Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
Social and Economic Development: The Role of Tourism and
Enterprising Communities
Saskia de Klerk and Melville Saayman
Cultural celebrations, festivals and events have been a growing market stimulating tourism and
local economies. Social capital contributes to the success of entrepreneurial ventures in
resource-constraint environments by offering access to resources, information and support. We
investigated the meaning of social capital in this festival setting and identified the benefits
associated with social capital. We used social capital theory from a resource theory point of view
(Coleman et al). A sample of 155 respondents provided insight into their entrepreneurial
motivation, networking activity and perceptions on the business climate at the festival. We first
found, that the importance of social capital development is; two-fold, economic and social.
Secondly the research emphasises the importance of social cohesion and a sense of community
in the enterprising behaviour of these communities. This research highlights the deeper layers
of motivation to become entrepreneurs at festivals and the push and pull dimensions of these
decisions. The social layer of involvement is an under-researched dimension of entrepreneurs
in a festival setting. The success of these entrepreneurs lies in the fact that they are operating
in a setting that promotes and cultivates social cohesion. This contributes to literature
entrepreneurship, social capital and social cohesion in a festival setting. The findings exemplify
the need for festival organisers and management to look beyond the economic motivations of
entrepreneurs and to embrace the deeper issues of involvement and engagement. This can then
lead to the development of programs for skills development and to foster entrepreneurship at
these venues by promoting social cohesion even more.
Field of Research: Entrepreneurship, festivals, social, economic, development, social
cohesion, social capital
1. Introduction
The importance of festivals in the development of local markets has been increasingly
discussed in regional development, tourism and events management literature (Weber &
Ladkin, 2011). The importance of these festivals and the creative and cultural industries does
not go unsupported by government and the impact of these on job creation and regional
growth are considered important areas for the future (Gov.za, 2015). Festivals as an
entrepreneurial opportunity have shown an increase of nearly 100 festivals in 1996 to 600
country wide in 2012 (Loots et al, 2012). Little research however focuses on the entrepreneurs
that make their living from their participation at festivals in South Africa and how they utilize
their networks and social capital. Most research view the impact of festivals and events in a
region as a strong stimulus for economic activity, but the long term effects shown mixed results
in terms of employment creation and long term investment (Polèse, 2012).
The Aardklop (‘Earth beat’) festival takes place annually in Potchefstroom, North-West
Province. The North-West Province has higher than the national average unemployment at
52.5% (Punt et al, 2005), and contribute to more entrepreneurs turning towards festivals as
an opportunity to earn an income (Carmichael & Morrison, 2011). We use social cohesion
_________________________________________________________________________
Dr. Saskia de Klerk, School of Business, University of New South Wales, Canberra
Australia and NWU
Prof. Melville Saayman, NWU
1
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
theory to make sense of the “willingness of members of a society to cooperate with each other
in order to survive and prosper” (Stanley, 2003, p. 5). The festival environment is seasonal
and unpredictable, but it provides an outlet for informal entrepreneurs to market their products
in a structured marketplace; to network and develop skills (Johansson & Kociatkiewicz, 2011).
The enterprising behavior of entrepreneurs at this festival, how they network and build social
capital helps us understand how they negotiate this uncertain environment. This market is
characterized by a lack of resources, marketing opportunities, seasonal changes, strong
competition and new innovations. The referred objectives are then to 1) Understand what is
considered to be social capital and 2) to identify the value of social capital and social cohesion.
The ‘social motive’ that aligns with the ‘economic motive’ in social capital development is
highlighted as an area that needs further investigation (Svendsen & Svendsen, 2004). More
specifically the social context of entrepreneurship and the importance of social capital and
self-employment at community level are mentioned to be important to entrepreneurship
research (Kwon et al, 2013). This research contributes to literature on entrepreneurship, social
capital and networking. Secondly, this research contributes to a better understanding of the
dimensions of the social networks of entrepreneurs in the specific context of this cultural
festival with its challenging economic constraints.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The entrepreneurial behavior of a specific group is investigated in the festival context. First
we explore the festival environment in South Africa. Then we turn our attention to the elements
of entrepreneurship and enterprising behavior in networks and other emerging market
contexts. Lastly we concentrate on social capital and social cohesion in its contribution to
economic development.
