HD28
.M414
AD. ibtH-'o^
ALFRED
P.
WORKING PAPER
SLOAN SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT
China's S&T Intellectuals in the Post-Mao Era;
A
Retrospective and Prospective Glimp se^
by
Denis Fred Simon
June 14,
1985
MASSACHUSETTS
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
50 MEMORIAL DRIVE
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139
166 4 -85
(/
DRAFT
China's S&T Intellectuals in the Post- Mao Era:
A
Retrospective and Prospective Glimpse
by
Denis Fred Simon
June 14,
1985
166 4 -85
DRAFT
China's S&T Intellectuals in the Post-Mao Era;/
"
7
A
Retrospective and Prospective Glimpse
Professor Denis Fred Sj. men
Sloan School of Management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
May
15,
1985
Paper prepared for volune edited by Merle Goldman, Chinese Intellectuals and
the State: The Search for a New Relationship (Harvard U Press, forthconung)
"The most pressing problem confronting us
the unified arrangement and proper use of
scientific and technical personnel."
is
(Premier Zhao Ziyang, "Speech on the Work
of the Government" to the 6th National People's
Congress. June 6, 1983.)!
The training and effective deployment of high caliber human resources
considered
is
A
pool
qualified
of
offices,
essential to the process of economic development.
be
to
advice
provide
to
individuals
to
is
needed
to
administrative
staff
government officials,
educate
to
the
next generation, and to support industrial and agricultural development
through efficient management
Myers,
Harbison and
in
and
seminal
their
in
developing countries, refer
resource.
resource
They
2
problems
development.
the
critical
development,
tutions
for
for
persons
b)
problems
and
science and
technology.
study of manpower and education
high quality manpower as
most
that
LDCs
strategic
a
severe
face
include
knowledge
a)
a
shortage
required
for
for
persons
of
effective
human
rapid
with
national
inadequate or underdeveloped organizations and insti-
mobilizing
to
in
seriously constrain their prospects
that
skills
to
however,
note,
These
advances
engage
human
in
resources,
particular
and
c)
a
activities
lack
of
which
incentives
are
vitally
important for national development.
^Zhao Ziyang, "Report on the Work of the Government," Be i j ing Rev ie
July 4, 1983.
^F.H. Harbison and C.A. Myers, Education, Manpower and Economic Growth
(New York: McGraw Hill, 196A).
,
important,
More
Harbison and
work by
the
Myers
well
as
the
as
writings of Gunnar Myrdal and others suggest that the manpower problem
is
neither
is
the
just
quality; also
at
issue
creation of an economic and political climate conducive
the
effective
its
size
or
series
utilization of
pab
c
significance
a
quantity or
problem of
a
i 1 i t i
e s
China
for
policies
of
.
prevailing manpower
the
Presently,
3
as
attempts
it
designed
improve
to
formulate
to
particular
and
implement
productivity
and
use
the
whatever
base
lesson holds
this
to
of the country's present stock of scientists, technicians, and engineers.
After
over
status
and
role
particular,
adequate
decades
three
leadership
of
debate
intellectuals
of
the
pool
of
Beijing
in
qualified
general,
in
S&T
individuals,
these
economic
technological gap betwen
and
recognizes
itself
and
in
without
an
more
drive
to
strategic
close
West
the
the
personnel
that
and
country's
the
S&T
and
intellectuals
placement of
surrounding
controversy
and
-
the
will
be
largely unsuccessful.
Because of the persistence of
leaders,
their
to
goals
large
a
in
the
extent,
use
of
characterize
situation of
S&T
intellectuals
from
Deng
been
scientific
that
leadership
host of political problems, Chinese
have
difficulties
the
a
the
are
unable
and
technical
current
many
to
achieve many
personnel.
program
and
to
Xiaoping on down has made
it
The
improve
far-reaching.
clear
of
the
While
that
Myrdal, Asian Drama; An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations,
umes I- 1 I I (New York: Pantheon Books, 1968).
See also Mark Blaugh,
The Economics of Education, Volume 1&2 (Middlesex: Penguin
e d
Books
1969).
^Gunnar
Vo
1
.
,
,
"science and technology
"are
part
of
including
many
a
working
the
productive force" and that intellectuals
class,"
intellectuals,
S&T
achieved
whom
of
is
status
the
has
Revolution and the Gang of Four, continue
Political
virtue
by
intellectuals,
of
cadre,
Cultural
the
obstruct the new policies
to
ideological reasons as well as for reasons of self-interest. Unless
for
China's
leadership
effective
more
of
many
improved.
not
positions
their
of
at
both
national
the
utilization of
and
local
intellectuals,
S&T
science and technology will continue
be
to
level
can
ensure
modernization
the
seriously impeded.
Bac kg round
Since
in
the
early
focus
status
and
leaders
necessitated
has
Based
technicians
on
have
completed
four
paid
increasing
science
country's
the
in
1981,
China's
attention
and
the
to
This
prevailing
technology per-
scientists,
S&T
program
development.
examination of
country's
of
modernizations
economic
in
close
a
the
survey
a
the
technology
utilization of
and
sonnel.
and
science
of
S&T
on
Chinese
1978,
role
announcement of
formal
the
engineers,
personnel
numbered
5.71 million, out of which 338,000 were engaged in full-time scientific
research,
2.07
positions,
and
million were engaged
1.2
million were
the stark reality that China's
by
political
demand
^Beijing
for
traumas
qualified
Re view,
such
as
employed
in
teaching.
technical
and
4
Faced
with
S&Tmanpower resources had been decimated
the
individuals
February 14,
engineering
in
1983,
Cultural
would
p. 16.
Revolution,
and
greatly outstrip
that
the
the
supply
over the next several years,
the damage
and
for
to
higher education and the environment
to
engineers
personnel
S&T
Nonetheless,
work.
continue
bottlenecks
serious effort has been made
a
constrict
to
well
as
in
the
which scientists
in
these
of
efforts,
implementation of
attempt
the
as
spite
give
to
repair
to
major
reforms
the
emphasis
added
science and technology.
In
spite
of
all
rhetoric
the
about
great
the
changes
science
for
and technology, what is striking about the situation of S&T intellectuals
in
in
the
post-Mao
debate
earlier
the
and
of
years
Education
the
a
Great
S&T
when
the
Chinese
press
remarkable resemblance
those that existed
to
dilemma of "red
The
problems
cites
versus
expert"
different form today, but the essence of the current
of
and
comes
faced by the
the
in
a
that
1960s.
and
reflects many
status
period
1950s
the
may be cast
is
they bear
this area,
during
era,
the
of
Communist regime.
employment
from
in
Leap
issues
same
the
Leo
of
intellectuals
S&T
China
Forward,
S&T community:
this
the
our
of
Orleans'book entitled
Communist
community at
Much
Written
.
important
were
that
in
book documents
in
host
earlier
this
Professional
a
the
knowledge about
during
1961
in
the
of
Manpower
aftermath
"problems"
Among the specific difficulties plaguing
time
were
l)limited
numbers
of
qualified personijjnel capable of advanced scientific research,
highly
2)over-
emphasis in research on its immediate application, 3)excessive central-
ization of
work
assigments,
placed on the scientist,
and
6)an
inadequate
4)the
extensive
administrative
burdens
5)too much interference in research planning,
infrastructure
for
research
work,
specifically
insufficient and inferior scientific research equipment, poor libraries,
etc.
What
even more
is
several
policy
themes
that
S&T modernization
today.
In
of
campaigns,
science
which
exception was
also
a
spite
early
and
of
1960s
dominate
to
1980s
the
important
Great
the
regime's
the
to
Forward
Leap
in
debate
the
politically
several
as
persistence
was
economic
late
the
inspired
period
a
high
in
over
esteem
goals.
