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Municipal, Industrial, and Hazardous Waste
Jonathan M. Links, PhD
Johns Hopkins University
Section A
Types of Waste and Waste Management
Types of Waste
Waste
Municipal
solid waste
Medical
waste
Hazardous
waste
Industrial
waste
Radioactive
waste
Manufacturing
Mining
Agriculture
Coal combustion
Oil and gas production
Spent fuel
High-level
Low-level
Uranium mill tailings
Source: Wagner, T.
4
The Universe of Waste
Hazardous waste 5%
Industrial
waste
93.7%
Source: Wagner, T.
MSW 1.2%
Radioactive waste <0.1%
Medical waste <0.1%
5
Waste Categories and Generated Amounts (1990 Data)
Amount
( x 106 tons/year)
Per capita (lbs/day)
Municipal
164
4.7
Industrial
13,000
285
Hazardous
196
4.3
Medical
0.5
1 oz
Sewage sludge
300
6.3
Dredged material
400
Source
Other
Animal waste
1,325*
*Nationwide, 130 times more animal waste than human waste
Source: Wagner, T.
6
Municipal Solid Waste
Source: Adapted by CTLT from Hill, M. K.
7
Sources and Examples of MSW
Sources
Examples of products
Residential, including singleand multiple-family houses
Nondurable paper items (magazines, newspapers,
advertising flyers), plastic and glass bottles, aluminum
and steel cans, packaging, food wastes, yard wastes
Institutional, including
schools, hospitals, prisons, and
nursing homes
Food wastes, paper (classrooms and offices),
disposable tableware, napkins, paper towels from
restrooms and yard trimmings
Source: Moore, G. S.
8
More Sources and Examples of MSW
Sources
Examples of products
Commercial, including
restaurants, office buildings,
and stores
Food wastes, paper products from offices, restrooms
and serving tables, disposable tableware, corrugated
and paperboard products, yard wastes
Industrial packaging and
administrative wastes
Wooden pallets, office paper, corrugated and
paperboard products, plastic film and food wastes
(from cafeterias)
9
80
60
40
20
Source: EPA; Moore, G. S.
W
oo
d
s
as
Gl
Fo
od
Ot
he
r
Pl
as
tic
s
M
et
al
s
Ya
rd
0
Pa
pe
r
MSW (millions of tons)
Major Material Components of MSW by Weight, 1996
10
Sources of Household Hazardous Waste
„
Household hazardous waste: approximately 0.5% of refuse
weight
Automotive
56%
Pesticides 1%
5%
26%
Paint products
Source: Johnson, B. L.
Cleaners
12%
Misc.
11
Million metric tons/million people
U.S. Material Consumption and Population Growth
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1900
1920
1940
Materials
Source: McKinney, M. L.
1960
1980
2000
Population
12
240
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
180
120
60
0
1960
Source: Hill, M. K.
1970
1980
1990
Per capita generation (lbs/person/day)
Total waste generation (million tons)
Waste Generation Rates, 1960–2000
2000
13
Annual Municipal Waste Generation per Person
U.S.
Australia
Canada
France
U.K.
Germany
Italy
Portugal
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Annual per capita waste generation (lbs)
Source: McKinney, M. L.
14
Causes for Increased Waste Generation
„
„
„
„
„
Demographic changes
Degree of urbanization
Consumer preference
Demand for convenience ahead of the environment
Little economic incentive for Americans to reduce waste
15
How MSW Is Managed in the U.S.
17%
Landfills
67%
Source: Pepper, I. L.
Recycling
16%
Incineration
16
Arrangement of Cells in a Sanitary Landfill
Source: Adapted by CTLT from Peirce, J. J.
17
Unlined Landfills and Groundwater Contamination
„
Groundwater contamination as a result of unlined landfill
disposal
Source: Adapted by CTLT from Nadavakukaren, A.
18
Diagram of a Sanitary Landfill
Source: Adapted by CTLT from Rogers, J. J.