2.1 Festivals as social setting for entrepreneurship
A structured event such as a festival creates an opportunity for businesses to get market
exposure, to network and collaborate (Andersson and Getz, 2008). Literature refers to the
benefit of these events to include assisting in social change (Sharpe, 2008), entrepreneurial
development and government-private sector collaboration to stimulate trade and promote
local businesses (Ladkin and McCabe, 2010); regional development (Saayman and Rossouw,
2011); as well as increased foreign investment drawing large crowds and publicity (Botha et
al, 2012).
Festivals had grown increasingly in revenue and markets size in South Africa as the demand
for experiences and cultural products increased (van Niekerk and Coetzee, 2011). They want
to feel as if they belong and share their culture with the variety of art and cultural performances,
experiences and culinary traditions offered at such an outlet. An event that offers a network
with diverse connections is valuable for the individuals and businesses participating to
collaborate (Gedajlovic et al, 2013). Therefore, the entrepreneur secures an income, access
resources, creates employment and exploits social capital by taking part in such an event
(Richards, 2011).
2
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
2.2
Entrepreneurial behavior and social capital
Entrepreneurship literature comprise of extensive theoretical work, concentrating on the
function, characteristics and evolution of the entrepreneurial process; also work that
concentrate on the domain in which entrepreneurship takes place and empirical work that
offers evidence on entrepreneurship and Small Business development (Landström et al,
2012). In general entrepreneurship is seen as actions by an individual or group to create
markets, new offerings or new approaches to business (Schumpeter, 1934). In environments
where there are limited resources and opportunities the motivation to access actual and
potential resources through social capital (Bourdieu, 1993). Networks offer access to
resources, information, collaboration and market access to align business operations and
create a competitive advantage (Taylor & Taylor, 2014).
Developing and emerging markets are often characterized by temporary or brokerage
networks relying on trust, commitment (Marková, 2004) and cooperation (Burt et al, 2013).
Structured events, offer extensive networking opportunities and facilitate networking success
elements (Weber and Weber, 2011). Literature emphasise the link between social capital and
entrepreneurship (Murphy, 2011; Gedajlovic, et al, 2013) and in this research we use the
definition of Woolcock and Narayan (2000) that refer to social capital as “the norms and
networks that enable people to act collectively.” Entrepreneurs develop social capital to add
value to each other’s networks (Li et al, 2013) and this combined effort has a multiplying effect
by increasing the attractiveness of the event in terms of range, scope and variety. Quinn
(2006, p. 301) also mentions festivals to be socially bound and “expressions of people,
information, ideas, money, and culture.” When industry role players participate in events
organized by a governing body they trust in the society and system to function according to
common industry practice (Marková, 2004).
2.3
Social cohesion
It is important to note that the value of social capital lies in the combined effort of all involved
(Manson, 2001). Acknowledging their role in the success of the festival or marketplace will
lead to increased levels of responsibility, care and higher levels of performance (Ciancutti and
Steding, 2001). Social coherence leads to shared creativity (Garrett, 2009); new products
(Schumpeter, 1934); collaboration (Weber and Weber, 2011) and innovation (Veciana, 2007).
The organized event provides the social structure, organization and market for an
entrepreneur to operate in a specific industry (Morris et al, 2012). Social cohesion relies upon
the acknowledgement of the network structure and understanding how it influences further
development or deterioration of the network relations (Friedkin, 2004). Festivals have shown
to be a strong contributor to the need of belonging, cultural grouping and social cohesion
(Lewis, 2012). Cultural values and norms are also important determinants of the norms o and
value of the festival (Moeran and Pedersen, 2011).
The liability of sharing the marketplace lies in the fact that they do not buy into the norms and
values set for the social network, they share it (Isham and Kaufmann, 1999). Most literature
however focuses on the contribution of the networks rather than the consequences (Woolcock
and Narayan, 2000). Having to work in this vibrant and very innovative environment poses its
own obstacles and challenges. Creative industries demand distinct mindsets and behavior of
3
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
these entrepreneurs. Festival entrepreneurs can use relationships to build support networks
(Wright and Miller, 2010), share ideas and work with, each other (for instance look after the
other one’s stall while they go and buy some food) to have a more successful businesses
experience.
