of Sentinel Creek was about 10 C
lower than that of the Firehole.
Large numbers of brown and rainbow
trout in all size classes were observed during these months of 19741977 in the lower several hundred meters of the stream.
Over 500 trout
were marked and released in Sentinel Creek in August of 1976 (Kaya
et al. 1977).
It was apparent that the trout were using Sentinel as a
refuge only as no significant feeding activity was noted nor did this
small stream appear capable of providing food organisms for the large
numbers of fish observed.
No spawning activity was observed nor did
the time of observation correspond with the spawning periods of the
trout species present.
Evidence indicated that most fish using Sentinel Creek originated
downstream, however, some marked above Station B moved downstream in
response to increasing summertime temperature and were eventually found
in Sentinel Creek (Kaya 1978a).
Obviously, not all fish were using
Sentinel as it was quite far removed from reaches above Station B.
Furthermore, sampling and visual observations during the months when
-71fish were using Sentinel Creek revealed that fish were present in the
high temperature of the main Firehole„
The thermal gradient associated with Sentinel Creek (Figs. 29 and
30) could certainly explain the attraction to Sentinel of any fish
within this I km reach.
The lower reaches of Nez Perce Creek might
also be thought to be attractive as a cool-water refuge since it is
cooler than the Firehole.
Nez Perce is considerably warmer than
Sentinel Creek, however, and its mouth is shallow and swift.
No
concentrations of fish were observed in Nez Perce Creek.
The distribution of trout in the Firehole River was described by
Kaya (1978a).
Above Kepler Cascades only brook and brown trout were
found with brook trout accounting for 85% of the fish sampled.
Just
below Kepler Cascades, brown trout accounted for 98% of the fish
observed, a distinct contrast with the populations above Kepler.
Brown trout comprised 90% of the samples from above Midway Geyser
Basin with rainbow trout accounting for the remainder.
Below Midway
Geyser Basin to the vicinity of Nez Perce Creek, rainbow trout
accounted for 75% of the samples with brown trout making up the
remainder, again a distinct contrast with the upstream reaches.
In the reach below Kepler Cascades a census estimated the brown
trout population density in the range 1.8 ± 0.5
(P=.05) during July-October, 1975.
to 2.6 ± 1.2 fish/m
Large brown trout (>300 mm)
migrated into this reach during late summer and fall of 1974 and 1975
'-72- •
ostensibly to spawn.
It is not known where the large brown trout
originated which moved into the area.
No temperature barriers were
detected with IR imagery above Midway Geyser Basin to prevent their
originating from anywhere within this area.
In a reach above Station B the combined populations of brown and
rainbow trout were estimated at 1.3 ± 0.5 fish/m in June, 1975, and
1.1 ± 0.6 fish/m (P=.05) in October, 1975.
A census performed in
August of the same year provided recapture rates too low to allow a
reliable population estimate to be made.
The poor success in recapture
of fish in August suggested that fish were moving out of the census
area.
This movement was confirmed by recapture of fish marked within
the census area from 300 m above to 2 km below the census area.
There was no evidence that fish moved upstream from the Lower
Geyser Basin area to above Midway Geyser Basin.
Midway were found above Midway.
No fish marked below
The species compositions of the two
areas were in marked contrast with one another.
The most prominent
feature suspect in preventing upstream movement is Excelsior Geyser.
Its discharge results in a pronounced gradient (Figs. 24-26) which
very possibly inhibits upstream movement.
The gradient expands nearly
across the river about 200 m below Excelsior Geyser and may indeed
repel upstream movement.
. The thermal gradient pictured in Figures 27 and 28 occurred near
the upper end of a study section chosen by Kaya (1977, 1978a).
-73Although the gradient extended across the width of the river at the
time the imagery was made, some evidence exists that fish crossed this
gradient in an upstream direction.
. The reproductive biology of Firehole River trout was described by
Kaya (1977).
Brown trout below Kepler Cascades (above essentially all
geothermal inflows) had normal gonadal development and reproduced well.
Brown trout from below Midway Geyser Basin had poor reproductive
success with a low percentage of gonad's maturing among adults and
prespawning degeneration of ova in females.
Rainbow trout, present in
significant numbers only below Midway, spawned in late fall and early
winter in contrast to a normal spring spawning period.
found within this area in December, 1975.
Redds were
Fertilized eggs were removed
which later hatched into rainbow trout fry indicating rainbow trout
stayed within the area to spawn.
The growth and diet of Firehole trout were described by Kaeding .
and Kaya (1978).
Brown trout from below Midway Geyser Basin were
longer at any given age than those from below Kepler Cascades.