19
Average fee in dollars/ton
Change in Waste Disposal Tipping Fees
40
30
20
10
0
1980
Source: Blumberg, L.
1984
1988
Incinerator
Landfill
1992
20
The Land Filling Crisis
Municipal waste operation facilities
„
Changes in the number of municipal waste operating
facilities (U.S.)
16,000
12,000
8,000
4,000
0
1979
Source: EPA.
1983
1987
1991
1995
21
Sanitary Landfill: Federal Legislation Provisions
„
„
„
„
„
Landfills may not be sited on floodplains, wetlands,
earthquake zones, unstable land, or airports (birds at site are
hazard to aircraft)
Landfills must have liners
Landfills must have a leachate collection system
Landfill operators must monitor groundwater for many
specified toxic chemicals
Landfill operators must meet financial assurance criteria that
monitoring continues for 30 years after closure of the landfill
22
Why Are New Landfill Sites Not Being Established?
„
„
„
Public opposition
− NIMBY: Not in my backyard
− LULU: Locally unwanted land use
− NIMEY: Not in my election year
− NIMTOO: Not in my term of office
− BANANA: Build absolutely nothing anywhere near
anyone
− NOPE: Not on planet earth
Rising costs
EPA regulations
23
Does MSW Degrade in a Landfill?
„
„
„
„
Minimal
Designed to prevent generation of leachate
− Liquid containing dissolved solids and toxics that results
from precipitation percolating down through the waste
and contaminating groundwater
Oxygen, critical for degradation, has been eliminated by
compaction
“Biodegradable” advertised products
24
The Lasting Litter Chart
Bottle
Plastic 6-pack holder
1,000,000 years
450 years
Aluminum can
200–400 years
Tin can
80–100 years
Plastic container
20–30 years
Disposable diaper
10–20 years
Woolen cap
12 months
Cotton rag
1–5 months
Banana/orange peel
3–6 weeks
Paper
2–4 weeks
Source: Hill, M. K.
25
Typical Sanitary Landfill Leachate Composition
Component
BOD5
Ammonia nitrogen
Value
20,000 mg/L
500 mg/L
Chlorine
2,000 mg/L
Total iron
500 mg/L
Zinc
50 mg/L
Lead
2 mg/L
PCBs
1.5 µg/L
pH
Source: Peirce, J. J.
6.0
26
Incineration
„
„
„
„
„
Reduces waste to solid residues, gases, and water vapor
Process reduces waste volume by 80–90%
Solid residues need further disposal (landfilling)
Emissions have to be closely monitored and controlled
Economic considerations
− Incineration costs about $125,000 per ton (cost is affected
by plant capacity)
− Typical plant capacity is about 1,000 tons per day
27
Waste-to-Energy Plant with Pollution Control System
„
Mass burn waste-to-energy plant with pollution control
system
Source: Adapted by CTLT from League of Women Voters.
28
Why Recycle?
„
„
„
Resource conservation
− Recycling reduces pressure on renewable and nonrenewable resources
Energy conservation
− Recycling consumes 50–90% less energy than
manufacturing the same item from virgin material
Pollution abatement
− Reduces level of pollutant emissions
29
Benefits Derived from Using Secondary Materials
„
Environmental benefits derived from substituting secondary
materials for virgin resources
Reduction of:
Aluminum
Steel
Paper
Glass
90–97%
47–74%
23–74%
4–32%
Air pollution
95%
85%
74%
20%
Water pollution
97%
76%
35%
—
Mining waste
—
97%
—
80%
Water use
—
40%
58%
50%
Energy use
Source: McKinney, M. L.
30
Reasons More MSW Isn’t Recycled: Attitudes
„
Attitudes
− Convenience, conditioned by advertising; throwaway
attitude toward waste; not valued as a resource;
out of sight, out of mind
− Some people just don’t care
31
Reasons More MSW Isn’t Recycled: Economic
„
Economic
− Public policy hinders recycling effort
− Expense of sorting, transportation
− Plastic virgin material less expensive than producing
recycled material
32
Reasons More MSW Isn’t Recycled: Market
„
Market
− Environmental cost is not reflected in market price
X We must internalize the environmental costs
X We must include environmental cost in
commodity pricing
33
Trends in Waste Generation, Recovery, and Disposal
240
Million tons
180
120
60
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
Land Disposal Combustion Composting
Source: Hill, M. K.