1950s.
in
5
xhe
It
was
period in which the leadership was searching for an appropriate
formula
A
continue
apparent
the
is
technology were generally held
and
deemed
were
and
1950s
the
however,
striking,
for
the
b-^
management of scientific and
speech b^ Premier
.
Committee meeting on
policy on
Zhou
.
.
Enlai
scientific
and
January
1956
attempted
to
in
intellectuals
technical
technical
workers.
6
at
a
and
treatment"
of
intellectuals,
as
bureaucratism,
sectarianism,
to
overcome
problems,
these
he
and
citing
the
in
correct
Zhou
our present
such
problems
In
pledging
departmentalism.
promised
Central
speech,
his
admitted the existence of "certain irrational features
employment
Party
iron-out
jn
personnel.
improvements
in
working
conditions, better incentives and rewards, and more reference materials
P. Suttmeier, Research and Revolution: Science Policy and
Lexington Books
Societal Change in China
Lexington, Mass.
1974)
In 1956, as part of the effort to promote more rapid industrial
progress, an elaborate 12 year science and technology development
was formulated.
9 5 6 -6 7
p 1 a n
^"Party's Experience Shows Key Role of Intellectuals," China Dai ly
See also Suttmeier, Research and Revolution
November 24, 1982.
According to Zhou's own words, the meeting was designed "to find
a
correct solution for the question of intellectuals, to mobilize
them more efficiently, and to make fuller use of their abilities."
^Richard
(
(
1
:
.
,
)
,
.
equipment.
and
Yet,
7
Zhou's remarks,
the
prevailing
the
suspicions
again in
of
the
strong
the
According
t i
-r igh
climate.
within
many
important
emphasis
t i s t
This
the
sea of political
a
Among
a n
spite
in
the
atmosphere created by
new
campaign of 1957-58 quickly changed
only
not
reinforced
community,
S& T
but
the
left
it
political
them
once
uncertainty.
themes,
on
of
the
first
integration of
the
most
and
science
pervasive
and
was
production.
Orleans, "the Party's main aim has been to limit theoretical
to
research and make sure that science concentrates on practical problems
which
the
director of
noted
during
the
China
face
past
the
standpoint
October
the
its
few
of
industrial
country's
"experiences
that
scientific
9,
in
in
the
years
science
have
in
"
(
p
.
1
planning
proved
production and
1958. )8
.
08
)
that
socialist
country
d e
Nie
.
Rongzhen,
activities
development of science
institutions of our
1,
r a c e
only
in
by
in
our
1958,
country
starting
construction can
ve lo
p
.
"
(
Red
Flag,
from
the
Number
spite of the concerns regarding the importance
of basic research articulated by members of the scientific establishment
as
early as
mid-1950s,
the
scientists
were
constantly admonished
Cheng Chu-yuan, Scientific and Engineering Manpower in Communist
China, 1949-1963
#NSF 65-14 (Washington, D.C.: National Science
Foundation, 1965, p. 257.
8 For an overview of
Nie Rongzhen's views regarding China's intellectuals
see Dong Kegong, et.al., "Comrade Nie Rongzhen and Intellectuals,"
Guangming Ribao
October 4, 1982 translated in JPRS 82237, November
.
,
16,
1982,
pp. 132-139.
8
ensure
to
applications
This
.
research
their
that
had
some
practical
immediate
and
9
emphasis
implications
so-called
on
for
the
"practical"
position of
the
research had
important
Academy of
Sciences,
Chinese
which traditionally had been the country's premier research institution
included China's leading scientific personnel.
and
During the 1950s,
the Academy was
increasingly viewed as making little practical contri-
bution
goals
to
the
of
national
economic
construction.
1957, the Academy was replaced in the political hierarchy by
an organization
Planning Committee,
to
the
John
of
present-day
State
Lindbeck notes,
the
SSTC was
activity.
The
a
the
the
own
to
for
its
sake
was
Technology
i s s
gradual
dimunition of
conclusion had
scientific community:
the
and
product of
a
debate over
long
a
that eventually was
Science
lasting
the
Comm
the
early
By
Scientific
precursor
io n
CAS
.
in
^s
1
favor
nature of scientific
implications
for
China's
pursuit of new knowledge and understanding
be
subordinated
to
the
use
of
science
to
^This theme about the importance of basic research is articulated
by Xu Liangying and Fan Dainian in the volume edited by Pierre Perrolle
entitled Science and Socialist Construction in China (Beijing: People's
the authors reflect on the
In the book,
Publishing House, 1957).
requirements for rapid scientific and technical advance in China.
Unfortunately, the " an t i -r igh t i s t campaign" of 1957 emerged, shelving
the hopes of the scientific community.
l^The "demotion" of the CAS occurred in spite of the efforts to Zhou
Enlai, who in 1956 made an important address of the need to improve
the treatment of scientists and give science its due place in the
country's affairs.
support the planned programs of technological and economic achievement
specified by the Party and the State.
level
the
China
and
West
the
is
practical
way
that
level
from the advanced nations and adapt what
is
own
an
need
.
s
.
.
"
(
p
.
1
06
)
During
realize
would
it
China's
raise
to
leaders
the
foreign
of
that
1950s,
folly
be
chasm exists--that
the
role
the
is
the
gap
technological development between
and
great
so
research while
advanced
most
scientific
of
Orleans
by
"Chinese
training.
technology and
in
highlighted
theme
second
A
11
quickest
the
borrow and
to
is
pursue
to
borrowed
the
to
important
and
copy
country's
aspect
of
this
policy emphasis was the extensive cooperation in science and technology
between Moscow and Beijing.
of
Chinese
as
the
This cooperation provided for the training
scientific and
technical
advice and assistance of Soviet
Estimates
are
that
11,000
Soviet
approximately 25,000 Chinese
education and
the
technical
were
technicians
sent
training.
In
many
China's science and
this
interaction
shaped
USSR as
of
USSR
the
in
China.
China,
for
same
well
while
advanced
ways
that
technology establishment
overall
planning and its management of S&T personnel.
11
the
visited
the
to
influencing
China's
in
technical personnel
is
West
today,
personnel
approach
to
research
12
John Lindbeck, "The Organization and Development of Science," in
Sidney Gould, ed., Sciences in Communist China (Washington, D.C.:
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1961), pp. 3-58.
See L.V. Filatov, An Economic Appraisal of Soviet Scientific and
Technical Assistance to China, 1949-1966 (Moscow: Nauka Publishing
House, 1980) translated by the Foreign Technology Division, US Air
Force, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio.
10
on
identified
The
third
the
"love of science" and
nology.
At
trained
S& T
theme
manpower
lack of adequate
the
meet
to
emphasis
the
is
placed
popularization of science and tech-
the
however,
time,
the
Orleans
by
the
country's
numbers of we
needs
led
to
1 1
rather
a
broad definition of "science and technology," thereby allowing anyone
with
without
or
be
minimally called
to
bring
led
research or
science and
many of
of
b e t te r -
r a i
1
what might
in
activities.
the masses
to
the
engage
to
innovative
technology down
ridicule
the
to
appropriate credentials
the
The
during
ned
S&T
attempt
period
the
personnel.
This did not preclude the continuation of more traditional, high-quality
research in both the defense sector and the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Nonetheless,
strategy of
the
Leap Forward created
endeavor
viewed
who
as
Great
work associated with science
those
and
technology
1960s
witnessed
more mundane and subordinate to manual work.