Scales
from brown trout taken from below Midway indicated two growth periods
per year instead of the more usual single period which was present
below Kepler Cascades.
The multiple growth periods resulted from
early spring warming of the already elevated water temperatures below
Midway Geyser Basin followed by cooling due to runoff followed in turn
by a second warming trend as runoff subsided (Fig. 7).
Growth of
-74brown trout from below Midway appeared to be inhibited during the hot
summer months as indicated by scale annulus formation.
Rainbow trout
from below Midway had growth patterns and length-at-age similar to
brown trout from the same area.
Trout from below Midway fed exten­
sively on dipterans, molluscs, and ephemeropterans while trout from
below Kepler Cascades fed heavily on trichopterans.
The maintenance of a viable trout population did not appear diffi­
cult in any reach of the Firehole River investigated except the section
between Midway Geyser Basin and Nez Perce Creek.
This reach may very
well be marginal with respect to reproduction and survival of the
brown and rainbow trout populations present.
This is evidenced by
previous accounts of fish kills, poor reproductive success of brown
trout, apparent movement of fish out of the area during the summer
months, inhibition of growth during summer, and the consistent use of
Sentinel Creek as a cold-water refuge.
The argument could be made that downstream drift might sustain
populations below Midway Geyser Basin.
There is logic to this argument
for brown trout which have breeding populations above Midway but not
for rainbow trout for which breeding populations above Midway are very
limited if, indeed, they exist at all.
It is probable that the
Firehole River below Midway Geyser Basin is consistently near the upper
limits of temperature tolerance during the late summer months for the
trout species present.
I
It is very likely that this reach is capable
-75
of being pushed to and past those limits during periods of high
ambient temperatures and/or low discharge (e.g,. summer of 1977).
Ironically, this reach appears to contain the best habitat with
respect to stream morphology and perhaps this factor compensates to
some extent for the stress induced by the high temperatures.
Any conclusions drawn from the Firehole River with respect to
the capacity of streams, in general, to assimilate heat and yet main­
tain viable trout populations must be done with care.
It must be
remembered that the Firehole is in a high mountain setting with mild
daytime temperature
and cool nighttime temperature.
Summertime solar
insolation is approximately 20% less than the maximum possible.
Rela­
tive humidity is fairly low allowing high dissipation of heat through
high net negative longwave radiation, evaporation, and conduction.
These factors undoubtedly contribute significantly to a temperature
regime in the lower Firehole River in which trout can survive and
reproduce.
stream
The incidence of the same thermal load on some other
whose capacity for amelioration of high temperature
is signif­
icantly less than that of the Firehole would very likely have more
detrimental effects.
APPENDIX
-77Table 5.
Station A
temperature data (C).
Days
Year
July
Aug.
Sept.
Dec.
18-31
22-31
1-30
1-19
1974
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
1-30
18-31
1-30
1-31
1-25
4-30
13 t 31
1-13
1975
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
22-31
1-30
1-31
1-31
1-30
1-31
1-30
1976
Feb.
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
1-28
5-30
13-31
1-30
1-31
1-31
1-11
1977
Mo.
Avg.
mean
Avg.
high
10.0
8.5
6.5
1.5
11.0
10.5
8.5
2.0
12.0
13.0
10.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
5.0
11.5
10.0
8.0
5.0
3.5
6.0
7.0
13.0
12.0
' 9.5
5.5
4.Q
5.0
6.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
5.5
3.5
2.0
Avg.
low
4.0
6.5
11.0
11.5
10.5
8.5
Avg.
range
Min.
Max.
. 2.0
4.5
4.0
1.0
9.0
7.5
4.0
0.0
13.5
13.0
12.5
4.5
' 7.5
8.5
9.0
15.0
14.0
11.0
6.0
4.5
3.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
4.0
3.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
2.5
3.5
5.0
7.0
6.0
2.0
. 1.0
9.5
11.5
11.5
17.5
15.5
13.0
8.0
6.5
7.0
8.0
12.5
11.5
10.0
6.0
4.0
9.0
■9.5
14.5
12.5
11.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
2.5
2.0
1.0
0.5
4.5
5.0
9.0
7.5
6.5
3.0
0.0
11.5
13.5
16.5
14.5
13.5
10.0
7.0
2.5
6.5
8.0
13.5
14.5
13.0
11.5
3.0
9.0
9.5
16.0
17.0
15.0
14.0
1.0
5.0
3.0
5.0
5.5
4.5
5.5
0.5
2.5
5.5
8.5
9.5
7.5
7.0
5.0
11.0
15.5
20.0
19.0
18.0
15.5
6.5
6.5
—7 8—
Table 6.