3. METHODOLOGY
The research was conducted amongst entrepreneurs conducting business at the Aardklop
National Arts festival held in September in Potchefstroom, South Africa. Annually, there are
600 festivals in South Africa which offered a viable environment to test, develop, market and
grow one’s business and product offering at different venues to new customers almost every
day of the year in previous projects. Aardklop started in 1998 and is the third largest Arts
festival attracting approximately 150 000 locals and people from the neighboring provinces
(Saayman et al, 2008). Aardklop consist mostly Afrikaans music, theatre, dance, cabaret,
children’s theatre and visual arts, and a large craft market (CloverAardklop, 2015)
A self-administered survey of 155 and 25 individual interviews with stall owners were
connducted. Each telephone interview was audiotaped and lasted between 30 and 45
minutes. The same interview questions were asked in all the interviews and consisted of three
sections. Section A focused on their demographic profiles, including age, education, exhibiting
history and size of the business. Section B asked exhibitors to discuss the importance of social
capital motives and to focus on why they feel social capital is important and how they feel
valued. Section C evaluated the entrepreneurs’ network effectiveness in terms of their
motivation and application by asking them why they network at this event and what they see
as valuable in networks. We analyzed the transcripts and information for themes (Creswell
and Creswell, 2005). We read and reread the transcripts as part of the initial exploratory
analysis to uncover the themes. We then revisit the transcripts with the research questions in
mind. The co-authors read the transcripts and related that with the coded main themes to
ensure inter-rater reliability and the correct interpretation of the findings. The following themes
were uncovered in this rich and robust process: 1) Social capital with 1.1) economic value and
1.2) emotional value, and 2) Social cohesiveness. By understanding the specific networking
needs of these entrepreneurs, steps can be taken to enhance their current efforts and to
support future developments and training. The findings were then validated and triangulated
by conducting a literature search to see whether literature supports, confirm or dispute our
findings.
4. DISCUSSION
We first provide a profile of the entrepreneurs. Most of these entrepreneurs are artists who
manufacture their own products. The products at this festival have a strong focus on craft and
handmade original products. Most of the entrepreneurs (60%) perceived themselves as being
entrepreneurial, and 30% perceived their business as being both entrepreneurial and artistic.
The micro enterprises are mostly owner-managed and range in size from one to four
employees, with an annual turnover of between R25000 to R50 000 (Mahembe, 2011). Some
businesses have only two employees (21%) or up to four full time employees (14%). The
average age of the festival entrepreneurs was 49 years and most were women (61%). Table
4
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
one provides an overview of the themes that emerged from this research include 1) social
capital and 2) social cohesion.
The first theme is social capital and is nuanced by economic value and emotional value.
Economic value lies in the importance of selling hand-made products directly to the public, the
products are exclusive and by selling it in person adds to the value of the product and provides
a unique opportunity to interact with customers and to understand their needs and preferences
better. Therefore, having this outlet to market and do customer research is important to the
success of the businesses: “A lot of repeat business is generated by my involvement at this
event; I would not be able to do this any other way. I think my products also bring a lot of
people to the event since it is so unique and one of a kind.”
Emotional value evolves around how entrepreneurs find value in their involvement when they
access support on an emotional (advice and encouragement), financial (share resources and
cut costs of employment by stepping in for each other as needed), and operational support
(assist each other by promoting each other and assisting with setting up and packing up
afterwards. Not all the entrepreneurs associated their relationships at the festival as
networking, but mentioned that they value these interactions: “On day one of the festival we
do our own thing, but by the end of the week we are friends and after that we look forward to
meet up again year after year” and “We share a few laughs look after each other’s stall and
take turns to go and buy some food or a have a toilet break. It is really like looking out for each
other.”
Table one: Themes
Themes
Theme
Economic
one:
value
Social
capital
Survey results
Independence (85%)
Provide an income
(85%).
Self-realization (79%)
Passion and to make
a living from it (78%).
Quotes
“We have to
make it work
since
we
need to make
the money,
everyone
wants
to
make a profit
and
have
some fun in
the process,
learn
from
each other.”
Emotional Share advice (88%).
value
Share
market
information
(96%);
Industry information
(89%);
product
Knowledge
(92%),
“This festival
is our main
income and
helps us to
make
something as
Literature
Most
entrepreneurs
wanted to take
advantage of the
opportunity and to
tap into the new
market.
The
festival
holds
positive marketing
and financial as
well as networking
opportunities for
micro to small
businesses
(de
Klerk
and
Saayman, 2012).