Just
a
the
tension between those who prized the scientific
a
mental
the
during
legs"
two
purview of an elite segment of society and
the
as
"walking on
as
had
renaissance
role
of
Under
country's
overall
the
in
mid-1950s,
the
technology
and
tutelage
the
in
sorts
of
science
the
enhance
occurred
of
S&T
treatment
Marshall
treatment of
in
Nie
activities,
of
scientists,
early
the
Chinese
S&T
economic
Rongzhen,
and
personnel
the
others,
improve
d e
the
ve lo pme n
director
moves
and
were
the
t
of
made
.
1
3
the
to
education system.
discussion of the treatment of intellectuals during the mid-1950s
see Roderick MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution; Contra-
^-^For a
dictions
Press
,
Among
1974).
the
People,
1956-57
(New
York:
Columbia
University
11
and devote additional resources
in
Flag
Red
late
in
expressed
1962
promote technological advance was
staffed
centers
more
rapid
with
the
an
by
outstanding
announcement
atomic
weapon,
1964
in
however,
to
sc ie n
which
advance,
S&T
research sector.
the
to
the
view
create
a
t i s t s
.
1
that
5
proved
short
only
the
attempt
This
China had
that
^^ article
way
to
"hard core" of research
strengthened
was
14
for
a
short
successfully
lived.
The
spark
to
onset
time
tested
of
the
Cultural Revolution in 1965 with its intended attacks on the scientific
community proved debilitating
to the
ranks of the country's scientists,
technicians, and engineers.
of
Among
other
what
Pierre
things,
Cultural
the
Perrolle
has
Revolution
termed
"a
was
continuous
manifestation
a
search
for
the
delicate balance between supporting intellectuals for their contributions
to
society and dealing with them as obstacles,
to social and ideological change. "16
of
the
"red"
past,
and
with
expert"
the
surfaced
former
potential and actual,
During this period, the dichotomoy
an
to
even greater
taking clear precedence over
degree
the
than
in
latter. 17
14 An important event in this regard was the
sc ience and technology planning held in 1962.
Guangzhou conference on
The conference, which
wa s chaired by Nie Rongzhen, saw the formulation of a second long-term
ogram for S&T de ve lo pme n t 1 9 63 - 72 --a program that was eventually
d i srupted
by the Cultural Revolution.
See Yan Jici, "Development
of the Natural Sciences Over the Past 30 Years," in Ma Feihai, ed
Th irty Years' Review of China's Science and Technology, 1949-79
(S ingapore: World Scientific Publishing Company, 1981), pp. 1-9.
15 See Cheng Chu-yuan, Scientific
and Engineering Manpower in Communist
Ch ina
949-63 (Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, 1965),
.31-33.
Pierre Perrolle, ed. Science and Socialist Construction in China
17 See Rudi Vo 1 1 i
Technology, Politics, and Society in China (Boulder:
We stview Press, 1982, pp. 59-113.
(
)
.
,
,
,
1
.
,
12
Referring
Lindbeck noted
which
China's
tainties,
political
leaders
by
community
S&T
appear
shown
towards
"they
that
not
do
Goldman has
made
attitudes
the
to
such
bearers
are
leaders,
Zhou
as
Re vo
China's
Guards
and
elitism,
for
as
the
well
1
ut ion
.
as
became
ivory
needs
a
of
the
leaders.
uncer-
Although Merle
actual
efforts
were
protect
and
the
these
were
control of
lost
in
They
masses.
the
primary
were
mentality,
tower
of
intellectuals
ninth category,"
one
political
cockiness,
practical
dogmatic
censure,
leadership
the
time,
habits
trust. "18
and
the
the
1
scientists
their
Marxist
at
working
and
"exempt"
to
criticism
increasingly unsuccessful as
Cultural
by
and
Enlai
political
from
ideas
initially,
least
at
scientists
of
hedged
comprehend
to
that,
Chinese
general
As
were
targets
attacked
seeming
and
result,
a
of
labelled
S&T
"the
the
for
Red
their
disregard
personnel
stinking
designation that not only denoted their low status,
but also the perception that they had little to contribute to society.
With
"politics
in
command,"
the
scientific
endeavor
that
had
long
been guarded by the S&T community, was completely rebuked.
In
spite
of
the
unpr ec
e
nd
e n t
ed
attacks
that
were
launched against
scientists and the fact that even those working in high-level defense
areas
were
not
exempt
Lindbeck, "The
Roderick MacFarquhar,
^°John
from
attack,
the
Organization and
Cultural
Revolution was
one
Development of Science," in
Under Mao; Politics Takes Command
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1966), p. 362.
^'Merle Goldman, China's Intellectuals; Advise and Dissent (Cambridge;
Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 89-155.
ed
.
,
China
13
of
long-series
a
attempts
of
history
Chinese
in
come
to
grips
to
with the role of intellectuals in society and the political system. 20
This dilemma did not begin with
1949,
in
emerged
but
with
century.
19th
the
late
the
politician,
for
one
another.
suggests
The
scientist
is
China's modern
comparing
article
an
Revelle
Roger
start of
the
In
arrival of the Chinese Communists
the
that
each
the
has
driven by his
history
scientist
and
empathy
little
need
in
explain,
to
predict and control phenomenon through possession of special knowledge.
politician
The
greater
is
view of
the
of
access
regimes,
by
truth
to
in
often claiming
power,
than
particular,
his
scientific
this
to
possess
cohorts.
tension between
21
the
exacerbated as purveyors of the Party doctrine feel threatened
those
by
and
communist
In
two
insight
motivated
is
can
who
the
world
ruling
seemingly offer
that
may
threaten
Studies
elite.
of
an
alternate
the
more
apolitical
credibility and
legitimacy
or
scientific
the
community
in
the
Soviet Union frequently cite this contradiction as the central problem
of that country's S&T system since the days of Stalin. 22
in
a
socialist system
is
thus
faced with
a
jyiq
leadership
basic contradiction between
^Ojerome
B. Grieder, Intellectuals and the State in Modern China (New
York: The Free Press, 1981).
Grieder also shows that Chinese intellectuals have also had a difficult times sorting out their own role
and place in society.
^^Roger Revelle, "The Scientist and the Politician," Science
March
21
1975, pp. 1100-1105.
22 For example, see Robert Miller, "The Sc i e n t i f i -Tec hn i c a 1 Revolution
and the Soviet Administrative Debate," in Paul Cocks, et.al., Thj
Dynamics of Soveit Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1976)
pp. 137-155.
,
,
,
14
must mobilize
the
technological
goals
requires
pool
a
necessary
has
it
control. 23
resources
set
competent,
of
technical
needed
in
innovation and
imperatives of
the
skills.
well
other
the
since
such
economic
earlier,
individuals who
hand,
the
Soviet
the
the
from
China,
which
revisionist,
point
them
less
reaction
in
was to launch
of
the
a
1980s
has
to
and
Soviet
cadres
the
to
govern.
technocratic
a
Party
group
emerging
the
irreverant
case,
in
from
an
leadership
ideological
incorporation
this
coopted
question
the
them
into
the
system.
provided
technocratic
system and rendered
Whereas
to
Deng
Xiapoing's
many ways,
move
in
the
1965,
the
Mao's
regime
prevent the emergence
leadership,"
to
in
character of
"cultural revolution" in order
been,
Soviet
community with special perquisites and extensive
increasing
"technocratic
a
T
the
effect,
in
willing
to
viewed
time
bureaucratic,
many members of the S&
which,
the
at
view. 24
of
benefits
incorporation of
the
this
ruling elite in the 1960s and 1970s invited staunch criticism
into
as
Union,
and
allow an overly technocratic
to
irrelevant or at least raise questions about its capacity
In
it
possess
political
perspective could make
a
hand
one
the
noted
As
trained
positions of authority cannot afford
view of society emerge
upon
society.
for
On
act
to
the
On
response
Soviet
in
the
direction and
Denis Fred Simon, "Implementation of S&T Reforms in China's
S e e
Modernization," in David Michael Lampton, ed
Policy Implementation
in Post-Mao China (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming).