2000
Recycling
34
Better Than Recycling
„
„
Source reduction
− Minimize the amount of waste being generated
− Use less material per product
− Make products last longer
− Abandon the planned obsolescence approach
− Front-end approach to waste management
Reuse
− Repeated use of items prior to disposal
− Repair the item
35
MSW Management Hierarchy
„
Municipal waste management hierarchy ranked in order of
increasing impact on the environment
− Source reduction
− Reuse
− Recycling
− Incineration with energy recovery
− Incineration without energy recovery
− Landfill
36
Section B
Hazardous Waste
Hazardous Waste
„
Legal designation for certain wastes that require special
handling because they present a serious threat to human
health and the environment if mismanaged
Source: Wagner, T., 129.
38
Hazardous Waste
Source: Adapted by CTLT from Koren, H.
39
Hazardous Waste Characteristics
„
„
„
„
Ignitability
− Substances that catch fire with a flash point of 140
degrees Fahrenheit or less
Corrosivity
− Substances that corrode storage tanks (pH <2 or >12.5)
Reactivity
− Substances that are chemically unstable and may explode
or generate poisonous gases (cyanide and sulfide)
Toxicity
− Substances that are injurious to health when ingested or
inhaled (e.g., chlorine, ammonia, pesticides,
formaldehyde)
40
Hazardous Waste Sources in the U.S.
Chemicals
Transportation equipment,
motor freight transport
Petroleum refining,
fabricated metals
Machinery,
electric machinery
Electrical: gas,
sanitary services
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Percent
Source: Holmes, G.
41
The “Toxic Soup” of Hazardous Waste
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
What
Heavy metals
Solvents
Organic chemicals
Municipal waste
Inorganic waste
Pesticides
Paints and oil wastes
Sludges
Source: Wagner, T.
„
„
How much
Between 300 and 700
million tons per year
90% is wastewater
(which is dilute but contains
enough
regulated materials)
42
Potential Threats That Led to Listing on the NPL
„
Potential threats to the environment that led to listing on the
National Priorities List (NPL)
Human health impacts
6.6
Animal life impacts
7.8
Flora impacts (vegetation)
10.5
Air impacts
26
Surface water impacts
50.4
Soil impacts
72.1
Drinking water impacts
73.1
Groundwater impacts
85.2
0
Source: Holmes, G.
10
20
30
40
50
Percent of sites
60
70
80
90
43
Livestock Production and Animal Waste Production
Production
( x 106 per year)
Solid manure
( x 106 tons per year)
Broilers
7,600
14.4
Turkeys
300
5.4
Hogs
103
116.4
Cattle (non-dairy)
58
1,229.2
Animal
1,365.7
Concerns:
(e.g., hogs)
Source: USDA.
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Pathogens
29 lbs/year/hog
18 lbs/year/hog
?
44
Number of Hog Farms/Number of Hogs per Farm: NC
Number of hog farms and average number of hogs per farm
in North Carolina, 1983–1997
25000
1800
20000
1500
1200
15000
900
10000
600
5000
Hogs per farm
Hog farms
„
300
0
0
1983
1985
1989
Hog Farms
1993
1995
Hogs/Farm
45
Broiler Numbers and Production Farms, 1975–1995
35
35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
5
1975
1980
1985
Farms
Source: USDA.