Mo.
Station B temperature data (C).
Days
Year
Aug.
Sept.
Nov.
Dec.
22-31
1-30
1-30
1-29
1974
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
3-31
17-28
1-19
1-30
1-31
1-30
1-31
1-31
1-30
13-31
1-14
20-31
1975
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
1-21
9-28
1-11
23-31
1-30
1-31
1-31
1-30
1-31
1-30
1-31
1976
Feb.
April
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
1-28
5-30
16-30
13-27
11-31
1-12
1977
Avg.
low
Avg.
mean
Avg.
high
Avg.
range
19.0
17.0
14.0
12.5
21.0
19.0
14.5
13.0
23.0
20.5
15.0
13.5
4.0
11.5
13.0
15.0
17.0
17.0
13.0
21.5
21.5
20.0
15.5
15.0
13.5
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
18.5
15.0
23.5
23.0
21.5
16.0
15.5
14.0
12.5
14.5
16.5
19.0
20.0
16.5
25.5
23.0
16.5
16.0
14.5
1.0
1.5
1.5
2.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
13.0
14.0
14.5
11.0
15.5
14.0
15.0
16.0
'14.0
17.5
25.5
24.0
22.0
18.0
15.5
13.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
3.0
2.5
3.0
2.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
11.0
12.5
12.5
10.0
12.0
20.0
19.5
18.0
15.0
11.0
12.0
17.5
15.5
18;5
16.0
23.5
28.0
21.5
20.5
17.0
15.0
13.0
13.5
14.5
15.5
12.5
16.5
23.5
22.5
21.0
17.5
15.5
13.5
14.5
16.5
23.5
24.5
23.0
22.5
15.0
18.5
25.0
26.0
24.5
24.0
15.5
20.5
26.5
1.0
4.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
12.5
14.0
20.0
22.5
18.5
20.5
17.5
22.5
29.0
29.5
29.5
27.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
26.0
26.0
3.5
1.0
1.0
Min.
Max.
18.0
15.5
12.0
10.5
24.0
23.0
16.5
16.0
8.5 . 14.5
11.5
15.5
13.0
17.5
13.0
21.5
12.5
23.0
10.0
20.0
16.0
29.0
18.0
27.0
17.5
25.0
21.0
13.5
12.0
18.0
• 12.5
15.0
26.0
24.5
21.5
18.5
15.0
-79Table 7.
Temperature data at noted locations on the Flrehole River
and its tributaries (C).
Avg.
low
Avg.
mean
Avg.
high
Avg.
range
Min.
Max.
10.5
9.5
17.5
17.0
15.0
12.5
11.0
19.0
18.0
16.5
15.0
12.5
20.5
19.5
18.5
4.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
3.5
8.0
6.0
11.5
14.0
13.0
18.0
16.5
23.5
21.5
3.0
8.0
13.5
10.5
7.0
10.5
16.0
13.0
11.0
13.0
18.5
15.5
8.0
5.0 .
5.0
5.0
0.5
4.0
11.0
8.0
■ 17.0
18.5
21.0
20.5
Little Firehole R.
May
1-31
1976
July
1-31
1-31
Aug.
1-30
Sept.
1-31
Oct.
Nov.
1-30
5.0
15.5
14.5
12.5
9.0
7.5
7.0
17.5
16.0
13.5
9.5
8.0
9.0
19.5
17.5
14.0
10.0
8.5
4.0
4.0
3.0
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
13.0
12.0
10.0
7.0
' 2.5
13.5
21.5
22.0
16.5
14.0
' 11.0
Iron Spring Creek
May
1-31
1976
June
1-30
1-31
July
1-31
Aug.
1-30
Sept.
1-31
Oct.
1-12
Nov.
14.5
15.5
19.5
18.5
17.0
15.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
20.5
19.0
17.5
15.0
15.0
18.0
18.5
22.0
20.0
18.0
15.5
15.5
3.5
3.0
2.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
12.0
14.0
18.0
17.0
16.0
13.5
14.0
20.5
22.5
Cr.
9.0
13.0
14.0
19.5
10.0
16.0
16.0
22.0
2.0
5.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
6.5
12.5
18.5
22.5
25.0
Mo.
Days
Above Midway
May
18-31
June
1-30
July
1-31
Aug.
1-31
Sept.
1-30
Sentinel Creek
17-31
May
June
1-30
1-31
July
1-31
Aug.
Year
1975
1975
Main Firehole above Iron Spring
8.0
1-28
1977
Feb.