'^^ Fo r a discussion of China's views regarding bureaucratic organization
during the Maoist period see Harry Harding, Organizing China; The
Problem of Bureaucracy, 1949-76 (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
^
-^
.
1981
)
.
,
15
in some cases
in Chinese
recast the place of scientific and technical personnel
to
society. 25
S&T Personnel
the
in
Recognizing
that
modernizations
Post-Mao Era
potential
the
program depends,
success or
to
a
large
failure
extent,
of
on
the
the
four
contri-
butions of scientific and technical personnel, the post- Mao leadership
has attempted
relax the political and economic constraints imposed
to
on the country's
to
increase
of
the
S&T intellectuals.
number
the
Communist
Party,
living conditions,
various
would
the
in
expand
in
were
job
admitted
mobility,
to
community.
into
improve
political
extenstive
many
In
implemented
be
significant
a
Chinese
persons
promote more
and
scientific
programs
alter
technical
the
ranks
salaries
and
provide greater financial incentives for important
research achievements,
international
of
Current policies include programs
fashion
and
social
the
in
place
order.
ties
respects,
their
with
if
these
entirety,
of
S&T
As
the
the
they
intellectuals
record
since
indicates, however, major obstacles remain.
1978
Mobilization of
S&T
personnel
takes
policy context of economic modernization.
place
In
within
March
the
1978,
broader
just
one
month after the formal announcement of the four modernizations program,
Chinese leadership held
the
2 S
•'-'For
a
national science conference in Beijing.
preliminary speculation on this issue see Peter R. Moody,
Jr
Chinese Politics After Mao; Development and Liberalization,
976-1983 (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1983).
.
1
,
some
•
•
16
The
conference,
two
years,
which
It
development of
served as
science
was mapped out listing
and
key
108
8
and
t
e c h
Even
in
izations,
that
recognized
the modernization
for
almost
country's
the
top
no
1
o g y
2 6
.
a
comprehensive plan
priority fields, 27 priority research spheres,
been listed as number three
S&T,
stage
forum to promote the rapid and sustained
a
projects. 27
Deng
planning
the
in
extensive consultation with
involved
S&T leaders.
been
had
though
science
technology had
and
overall order of the
the
without
four modern-
significant
progress
in
program could not move ahead. 28
"The crux of the four modernizations is the mastery
of modern science and technology.
Without modern
science and technology it is impossible to build
modern agriculture, modern industry, or modern national
defense.
Without high-speed development of science
and technology, it is impossible to develop the national
economy at high speed. "29
As with other facets of the
program
soon
for
economy underwent
the
after
the
program.
experienced
11th
Plenum of
Some
of
the
modernization drive, the
number
a
difficulties.
of
a
period
the
CCP
of
in
difficulties
S& T mod
re-thinking
December
were
related
the
As
to
ion
program
readjustment
and
1978,
e r n i z a
did
so
sheer
the
S&T
physical
2"For an analysis of the backdrop to the March 1978 meeting see Chung
Ko
"The Struggle Around the Outline Report on Science and Technology,"
Be i j ing Rev ie
October 28, 1977, pp. 5-8. Also see Chung Ko "Scientific
Research Speeds Up," Be i j ing Review July 22, 1977, pp. 5-12.
^'Richard P. Suttmeier, Science, Technology and China's Drive for
Modernization (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980).
^ ^ See Deng Xi a oping 's speech at a science and education work conference
on August 8, 1977 for the background to the March 1978 meeting.
Deng Xiaoping, "Several Opinions Concerning Science and Education
Work," translated in FB IS-PRC
July 11, 1983, pp.Kl-K9.
^^Deng Xiaoping, "Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the National Science
Conference," Be i j ing Review Number 12, March 24, 1978, pp. 9-18.
,
,
,
,
,
,
17
Suttmeier,
constraints.
In
by
shortage
the
the
this context,
been
had
capabilities might
range
laboratory and
quality of
originally
than
10-20
from
research
years
and
thought.
30
education
At
the
time
that China's technological
behind
testing equipment,
industrialized
the
constraints were associated with
Other
31
scientific manpower.
both
of
PRC suggested
the
to
terms
in
extensive
many Western visitors
world.
high-quality of
of
Revolution
more
far
pool
leadership soon realized that the damage wrought
the
Cultural
the
available
the
technicians, notes that the most significant problem
of scientists and
was
examination of
his
in
quantity and
the
availability of library
materials, etc.
physical
These
serious,
were
associated
program.
overshadowed
with
In
limitations
and
more
by
essence,
there
pressing
still
was
too
backwardness,
"qualitative"
orientation of
strategic
the
technical
the
much
research and not enough attention was being given
Part of the reason that
had
not
been
economy and
we
1 1
the
seek out technical
^0 Su
t
tme ie
r
,
-d
e v e
fact
i
the
t
problems
modernization
emphasis
on
basic
applied research.
to
relations between research and production
o p e d
was
due
to
nature
the
factory managers
that
nno va
Science,
1
S& T
while
io ns
.
3 2
had
of
few
the
command
incentives
to
Under such circumstances, researchers
Technology and China's Drive for Modernization
,
Orleans, ed. Science in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1981).
-"^For a discussion of these problems by Chinese authors see the special
issue entitled China Examines Science Policy
Number 2, Joint Pub*-^Leo
,
lications Research S e
especially pp. 121-206.
r v
i
c e
(
h e r e a
f t e
r
JPRS)
832A0,
April
12,
1983,
18
lacked
political
attitudes,
China.
a)the se
1 f
guide their research.
to
further compounded by shortcomings in communication,
This problem was
in
from end-users
the appropriate demand
t
nature
the
problems
These
-per cep
and
research environment
the
directly
relate
io ns of the
of
to
two
primary
issues:
scientific community and the relationship
between their collective priorities and those of the economic modernization program and b)obstacles
reflecting Deng
Xiaoping's belief
have
talented
peoples,
them
and
their
tap
using S&
to
problem
the
initiative
that
personnel more effectively,
"it
is
that
not
do
we
not
whether we can better organize
is
and
T
use
their
talents
full
the
to
extent. "33
In
analysis
an
creativity
factors
and
can
organizational
United
the
in
that
of
States,
external
and
Nathan
significantly affect
research achievement:
2)internal
factors
1 )
rec
e p t
pressure
i
v
i t
to
Kaplan
the
y
affecting
cites
potential
or
resistance
produce;
scientific
five
critical
for
innovation
to
new ideas;
3)freedom
to
choose
problems and change direction; 4)existence of incentives for creativity;
and
5)toleration of novel
styles. 34
management.
must
be
one
Similar
points
individuals
have
their
and
been made
in
associated work
other
studies
of
R&D
These studies point out that the optimal research climate
which
in
leadership behavior
supports
the
the
norms
and values of scientist, especially in terms of professional motivation,
33"Deng Xiaoping Calls for Mobilizing Scientists," Foreign Broadcast
Inf ormat ion Serv ice (FBIS), December 1, 1982, p.Kl.
-5^ Nathan
Kap Ian
^ome Organizational Factors Affecting Creativity,"
EM-7, Number 1, 1960,
IRE Transactions on Engineering Management
pp. 24-30
,
,
19
self-image,
beginning
just
was
present
ambition. 35
career
and
emerge,
to
China,
in
though
most
in
this
type
cases
it
support
of
was
not
yet
.