Thousands of farms
Millions of pounds
40
1990
1995
Broilers
46
Environmental Impacts of Hog Farming
„
„
„
„
Nutrient pollution of soil, rivers, and shorelines
− Nitrogen and phosphorus
X Stimulate algal growth leading to low dissolvedoxygen levels
Air pollution
− Nitrogen
Contaminated groundwater and drinking wells
Odor pollution
− Ammonia
47
Potential Threats to Public Health
„
„
„
„
„
„
Lists of recognized toxicants
Lists of suspected toxicants
Pathogens
Antibiotic resistance
Heavy metals in waste lagoons
Greenhouse gases
48
Comparison
„
Comparison between municipal and hog farm waste
treatment regulations
− Municipalities are subject to strict waste control
technologies
− Hog farms are not
− Municipalities must monitor their environmental
performance
X Hog farms have no obligation to monitor or report
runoff, discharges, or groundwater contamination
X Instead, they are inspected by state officials only two
times per year
49
The U.S. Generates How Much Hazardous Waste?
„
„
EPA estimates
− 300–700 million tons per year
~ 90% (by weight) is wastewater
− Used in industrial processes and becomes contaminated
− Often is fairly dilute but contains enough regulated
constituents to render it hazardous
Source: Wagner, T., 133.
50
The U.S. Generates How Much Hazardous Waste?
„
~ 10%
− Inorganic solids (heavy metals, contaminated soil)
− Organic liquids (solvents)
− Sludges (treatment residues) from air- and waterpollution control devices
51
Hazardous Waste Generators
„
„
„
21,575 large-quantity generators
190,431 small-quantity generators
2,389 treatment, storage, and disposal facilities acting as
waste generators
Source: Johnson, B. L., 9.
52
Uncontrolled Dumping of Hazardous Waste
„
Contamination from uncontrolled dumping of hazardous
waste
− Chemical waste stored in barrels—either stocked on
ground or buried—eventually corrode and leak, polluting
surface water, soil, and groundwater
− Liquid chemical waste dumped in an unlined lagoon from
which contaminated water percolates though the solid
and rock to the groundwater table
− Liquid chemical waste illegally dumped in deserted fields
or even along roads
53
“Top 20” Toxic Substances Found at NPL Sites
„
“Top 20” most prominent toxic substances found at NPL sites
(total list = 275)
Lead
Trichloroethylene
Arsenic
DDT
Mercury
Arachlor 1254
Benzene
Hexachlorobutadiene
Vinyl chloride
Arachlor 1260
Cadmium
DDE
PCBs
Arachlor 1242
Benzo(a)pyrene
Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene
Chloroform
Hexavalent chromium
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Dieldrin
Source: Nadavakukaren, A., 670.
54
Health Effects of Selected Hazardous Substances
Chemical
Source
Health effect
DDT
Insecticide
Cancer; damages liver, embryo,
bird eggs
BHC
Insecticide
Cancer, embryo damage
Benzene
Solvents, pharmaceuticals,
detergent production
Headaches, nausea, loss of muscle
coordination, leukemia, bone
marrow damage
Vinyl chloride
Plastics production
Lung and liver cancer, depresses
CNS, suspected embryotoxin
Source: McKinney, M. L., 549.
55
Health Effects of More Selected Hazardous Substances
Chemical
Source
Health effect
Dioxin
Herbicides, waste
incineration
Cancer, birth defects, skin disease
PCBs
Electronics, hydraulic fluid,
fluorescent lights
Skin damage, GI damage, possible
carcinogen
Lead
Paint, gasoline
Neurotoxic; causes headaches,
irritability, mental impairment in
children; damages brain, liver, and
kidneys
Cadmium
Zinc processing, batteries,
fertilizer processing
Cancer in animals, damage to liver
and kidneys
56
Persons at Potential Risk
„
„
EPA:
− ~ 73 million live within a four-mile radius of an NPL site
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry):
− ~ 11 million live within one mile of an NPL site
− 1.3 million children under six years old live within one
mile
Source: Johnson, B. L., 17.