10.5
April
5-30
12.0
13-31
May
17.0
June
1-10
9.5
15.0
20.0
23.5
21.5
20.0
18.0
15.5
-80Table 8.
Air temperature at Old Faithful Ranger Station (C).
Avg.
Avg.
mean
Avg.
high
Avg.
range
-20.0
-17.0
-9.5
-5.0
-2.5
4.5
2.5
-2.0
-6.5
-15.0
-13.0
-12.5
-9.5
-2.5
7.5
15.5
12.0
9.5
-0.5
-7.0
-7.0
-5:0
-2.0
4.5
10.0
17.0
26.5
21.5
21.0
5.0
0.5
-1.0
Days
Year
low
Jan.
1-31
1-28
Feb.
9-30
April
1-31
May
1-23
June
1-31
July
1-31
Aug.
Sept. . 1-19
20-31
Oct.
1-30
Nov.
1-31
Dec.
1975
Mo.
2.5
Min.
Max.
15.0
15.0
14.0
15.0
19.5
22.0
19.0
23.0
11.5
15.5
12.0
-38.5
-33.0
-18.5
-15.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.0
-2.0
-15.5
-29.0
-34.0
3.0
4.5
8.5
19.5
26.0
33.5
.35.0
10.5
16.0
6.0
28.0
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Nov.
1-31
1-29
1-31
1-30
1-31
1-30
1-31
1-31
1-30
1-30 -
1976
-16.5
-15.5
-17.0
-7.0
-3.0
-2.0
3.0
0.0
-2.0
-10.0
-9.5
— 8.0
-8.0
0.5
6.5
8.5
15.0
11.0
8.5
-3.0
—2.0
-6.5
1.5
7.5
16.0
19.0
27.0
22.0
19.0
4.5
14.5
15.0
18.5
14.5 ■
19.0
21.0
24.0
22.0
21.0 .
14.5
-30.5
-38.0
-33.5
-18.5
-10.0
-6.5
-1.0
-5.0
-9.5
-34.5
' 6.5
5.0
11.0
15.5
19.5
28.5
29.0
27.0
27.0
13.0
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
1-31
1-28
1-31
1-30
1-31
1-30
1-31
1-31
3-14
1977
-19.5
-18.0
—16 •0
-8.0
-3.5
-0.5
2.5
2.0
-1.5
-11.5
-7.0
-7.5
2.5
4.5
11.0
14.0
13.0
10.5
-3.0
3.5
1,0
12.5
12.5
22.5
25.5
23.5
22.0
16.5
21.5
17.0
20.5
16.0
23.0
23.0
21.5
23.5
-33.5
-29.0
-29.5
-24.0
-13.0
-5.5
-3.5
-1.5
-6.5
7.0
13.0
11.0
22.0
20.0
28.5
28.5
30.5
25.5
-81Table 9.
Total insolation from sun and sky on a horizontal surface at
Old Faithful Ranger Station.
(E = energy/d, kw-h/m^;
P = peak, clear-sky power, kw/m^.) 1976.
May
Day
E
P
I
2 .
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
4.3
7.4
24
4.2
25
8.11 1.08
26
27
7.91 1.07
28
6.7
8.5
29
8.5
30
4.8 . . .
31
X
Z
I
6.7
60
. . .
E
June .
P
7.6
7.8
6.9.
8.6
8.4
5.4
7.3
7.1
8.2
7.6
4.8
3.3
5.5
4.4
8.4
3.7
3.9
6.3r
9.11
7.4
6.0
3.1
4.2
7.1
8.0,
9.21
8.9,
8.91
7.0
7.5
• • •
«,, ,
1.07
.
,
»
.,
.
» •
•
•
« •
• •
•
O O •
• • O
• «
•
1.14
e 9 e
,
, .
1.09
1.07
1.07
• • •
* • .
•* •
o e •
6.7
. . .
201
***
Entire day cloudless
July
E
8.61
8.5,
8.21
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.5
8.2
9.0,.
8.71
5.4
8.4
8.5
7.7
8.5
8.4
3.9
4.6
7.0
5.3
7.4
8.1
6.3
7.7,
8.21
7.3
5.7
7.7
5.5
4.7
3.4
7.2
222
Aug.
P
1.03
1.03
1.01
o n *
1.01
1.03
1.01
1.01
•• e *
• • •
• • •’
• • »
- o
•
. . .
. . .
. . .
. .
0.98
. . .