As reports began to reach Beijing concerning all sorts of deviations
stated
from
poliy guidelines
continued obstructionism,
and
it
became
clear that the so-called "leftist" influence in science and technology
had
not
of
Deng
dissipated with the
Xiaoping
Jiefang
errors
Ribao
the
on
failure
as
force;
the
to
and
his
science
truly
serious
regard
economic
development and
a
As
being
one
technology
science
Four
and
commentary
suggested
consequences of
scientific
Gang of
the
cohorts.
and
for
policies
of
(Liberation Daily)
projects
the
fall
front
in
June
are
this
are
that
the
are
incompatible
are
out
of
articulated
at
the
joint
"leftist
1981,
as
research
thus
Shanghai's
in
mainly expressed
technology
and
arrival
the
with
productive
a
subjects
with
national
it. "36
center may have
and
While
reflected
desire for change, the reality at the local level was quite different.
"At present there are still many comrades in the
party, including some who are in charge of economic
and party and government leadership, who are insufficiently aware of the importance of science and tech
nology and who do not sufficiently support scientific
and technical work.
Many party committees and administrative leadership organs have still failed to put
scientific and technical work on their agendas, or
assorted articles in Ina Sp ieg e 1 - Ro s ing and Derek de Solla Price,
eds., Science, Technology and Society: A Cr o s -Di s c i p 1 i na r y Perspective
(Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1977).
-^"Xia Yulong and Liu Ji, "It Is Also Necessary to Eliminate Erroneous
"Leftist" Influence on the Science and Technology Front," Jiefang
Ribao
June 2, 1981 translated in FBIS-PRC, China Report
June 11,
1981
pp K8-12.
-^^See
,
,
,
.
20
pay
service
lip
importance,
its
to
secondary place, so that
pressure of work i nc ease s " 3
to
it
but actually relegate
loses out when the
it
a
.
The
effort
to
all
sorts
of
the
scientific
within
the
overseas
win
guidance
favor
in
Beijing,
technology,
and
research
productivity or
An
article
Guangming
in
from
more
The
specific
scientists
problems were
"of
blindly
these
reflected
striving
to
countries" and not paying attention
in
enterprises or
also
associated
with
technology resources,
of
projects,
agriculture
in
deficiencies
to
and
in
research
plans,
priorities.
little
wanting
improve
personnel.
out
some
of
approaches.
tendency among many
and
up
surpass
industry.
of
excessive
mismatches
advanced
technology work
and
management
in
to
S&T
different
the
light
the
colleagues
and
spelled
science
frequently resulting
irrational
two
catch
members
themselves
Revolution,
very
1981
in
led
motions of supporting
the
January
in
serious manifestations of
the
topics
utilization of existing
Ribao
Some
their
to
Cultural
actually did
but
the
looked
through
went
policies.
research
the
technology
and
re-integrate
to
community,
stalwarts
science
anxious
selecting
in
science
Beijing's
of
community,
scientific
world
for
popularize
and
vulgarizations
of
including
Others,
to
promote
to
They
science
were
and
duplication
between
research
37"The Entire Party Should Accord the Proper Importance to Science
April 18, 1981 translated in JPRS
and Technology," Guangming Ribao
(Joint Publications Research Service) 78147, May 22, 1981, pp. 1-5.
,
21
tasks
personnel,
available
and
scientific and
e c
t
hn ic
a
1 1
y-
t r a
improper
and
ned
nd
i
i
v id ua
1 s
use
and
training
of
3
.
The fact that under the reform experts were still being discriminated
against
insufficient
and
made
technology,
it
was
attached
if
not
problems
to
"leftist influence."
attribute existing
in
People's
in
April
impossible,
suggested
1981
science
to
difficult,
to
Daily
importance
for
and
leadership
the
An editorial
present problems
that
derived from the fact that a)no competition was allowed in the system
therefore
and
policy
for
clear
definite. 39
and
Cultural
the
way
it
was
prior
The
and
to
paid
science
Revolution was
structure
the
attention was
development of
the
of
no
put
1965-66.
tetdency
the
S&T
in
the
b)the
and
never
been
aftermath
of
system back together
S&T
the
Initially,
management of
results
technology has
and
general
to
economic
to
comprehensive
system
was
not
reform
a
prime
consideration.
It
as
quickly became
Fang
Yi,
who was
apparent,
until May
1981
however,
to
key
individuals
such
concurrently both the Minister-in-
Charge of the State Science and Technology Commission and the President
of
p
1
the
a n
-o
Chinese
r i e n t e d
Academy of Sciences,
,
Soviet
model
of
that
science
the
and
centrally orchestrated,
technology development
'""Science and
National
Technology Must Be Developed in Coordination with the
Economy in the Course of Readjustment," Guangming Ribao
,
January 15, 1981, translated in China Examines Science Policy (Springfield: Foreign Broadcast Information Service, January 1982), pp. 3-5.
•^^"Further Clarify the Policy for the Development of Science and Technology,"
Renmin Ribao
April 7, 1981 translated in China Examines
Science Policy, pp. 16-19.
,
22
inappropriate
was
were
to
incentives
few
material ize .40
system
promoted
Chinese needs.
for
in
c
om
p
addition,
the vertical
ar tme n
za
t
a
munication, and coordination.
the
Soviet system,
links between research and
strong
for
Under
1 i
t
While
io n
a
there
production
structure of the research
rather
than
cooperation,
com-
highly centralized, task-oriented
mode of organization was conducive to accomplishing such major projects
as
development of atomic
the
stimulating
better
What
the
type
innovative
of
quality proucts
or
more
needed was not merely
was
and management methods, but
a
with
and
respect
personne
weapons,
1
to
the
role
a
it
was
behavior
efficient
not
that
appropriate
leads
new
to
for
and
production processes. 41
readjustment of existing priorities
complete overhaul of the system, especially
placement
of
scientists
and
technical
.
Reform of Science and Technology
The
spite of the expressed determination to move away from
In
style
system,
it
was
not
until
late
1982
that
the
a
government
Soviet
began
^^Jia Weiwen, "Combine the Plans for the Development of Science and
Technology with the Plans for Development of the Economy and Society,"
Renmin Ribao
July 5, 1981, p. 3 translated in China Examines Science
Policy (Washington, B.C.: Foreign Broadcast Information Service,
January 1982).
See also R.P. Suttmeier, Science, Technology and
China's Drive for Modernization (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press,
,
1981
)
.
^^For a description of the development of nuclear weapons
see "China's Atomic Weapon Story Told," New York Times
May
.
p. 34.
in
China
5,
1985,
23
reform of China's S&T organization and manag eme n t
the
meeting
point
to
without
be
met
he
admonished
improvements
those
who
Council
under
take
the
direct
fuller
of
"lip
play
the
using
precursor
a
important
i^
reflected
for
S&T
to
spearhead
to
the
formation
effect,
his
call
the
to
technology at
and
Zhao. 44
group
More
service"
and
science
for
supervision of
charge
system. 43
R&D
speech was
His
group
leading
special
the
in
merely paid
into
modernization drive.
a
to
October
j^i
modernization goals could not
China's
that
out
scientists
bringing
of
4 2
Premier Zhao Ziyang used the occasion of the National S&T Awards
1982
the
.
the
Zhao's
desire
to
State
decison
put
the
imprimatur of the premier's office on policies associated with S&T
de ve lo pme n
Over
a
t
.
the
next
fundamental
system. 45
and
They
foremost,
also
and
was
year
or
so,
far-reaching
were
designed
science
and
a
series
of
reform of
to
achieve
technology were
policy directives
the
science
several
to
and
technology
objectives.
better
be
sought
First
coordinated
that a new constitution was adopted.