Social capital is
described
as
having solidarity
(Coleman, 1990)
and gaining a
strong competitive
5
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
Theme
two: Social
cohesion
Identify market trends
(92%).
Personal
support
(85%).
Feel
part
of
something
(86%)
Feel part of the
festival (79%).
our bread and advantage
by
butter”.
combined efforts
(Ihlen, 2005).
“To
speak
Afrikaans and
be part of the
cultural
environment”.
They
share
a
common market,
coherent
quality
norms and this
enhances
the
feeling
of
belonging
and
brings a sense of
community during
the
event
(Woolcock
and
Narayan,
2000)
that leads to a
feeling of ‘bonding’
(Holzmann
and
Jorgensen, 1999)
and
‘social
connectedness’
(Etzioni, 1993).
Social cohesion emerged as the second theme and they mentioned to working alongside each
other, creating an open environment to support, talk to each other and share information on
new trends, products and markets and therefore develop social capital. This assists the
individual business to survive in creating an environment that is open to facilitate cooperation
and in turn leads to the overall success of the festival and the prosperity of the individual
businesses in the network. The sense of belonging and being in the situation together and
wanting to make it work was also mentioned repeatedly as one of the highlights of being
involved at the festival. One even mentioned that they stay in contact after the festival and this
continued interaction lead to more sustainable and stronger networks. The social cohesion
that is developed at this festival was mentioned as being instrumental in the overall success
of the business and growth. The entrepreneurs mentioned that they found the local community
supportive of entrepreneurial ventures (80%) and the festival to support entrepreneurial skills
development (74%) and entrepreneurial operations at the festival (62%). The importance of
their embeddedness in the festival was described as being part of win-win relationship
between the entrepreneurs and the festival management: “Without us (the entrepreneurs)
there would be no successful festival and without the arranged festival some of our businesses
would also not exist.” The sense of oneness and being part of the ‘family’ was also mentioned
as being valuable to the entrepreneurs as well as to the success of the event.
5. CONCLUSION
This research contributes to literature in three ways. First, it provides a better understanding
of social capital in the festival setting on how they value social capital in the challenging
environment and dynamic festival environment. Second, we focus on how Micro and small
6
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
enterprises operate in the creative and cultural industries by employing networks and
developing social capital to add value to one another. The findings consisted of two themes
1) social capital described by 1.1) economic value and 1.2) emotional value, and 2) social
cohesion where a sense of belonging was uncovered as the most important motivations to be
develop networks and advance their businesses. These findings help us to understand this
market better in how they network, build social capital and what drives their social capital
development and the value it holds for them. Our research adds to social capital that is widely
accepted to have a business dimension, in our findings that show that there are social and
emotional dimensions as well.
The first findings of social capital add value of festival entrepreneur’s involvement and that
they rely like many other entrepreneurs on social networks and social capital to enhance their
business. They use social networks to build social capital by sharing, supporting, socializing
and to apply some form of quality control. They use these social capital outcomes to increase
their own and each other’s resourcefulness, ensure a more attractive market place and add
value in the form of developing a sense of community and belonging that leads to increased
satisfaction and social competence (Gedajlovic et al, 2013): “The festival offers the opportunity
to small entrepreneurs to interact and share their common interest in making money and being
part of the cultural gathering of being Afrikaans and enjoying all things associated with your
culture.” Values of trust, openness, and willingness to share information, ideas and
opportunities have been mentioned in literature (Woolcock and Narayan, 2000) but this
research adds the importance of social coherence and cooperation.
We add to social cohesion theory where we uncovered the feelings of being actively involved,
in control and to add value to the event. The nature of these cultural specific and niche
products that most of the entrepreneurs manufacture and sell at this event emphasizes the
need to nurture this market and invest in sustaining it for the future. They then become
invested and ingrained in the experience and gives a sense of continuity and stability to their
business and the event in their annual participation. Remarks like: “my customers expect me
to be here every year” and “I get repeat business every year and people now know where to
contact me throughout the year when not at Aardklop” illustrates the importance of this event
for sustainable business and to get exposure and promote a business. These insights lead to
recommendations.