. .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
E
3.5
3.0
4.1
5.2
6.7
7.8,
7..91
7.5
7.0
5.8
6.9
6. 6
6.8
5.9
4.0
6.8
6.2
4.3
7.3
7.0
7.21
6.3
2.8
5.2
6.3
5.6,
6.97
6.87
6.8
5.2
6.6
6.0
. 186
P
• 6 .
0.98
» • o
O •••
. . .
.
. .
„
. .
0.94
0.93
• • •
• e •
•
0.93
0.90
0.90
• •
, . .
E
Sept.
P
6. 5
5.9
6.4,
6.41
6. 0
2. 6
6.2
6.4,
6.31
6.0
1.4
3.4
5.5
3.7
4.0
4.4
3.2
3.7
2.7
4.0
5.3
1.0
3.7
3.7
3.1
3.2
4.7
5.^
4. 7J
4.81
0.90
« "*
••6
4.5
134
Oct.
E
0.89
0.87
•
...
•
. .
0.90
0.87
0.86
0.85
• o'*
. . .
. . .
. . .
0.79
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
0.78
0.77
0.74
0.74
. • •
*" •
4.1
1.1
2.7
2.5
1.7
2.8
4.5
4.4
4.3
3.8
3.0
3.8
4.0
3.9
3.9
3.8
2.8
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.5
3.5
2.9
3.4
0.8
1.6
3.1
3.2
1.9
P
0.71
0.71
0.70
O •
•
••
•
• • O
• O •
• • •
0.66
0.66
0.63
• • •
. . .
. . .
. . .
• . •
. . .
. . .
0.57
. . .
• • •
. . .
" *•
• O .
3.2
92
0 • .
“82—
Table 10»
Total insolation from sun and sky on a horizontal surface
at Old Faithful Ranger Station.
(E = energy/d,'kW-h/m2;
P = peak, clear-sky power, kW/m2.) 1977.
May
Day
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
X
Z
I
E
July
June
E
P
■ 7.0
7.5
6.7
7.4
8.71
4.2
5.3
6.5
3.6
3.1
3.7
7.8
6.8
7.0
8.0
5.8
«••
•«•
»••
•••
3.2
4.6
3.7 r
8.2
4.0
2.2
2.7
6.0
7.6
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.8
4.0
5.2
5.5
P
1.01
•»•
•••
1.00
ft• ft
ft. ft
ft•ft
ftf
tft
•ftft
ftftft
ftftft
ftftft
ftftf
t
ftftf
t
7.7
7.5
8.6
1.05
1.01
5.0
90
...
6.5
4.0
5.6
4.3
7.4
8.5
8.81
6.2
8.0
5.5
6.9,
8.41
7.31
9.or
8.9
8.5
8.6
8.3
e#*
• ftft
8.5
6.5
4.5
6.5
5.1
1.4
7.8
6.5
7.3
8.4,
8.47
8.2:
8.31
6.8
203
ftftft
7.0
218
6.5
6.7
E
4.9
4.3
8.6
8.5
7.7
9.0
7.4
7.S1
8.91
7.7
8.9
Entire day cloudless
• ftft
ftftft
•ft•
ftOft
•••
1.01
•••
e•«
1.01
ftftft
1.01
P
Aug.
E
P
1.01
8.41 0.97
6 .6
5.3
...
6.1
4.7
,..
5.4
6.3
•»•
6.0
5.3
•«•
•»•
6.4,
8.41 0.96
••«
7.0
1.03
1.00
6.7
6.2
6.4
.ft••
•••
1.03
•••
•*.
.».
.* ,
0.98
0.98
,,*
.*,
...
**.
*,.
»*.
,*,
...
..*
7.1
6.4
•••
ftOft
ftftft
0.93
Sept.
P '
E '
6.8,
6.71
5.5,
6.5,
6.41
5.9
5.8
5.9.,
6.1:
6.0
5.5
5.8,
5.8
5.1
0.98
3.8
0.98
0.98
0.98
3.0
3.3
4.9
...
O ft ft
5.4
169
...
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.84
0.81
...
,..
...
,* «
.*.
.**
.*»
.».
...
...
*..
...
...
...
.*.
...
.*,
,..
*»*
. ••
***
*.*
**,
*..
***
...
,,*
0.93
•»•
».*
.»,
*»»
0.87
0.85
*,*
,*.
.**
2.9
5.9
5.0
5.3
5.0
7.0
4.2
3.8
1.9
4.4
0.87
,» .
6 .0
84
...
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M ONTA NA S TA TE U N IV E R SIT Y L IB R A R IE S
762 10005055 6
D378
B918
cop. 2
Burkhalter, Dalton E
Thermal and hydraulic
characteristics of a
geothermally influenced
trout stream
*337 Z