Within
this new constitution, the role of science and
technology was acknowledged and the legitimate rights of scientific
and technical personnel were spelled out.
See Jurgen Domes, Government
and Politics in the PRC; A Time of Transition (Boulderl Wes t v ie w
Press, 1985).
See also Foreign Languages Press, Po 1 i t ic s
China
Handbook Series (Beijing, 1985).
'•^See Zhao Ziyang
"A STrategic Question on Invigorating the Economy,"
Beijing Rev ie
November 15, 1982, pp. 13-20.
See also "Leaders
Attend Science Awards Meeting," Xinhua
October 23, 1982 translated
in FBIS-PRC
October 25, 1982, pp.K3-12.
^'^"Zhao Ziyang To Head New Scientific Work Group," FBIS-PRC, January
'^^it
the
1982
in
framework of
;
,
,
,
,
31,
1983,
p. KB.
many
cases, the directives provided the basis for setting up
experimental sites to try out the new policies.
See Denis Fred
Simon, "Rethinking R&D," China Business Review
July-August, 1983,
-'In
,
pp. 25-31
24
with
primary
the
While
economy.
the
focus
research was allowed
basic
research was
of
agriculture, or national defense.
applications
be
to
Consequently,
second
objective
coordination within
achieve
which
Technological
and
umbrella organization
re-emerged
had
to
promote
provide
and
objective
contexts:
four
areas
to
to
from
the
As
s o c i a t
over
for
the
the
fall
-s
of
io n
(
was
CAST)
a
,
Gang
the
government
organizations
uc
t
ur ed
serious.
Chinese
em igo ve
r
nmme n
societies
research
both
at
avoid
to
the
Four.
of
disseminate
r
done
s
professional
100
t
grown quite
had
exchanges,
was
to
from
interior,
abroad
promote expanded
research
to
from
military
China.
to
between research
was
r e
that
CAST helped
results,
the
and
national
level.
third
A
in
expertise
local
and
since
academic
industry,
communication and
This
cases
some
in
expanded
sector.
in
support was given to strengthening
this goal,
Scientific
promote
to
research
the
duplication,
excessive
To
was
continue,
some of the projects
favored by the scientific community would be postponed or
The
to
to
the
In
gradually introduced.
Under
production,
order
production,
transfers of technology
to
the
facilitate
notion of
the
such
to
a
from
system,
a
the
coastal
civilian
sector,
better
linkages
contract
system
research units could
market their technical capabilities and enterprises could seek assistance
with
production-related
forces
be
used
to
problems
drive
the
or
tasks.
process
of
The
concept
technological
that
market
innovation
25
placement
The
in
persons
Jiaxi
head
as
accompanied
was
CAS,
personnel
planning
and
May
Chinese
educated
by
the
in
that
West.
the
enlargement of
Academy,
largely,
in
for
^^
earlier
administrator
with
Lu
election of
Lu
Scientific
Council
scientists
and
overseeing CAS research
These
hands
the
The
the
expertise
Sciences
leading
of
up
an
Yi,
Academy of
responsible
was
Fang
of
1981
support. 46
technical
and
priority objective. 47
evaluation of projects. ^8
the
of
a
400-person body made
a
technical
running
in
attention and
scientific
with
the
of
chemist
Ph.D.
a
the
replacement
the
training,
Jiaxi,
of
of
receive
to
positions of authority became
example was
by
began
quickly
that
one
was
changes
placed
scientists.
of
the
This
change in leadership pleased the scientific community, which long-held
that
of
this
The
attempt
into
scientifically qualified
only
research
changes
to
d e c
i
o rg a n
s i o n
the
at
ensure
-m
a k
i z
that
i
ng
a t
io n
CAS
.
persons should direct the affairs
^9
were
merely
scientific and
slots
in
a
step
in
larger
the
technical personnel were moved
local
the
first
and
central governments
46 Denis Fred Simon, "Rethinking R&D," China Business Review
July/
Au gust 1 983
pp 25-31
47 For example, in mid-1982, two engineers were named deputy
governors
of Liaoning province.
Be i j ing Rev ie
May 17, 1982, p. 5-6.
48 In May 1981, there were 283 members added
to the Scientific Council
th rough a series of examinations and voting by the original members,
Ac cording to Fang Yi's comments, this made the council both authoritative
a n d representative.
See "Leaders Attend Academy of Sciences Session,"
Xi n_hu_a, translated in China Examines Science Policy
p. 146.
T9- Of course,
this meant added administrative burdens for many of the
s c ientists,
particularly Lu Jiaxi, who during a trip to the US in
la te 1984 complained about having little time for actual research.
,
,
.
,
,
26
as
well
party's direct
the
as
was
as
part
into
of
of
spent
be
to
political
for
role
an
qualified
that
In
attempt
to
early
scientists
1982,
a
using
municipal
positions
in
1983,
example,
for
the
and
his
research
had
strong
got
him
In
areas
successes
in
family connections
into
where
political
xhe case
the
with
a
Gradually
are
diminish
to
scientist's
time
of
was
left
was
created
"peer
review"
judged
panels
by
evaluating
for
51
personnel
technical
trouble
persons with
50
fund"
criteria
engineer of
chief
.
any,
if
provincial-level
and
s
each
of
concept
"objective"
elected vice-mayor of Tianjin.52
of
5/6
Proposals
process.
engineers,
ie
"science
the
funding requests for proposed projects.
Scientists,
r s i t
little,
introduce
planning
un i ve
least
at
research:
on
study.
research
the
and
research sector began
the
in
government directed
the
time
institutions
research
in
as
agencies.
chemical
a
fill
to
early
In
company
was
stands out not only because
1950s,
also because
but
relatives
during
began
the
in
the
US,
Cultural
a
he
fact
has
that
Revolution.
technical background were not assigned
^^These moves, while generally welcome by the scientific community,
also met with some criticism from among some of the scientists who
felt that their new administrative responsibilities imposed excessive
For example,
time constraints on their ability to conduct research.
the newly appointed director of the Institute of Chemical Metallurgy
under the CAS complained that he was tied up by endless meetings,
in which he spent almost 30 percent of his time.
See "Give Our
tree Hand,"
China Da
Specialists
pecialists a Free
Hand,
Daily
i ly
April 6, 1984.
Apri
•^Suttmeier argues that this fund was introdu ced to further depoliticize
the research environment and to attack such emerging problems as
fraud in scientific research.
See R.P. Suttmeier, "New Conflicts
in the Research Environment," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
October 1984, pp.7S-llS.
52"chief Engineer Becomes Tianjin's New Vice-Mayor," China Da i ly
April 12, 1983.
,
,
,
27
to
formal
individuals
both
frequently were
itself,
CAS
the
positions,
organizations,
and
requested
provide
to
such
advice
as
and
technical support.
As
result,
a
consulting.
impetus
new
March
In
1982,
was
given
the
State
idea
the
to
Council
technical
of
issued
series
a
of
work regulations stating that "units in scientific research, teaching,
public health and industrial and agricultural
hire
as
intermediate
advisers
were
to
teach,
institutionalized
part-time
a
January
in
organization was established
scientific
for
needed. 54
were
they
to
be
allowed
to
offer
their
royalty basis or
as
well
personnel
a
offer
to
personnel
scientific
research
arrangements
These
when
attention was given
to
service on
work
a
were
the
set
basis.
invited
a
their
at
they were allowed
on
individuals
as
their
assigned
return for their services,
a
do
basis. "53
1983,
may temporarily
io n
technical
and
and
t
consulting
formal
a
mechanism
assistance
where
According to guidelines provided by Premier Zhao, scientists
completed
on
od uc
Beijing in order to provide
in
technical
and
scientists
leactures
give
design work on
and
and
or
high-level
and
p r
to
Once
to
part-time basis after
home
institution.
receive
again,
fee,
a
In
either
organizations
participate.