On a managerial level the event organizers and entrepreneurs could work more collaboratively
to enhance their marketing and operations. Practically, networking and social capital
development should be treated as just as important as other business skills, e.g. marketing,
branding and promotions management at university and tertiary levels. Festival and event
managers can by understanding the specific needs of the entrepreneurs exhibiting and selling
their products at these events also be utilize the value that these entrepreneurs can generate
from working collaboratively. The social cohesion attraction can be better supported where
support networks for daily business operations adds to the overall success of the individual
business, but also in making the festival a successful marketplace.
6. REFERENCES
7
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
Andersson, TA & Getz, D 2008, ‘Stakeholder Management Strategies of Festivals’, Journal of
Convention & Event Tourism, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 199-220.
Botha, K, Viviers, P & Slabbert, E 2012, ‘What really matters to the audience: analysing the
key factors contributing to arts festival ticket purchases’, South African Theatre Journal,
vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 22-44.
Bourdieu, P 1993, Sociology in question, vol. 18, London, UK, Sage.
Burt, RS, Kilduff, M & Tasselli, S 2013, ‘Social network analysis: Foundations and frontiers on
advantage’, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 64, pp. 527-547.
Carmichael, BA & Morrison, A 2011, ‘Tourism Entrepreneurship Research’, Tourism Planning
and Development, vol. 8, no 2, pp. 115-119.
Ciancutti, AR & Steding, TL 2001, Built on trust: gaining advantage in any organization.
Contemporary Books, Lincolnwood, ІІІ.
CloverAardklop 2015, viewed 7 September 2015, http://www.cloveraardklop.co.za.
Creswell, JW & Creswell, JD 2005, ‘Mixed methods research: developments, debates, and
dilemmas’, in Swanson, RA & Holton, EF (Eds.), Research in Organizations:
Foundations and Methods of Inquiry. San Francisco, CA, Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
de Klerk, S & Saayman, M 2012, ‘Networking as key factor in Artpreneurial success’,
European Business Review, vol. 24, no 5, pp. 382–399.
Friedkin, NE 2004, ‘Social cohesion’, Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 30, no 1, pp. 409-436.
Gedajlovic, E, Honig, B, Moore, CB, Payne, GT & Wright, M 2013, ‘Social capital and
Entrepreneurship: A schema and Research Agenda’, Entrepreneurship, Theory and
Practice, vol. 37, no 3, pp. 455-478.
Gov.za 2015, South African Government: Arts and Culture, viewed 11 September 2015,
www.gov.za.
Holzmann, R & Jorgensen, S 1999, ‘Social protection as social risk management: conceptual
underpinnings for the social protection sector strategy paper’, Journal of International
Development, vol. 11, pp. 1005–1027.
Ihlen, Ø 2005, ‘The power of social capital: Adapting Bourdieu to the study of public relations’,
Public relations Review, vol. 31, pp. 492-496.
Isham, J & Kaufmann, D 1999, ‘The forgotten rationale for policy reform: The productivity of
investment projects’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 149-184.
Johansson, M & Kociatkiewicz, J 2011, ‘City festivals: creativity and control in staged urban
experiences’, European Urban and Regional Studies, vol. 18, no 4, pp. 392-405.
Kwon, S, Heflin, C & Ruef, M 2013, ‘Community Social capital and Entrepreneurship’,
American Sociology Review, vol. 78, pp. 980-1008.
Ladkin, A & McCabe, V 2010, ‘Human resource issues and industry trends in the UK
conventions
and
exhibitions
industry’,
viewed
1
September
2015,
http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/18969/3/cautladka(Revised).pdf
Landström, H, Harirchi, G & Åström, F 2012, ‘Entrepreneurship: Exploring the knowledge
base’, Research Policy, vol. 41, no. 7, pp. 1154-1181.
Lewis, M, 2012, ‘South Africa's National Arts Festival’, Theatre Journal (Assn for Theatre in
Higher Education) (Baltimore, MD), vol. 64, no 2, pp. 260.
Li, YQ, Wang, XH & Bai. X 2013, ‘How does entrepreneurs' social capital hinder new business
development? A relational embeddedness perspective’, Journal of Business Research,
vol. 66, no. 12, pp. 2418-2424.
Loots, I, Ellis, S, & Slabbert, E 2012, ‘Factors predicting community support: The case of a
South African arts festival’, Tourism & Management Studies, vol.7, pp. 121-130.