57
Environmental Contamination and PH Assessment
„
Problems
− Residence near HWS does not necessarily translate to
actual exposure to substance released from site
− In many cases, no clearly established exposure pathway
leads from source to population
− Often, a community assumes exposure and a subsequent
health hazard where neither exposure nor risk exists
− A complex issue that requires examination of each site for
its own characteristics
58
Health Impacts
„
„
The NRC (1991) conducted a comprehensive review of the
published literature on public health implications of
hazardous waste sites
The review concluded that “the overall impact of hazardous
wastes in the U.S. environment is unknown because of
limitations in identifying, assessing, or ranking hazardous
waste exposures and their potential effects on human
health.”
59
Cost of Cleanup
„
„
„
„
Cost ranges depend on who does the estimates: The EPA,
GAO, Office of Technology, industrial sector, etc.
Non-federal
− Between $6 and $12 million per site
− 1991 EPA estimate: $30 billion for all sites
Federal sites
− DOD: $30 billion
− DOE: $240 billion
All sites
− ~ $750 billion, with $500 billion the lower estimate and $1
trillion the upper estimate
− Will require approximately 50 years of sustained effort
60
Superfund
„
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (Superfund)
− Cleanup existing disposal sites
X How clean is clean enough?
− Liability: “The polluter pays” principle
X ~ 30% of Superfund paid for legal fees
− Cost
X Attempt to find the “potentially responsible party”
X Government (taxpayer) continues to bear much of
the financial burden
61
Location of NPL HWS
Source: Adapted by CTLT from Bucholz, R. A.
62
Cleanup Status of NPL Sites
Site investigation
or emergency cleanup
under way
Cleanup
completed
326 sites
(25%)
472 sites
(34%)
Cleanup
under way
Source: EPA. (1997).
303 sites
(22%)
Cleanup remedy
selected
82 sites (6%)
Design of cleanup
under way
169 sites (12%)
63
Question
„
„
Are accidental toxic waste transportation accidents more of a
public health threat than hazardous waste sites?
School of thought
− Probably more injuries are due to releases from these
events than from waste sites proper
64
Transport of Hazardous Waste
„
„
Modes of transport
− 337,000 flatbed trucks
− 130,000 cargo tanks
− 115,000 railroad tank cars
− 5,000 barges
− 4,000 cargo loads for airplanes
Moving about 10 million tons of hazardous waste per year
− ~2,500 spills of 100 gallons or more per year
65
Hazardous Waste Management Options
Produce less waste
Manipulate
processes
to eliminate or
reduce waste
Recycle
and
reuse
Convert to less hazardous or nonhazardous substances
Thermal
Chemical
Biological
Physical
Ocean/air
assimilation
Put in perpetual storage
Landfill
Source: Bucholz, R. A.
Underground
injection
Surface
impoundments
Salt
Formations
Arid
regions
66
Treatment, Disposal Technologies for Hazardous Waste
General approach
Specific technology
Physical/chemical
Neutralization
Precipitation/separation
Detoxification (chemical)
Biological
Aerobic reactor
Anaerobic reactor
Soil culture
Incineration
High temperature
Medium temperature
Co-incineration
Source: Middleton, N., 238.
67
Treatment, Disposal Technologies for Hazardous Waste
General approach
Specific technology
Immobilization
Chemical fixation
Encapsulation
Stabilization
Solidification
Dumping
Landfill
Deep underground
Marine
Recycling
Gravity separation
Filtration
Distillation
Chemical regeneration
68
Key Points: Types of Waste
„
„
„
„
“Waste” includes municipal solid waste, industrial waste,
hazardous waste, medical waste, and radioactive waste
− Industrial waste accounts for 94% of all waste
Animal waste is an important emerging source
Municipal waste production is increasing, and landfills are
decreasing
Alternate management strategies, including recycling, reuse,
and mass-to-energy conversion, are becoming important
69
Key Points: Hazardous Waste
„
„
„
Hazardous wastes are classified by their ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity
Hazardous waste sites are a potential threat mainly to
groundwater and drinking water
The main obstacles to progress include lack of money (e.g.,
Superfund), reluctance to accept responsibility, and
incomplete science (e.g., epidemiologic studies)
70