Particular
opportunities that such consulting might
53"state Council Issues Scientists Work Regulations," Xinhua translated
in FBIS-PRC
March 25, 1982, pp.K8-9.
^^" Sc i e n t i f i c Consulting Services Expanded," Xinhua
translated in
FB IS-PRC
January 20, 1983, pp.K6-7. The first consulting corporation,
which operated under the Ministry of Aeronautics Industry, was formed
in September 1983.
See "First Science and Technology Consultancy
Set Up," Xinhua
translated in FB IS-PRC
September 13, 1983, p.K5.
,
,
,
,
,
,
28
provide for universities anxious to build-up their research capabilities
earn monies
and
University,
year
example,
for
situation,
this
opf
providing
by
buying needed equipment,
for
was
earning
one
of
Shanghai
first
the
technical
take
to
million yuan over
1.5
specialized
etc.
ministerial enterprises as well as government
o
rg a n
i
z a t
advanatge
space
the
assistance
Jiaotong
local
to
io ns
of
.
a
and
5
Underlying the official encouragement of consulting was the desire
to
deal with the irrational distribution and allocation of S&T personnel
that
plagued
had
the
research
system
for
many
years.
majority
A
of the the system's inefficiencies had been due to the overly centralized
porcedures for assignments.
turned
S&T
the
Cadres
An administrative streamlining
Bureau under
Ministry of Labor and Personnel
as
well
that
the
Ministry of Labor and
the country's
One
of
the
qualified
numbers. 56
over
to
the
be
better
Personnel
managed.
had
a
It
better
was
assumed
overview of
personnel needs and deficiencies.
more
serious
structure was the fact that
of
Council
State
ensure that future work assignments
to
existing ones would
as
the
inmid-1981,
individuals,
problems
in some
while
affecting
areas there was an
in
other areas
the
o
ve
there
r
S&T
personnel
-co nc
e n t r a t
were
io n
inadequate
This problem spanned the range of functional specialization,
i V e r s i t y
Faculty & Staff Receive Bonus for Consulting Work,"
China Dai ly
February 10, 1983, p. 3.
^ ^ S e e
Leo Orleans, "The Training and Utilization of Scientific and
Engineering Manpower in the People's Republic of China," Congressional
Research Service, Committee on Science and Technology, US House
of Representatives, October 1983.
55" Un
,
29
with
others
and
such
number. 57
a
such
areas
some
spanned
insufficient
numbers
to Gua ngm
b
ng Ri
i
ao
only
or
industrial
light
and
a
limited
sectors,
heavy
in
engineers
of
with
industry
industry.
but
According
within the industrial ministries, "almost two-thirds
,
engineering
the
none
personnel
agriculture
in
abundance
an
various
the
concentration of skilled
large
of
having
Mongolia having
Inner
as
also
xt
Beijing
as
technical
and
personnel
are
concentrated
the
in
two departments of machine-building and metallurgy and all the engine-
ering
than
and
technical
fifteen
sonnel. "58
in
terras
per
In
personnel
cent
and
Beijing
and
areas
the
addition,
geography,
of
of
within
the
than
China's
light
total
industries
engineering
combined
and
is
less
technical
per-
distribution problem also existed
these
with
having more
in
large
an
urban centers
adequate
interior
lacking
supply
such as
of
S&T
appreciable
Shanghai
personnel
numbers
of
qualified individuals.
Part
was
the
lishment
of
reason
for
persistence of these distribution problems
the
ideology of departmentalism that pervaded
as
it
does all
facets of
or engineer went to work for
a
"belonged"
thus
job
to
mobility.
that
unit,
Another
the
bureaucarcy.
China's S&T estabOnce
a
scientist
certain ministry or bureau, he literally
factor
limiting
that
any
real
contributed
opportunities
to
the
for
situation
5'"Bu He on Shortage of Engineers in Ne i Monggol," Xinhua
translated
in FB IS-PRC
August 17, 1983, p.R7.
58x30 Kai and Ceng Qing, "On the Questionof Directional Flow of Scientific
and Technical Personnel," Guangming Ribao
July 12, 1982 translated
in JPRS 83240, April 12, 1983, p. 246.
,
,
,
30
was
problem of
the
"
nb
i
allow their graduates
preferring
certain
hoard
to
types
supply,
.
enter
to
these people
prevailing
the
better
was
it
ng
" 5 9
Many
into
work
the
in case
institutions
assignmment
future need.
of
refused
hold
to
go who might be needed
situation of
on
to
someone
to
process,
Even though
S&T personnel might have been redundant or
of
under
ployed,
r e e d i
underem-
uncertainty and
limited
rather
someone
than
let
later.
Two other proposals surfaced during the initial discussions concerning
reform of
system
the
living conditions.
faction,
at
the
82.4%
research
units,
living.
Because
work
A
of
and
slated
their
engineers
Laser
Research
Institute,
pointed
were
Four,
In
previous
problems
the
ambivalence
ambiguous
with
salary
and
political
very modest
technical
and
one
related
China's
of
to
personnel
their
premier
standard
number one demand of 34.4%.
about
wages.
In
60
contribution of their
the
status,
of
intellectuals
addition,
seriously disrupted because
their
of
the
had
been
housing
Cultural
most cases, even in those instances where intellectuals
r e c ora p e n s a t
the
to
salary was
situations had been
Revolution.
dealt
One
scientists,
receive
to
personnel.
the
higher
the
S& T
When asked about their greatest source of dissatis-
of
Shanghai
for
ed
for
their
losses
after
the
fall
of
the
Gang
of
emphasis on science and technology modernization in Beijing
coming the Phenomenon of Inbreeding in the Training of Qualified
Re nm i n Ri bao
September 19, 1983 translated in JPRS
83240, April 12, 1983, pp. 243-244.
°Ogu Jiuguang, "Views of Research Personnel on the Current Reform
of Scientific Research," Kexuexue Yu Kexue Jishu Guanli (Scientology
and the Management of Science and Technology, #8, 1983 translated
in JPRS-CST-84-01 1
April 17, 1984, pp. 155-163.
5'" Ove
Personnel,"
,
,
31
had not translated
of
scientists and
China's
attempts
into better pay and accommodations for the majority
improve
to
the
technical
personnel.
conditions of
living
certain cases,
In
S&T
intellectuals were
encoruaged, but in most instances, were not implemented.
The scientists'
with
financial situation did not even improve measurably
regime's determined move away from the principle of egali-
the
tarianism that had been
"iron-rice bowl"
irrespective of
that
their
system of
financial
more.
the
eat
or
In
from
past,
same
the
a
big
major part of the Maoist ethos.
allowed
accomplishments
rewards
pot,"
local
responsible
for
because
awards
of
their
personnel
the
received
by
within the
up
collect
salary
increasingly gave way
government organizations.
the
to
scientific
for
however,
innovators were divided
with other
individuals
The so-called
successful
research achievement
a
produce
who
tendency of all
institute,
The
to
"to
inventors
and
at
times
individual primarily
received
only
modest
a
financial benefit at best.
The
other
proposal was
to
place
positions within S& T org an i za ions
of
are
the
scientific
advanced
in
.
6
1
younger
individuals
in
leading
Que to the existing age structure
community, many of China's best trained scientists
age.