8
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
Mahembe, E 2011. Literature Review on Small and Medium Enterprises’ Access to Credit and
Support in South Africa”, prepared for the National Credit Regulator (NCR). Pretoria,
South
Africa.
http://ncr.org.za/pdfs/Literature%20Review%20on%20SME%20Access%20to%20Cred
it%20in%20South%20Africa_Final%20Report_NCR_Dec%202011.pdf.
Marková, I 2004, Trust and Democratic Transition in Post-Communist Europe. New York:
Oxford.
Moeran, B & Pedersen, JS 2011, ‘Negotiating Values in the Creative Industries: Fairs,
Festivals and Competitive Events’, 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Morris, MH, Pryor, CG & Schindehutte, M 2012, Entrepreneurship as experience: How events
create ventures and ventures create entrepreneurs. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Murphy, JP 2011, ‘A 2 x 2 conceptual foundation for entrepreneurial discovery theory’,
Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice, vol. 35, no 2, pp. 359-374.
Polèse, M 2012, ‘The Arts and Local Economic Development: Can a Strong Arts Presence
Uplift Local Economies? A Study of 135 Canadian Cities’, Urban Studies, vol. 49, no 8,
pp. 1811-1835.
Punt, C, Pauw, K, van Schoor, M, Nyhodo, B, McDonald, S, Chant, L & Valente, C 2005, ‘A
profile of the North West province: Demographics, poverty, inequality and
unemployment’, PROVIDE Project Background Paper i© PROVIDE, vol. 1, no. 6, pp.
1-24.
Quinn, B. 2006, ‘Problematising 'Festival tourism': Arts festivals and sustainable development
in Ireland’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 288-306.
Richards, G 2011, ‘Creativity and tourism: The state of the art’, Annals of Tourism Research,
vol. 38, pp. 1225-1253.
Saayman, M, Douglas, M & de Klerk, S 2008, ‘Attributes of entrepreneurs at an arts festival’,
Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, vol. 2
no. 1, pp. 17‐29.
Saayman, M & Rossouw, R 2011, ‘The significance of festivals to regional economies:
measuring the economic value of the Grahamstown National Arts Festival in South
Africa’, Tourism Economics, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 603-624.
Schumpeter, JA 1934, The theory of economic development. New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction.
Sharpe, EK 2008, ‘Festivals and Social Change: Intersections of Pleasure and Politics at a
Community Music Festival’, Leisure Sciences, vol. 30, no 3, pp. 217-234.
Stanley, D 2003. ‘What Do We Know about Social Cohesion: The Research Perspective of
the Federal Government's Social Cohesion Research Network’, The Canadian Journal
of Sociology, vol. 28, no 1, pp. 5-17, viewed 1 September 2015,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3341872.
Svendsen, G & Svendsen, GT 2004. The creation and destruction of social capital:
Entrepreneurship, co-operative movements and institutions. Cheltenham, UK, Edward
Elgar.
Taylor, A & Taylor, M 2014, ‘Factors influencing effective implementation of performance
measurement systems in small and medium-sized enterprises and large firms: A
perspective from Contingency Theory’, International Journal of Production Research,
vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 847-866.
van Niekerk, M & Coetzee, WJL 2011, ‘Utilizing the VICE Model for the Sustainable
Development of the Innibos Arts Festival’, Journal of Hospitality Marketing and
Management, vol. 20, no 3-4, pp. 347-365.
9
Proceedings of Annual South Africa Business Research Conference
11 - 12 January 2016, Taj Hotel, Cape Town, South Africa, ISBN: 978-1-922069-95-5
Veciana, JM 2007, ‘Entrepreneurship as a Scientific Research Programme’, Entrepreneurship
(pp. 23-71), Springer Heidelberg.
Weber, K & Ladkin, A 2011, ‘Career identity and its relation to career anchors and career
satisfaction: The case of convention and exhibition industry professionals in Asia’, Asia
Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, vol. 16, pp. 167-182.
Weber, C & Weber, B 2011, ‘Exploring the antecedents of social liabilities in CVC triads ̶ A
dynamic social network perspective’, Journal of Business Venturing, vol. 26, pp. 255272.
Woolcock, M & Narayan, D 2000, ‘Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory,
Research, and Policy’, The World Bank Research Observer, vol. 15, no 2, pp. 225-249.
Wright, KB & Miller, CH 2010, ‘A measure of weak-tie/strong-tie support network preference,
Communication Monographs, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 500-517.
10