From one
perspective,
they
are
still
badly
"^According to a report in Jing j i Ribao
among those S&T personnel
with professional titles of high rank, those 61 years or older account
for 30.5%, those 56 years or over account for 53%, and those 45
years old or younger account for 2%. See "Problems of the Present
State and Existence of China's Science and Technology Contingent,"
Jingji Ribao
January 4, 1984 translated in J P RS-CST -84-0 1 1
April
17, 1984, pp. 139-140.
,
,
,
32
needed
ensure
to
research
they
age
that
system.
From another
required
are
world
standards
maintained
are
perspective,
however,
due
by
current
the
drive
because of China's periodic
S& T
affairs over
the
last
promote
to
received many
of
years
however,
ago
primarily on
for
and
three
decades,
badly out
is
younger
limited
the
by
qualifications
to
the
their
amd
the
the
basis
scholars
number
of
traditional
of
^^
p^^^
isolation from the mainstream
dominant themes of the reforms
the
opportunities
new
to
S&T.62
their
research methodology and research priorities reflect
one
within
cannot handle the heavy administrative and research burdens
some cases,
of
quality
that
young
in
S&T has
and
been
individuals
this
goal
to
to
they
provide
Confronted,
adequate
with
promote
has
about
Accordingly,
experts.
tetendecy
seniority,
training
date.
of
ideas
not
persons
been easy
accomplish. 63
Thus, in spite of the sustained pressure on reluctant party officials
cadres
and
local
and
the
that
serious implementation problems remain at all levels of society.
greater
Chinese
to
pay greater
attention
authority given
leaders,
in
their
to
efforts
S&T
to
to
science
personnel,
modernize
and
technology
the
reality
in
a
is
sustained
fashion, have linked the reform of the personnel system to the success
^^See Orleans, "The Training and Utilization of Scientific and Engineering
Manpower in the PRC."
"•^For example, according to a survey conducted in late 1984 by the
Talent Resources Survey Committee of Shanghai, an extreme shortage
of S&T specialists aged 25-35 may severely hamper the city's development
ten years from now.
See "Shanghai Faces Talent Shortage," China
Daily, November 24, 1984.
33
of
Session
"in
our
drive
knowledge
and
talented
Zhao,
to
respect
Ziyang
at
Committee meeting
Central
12th
the
of
According
must
reforms announced by Zhao
economic
the
the
Plenary
3rd
October
in
1984.
socilaist modernization we
for
people.
must
We
combat
all
ideas and practices that belittle science and technology, the cultivation
intellectual
of
action
resolute
take
intellectuals
resources,
which
speech indicates,
and
redress
to
exist
still
role
of
intellectuals.
cases
of
discrimination against
many
loc
the
in
a
1 i t
ie
s
.
.
.
"
64
must
We
^g
Zhao's
ambivalence and mistrust still exists among certain
individuals towards intellectuals including scientists and engineers.
effort
an
In
to
S&T
intellectuals,
the
Ministry of
State
the
of
that
force.
It
and
the
relations
Cadres
Bureau
Personnel
and
S&T
the
Labor
between officials
was
removed
in
placed
under
the
Science and Technology Commission.
scientists
therefore
ameliorate
cannot
is
and
be
technical
handled
as
personnel
just
from
1984
direction
This move recognizes
somewhat
are
another
and
component
represents an explicit attempt
to
more
unique
of
the
closely
and
labor
link
overall S&T planning with policy-making concerning staffing decisions
and
the
assignment of
S&T
personnel.
At
the
same
time,
the
Deng
leadership introduced additional reforms in the science and technology
system. 65
These
reforms,
announced
in
a
Central
Committee
document
°^"Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China
on Reform of the Economic Structure," 3rd Plenary Session of the
12th Central Committee, October 20, 1984, p.xiv.
65
"Mobility of
p
4
.
.
Scientists
Advocated,"
China
Da
i
ly
,
July
19,
1983,
34
in
March
early
1985,
broadening many of
official
give
proposals
the
sanction
that
been
had
implementing and
to
introduced
during
previous 2-3 years. 66
the
Yet,
even
momentum builds
as
introduction of reforms,
remains
into
the
problematic.
continues
Party
situation
the
effort
The
to
meet
lectuals of the Mao era continue
discussion
remarked during
a
Revolution has
not
"professionals,
Party.
17.8%
of
the
to
40.95
to
bring more
As
intellectuals
S&T
Since
1979,
a
were
Organizational
anti-intel-
The
one
Chinese scholar
total
of
admitted
received
67
Over
of
50%
And,
based
on
statistics
only
22.8%
of
the
Party. 69
to
the
it
reflects
the
the
in
country's
While
a
membership
December
scientific
latter
this
ambiguity
the
in
is
1984
and
basically
the
the
CCP,
education
tertiary
a
i 1 1 i t
commenatry
580,000
into
an
above the senior middle school level; only 4% have received
education.
Cultural
"the
Department of
million members have
rapid
technology
and
early 1985,
in
scientists"
and
with more
science
for
hang on.
Beijing
in
the
to
ahead
sharp resistance.
negated."
engineers
according
Yet,
only
been
pushing
for
e r a t e
.
68
Li ao wang
in
,
technical workers belong
figure
may
seem
appreciable,
definition of what constitutes
^^Zhao Ziyang, "Revamping China's Research System," Beijing Review
April 8, 1985, pp. 15-21
November
"^"A Strategic Task in Building the Party," Renmin Ribao
November 23, 1984, p.K6.
20, 1984 translated in FB IS-PRC
68"More Intellectuals Should Be Admitted As Party Members," China
Daily
January 16, 1985, p. 4.
^^ " Ab so r b Large Numbers of Outstanding Intellectuals Into the Party,"
December 19,
Li ao wang
November 26, 1984 translated in FB IS-PRC
1984, PP.K5-6.
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
35
an "S&T worker" rather than the strong presence of mainstream scientists
and engineers
apparent
The
only
not
the
in
to
According
to
CCP.
continued
disrespect
make-up of
the
article
an
by
the
but
also
Party
the
the
for
secretary of
scientists
with
attitude.
its
Beijing
the
relates
University
party committee, many people still do not recognize the intellectual's
role
of
in
modernization and
them
than
others.
party membership
is
to
sure"
be
made,
and
need
encountered by
for
Some
over
to
and
their
who
years,
desire
claim
to
voice
opinions
"they do
for
3-5
know
not
for
problems have been
provinces.
for membership
in
standards
been considered
similar
other
tests are needed;
have
higher
when the membership decision
yet
continue observing. 70
in
demand
do
intellectuals
intellectuals
that "further
lectuals'
10
those
certain party cadres
individuals have applied
told
even
In
times but
Yunnan,
are
some
repeatedly
Liaoning, "they regard intelas
disrespect
towards
insistence on the correctness of their views
as
leaders
disobe-
dience. "71
Xuezhen, "We Must Take Further Steps to Solve the Problems
Intellectuals Face in Joining the Party," Zhongguo Jiaoyu Bao
December 25, 1984 translated in J P RS - C P -8 5 -0 24
March 13, 1985,
70Wang
,
,
.98-100.
Yunnan see "Problem of Intellectuals' Difficulties in Becoming
Party Members Can Be Resolved Through Conscientious Work," Yunnan
Ri_ba_o,
July 2, 1984 translated in JP RS-C PS -84 -0 68
October 15, 1984,
For Liaoning see "Conscientiously Solve Intellectuals'
pp. 143-45.
Problems in Joining the Party," translated in FB IS-PRC
November
26, 1984, PP.S3-4.
?? For
,
,
36
these
In
to
cases,
objections
the
to
intellectuals
are
attributed
"the fact that "leftist' influences have not been totally eliminated."
Some
"
feel
that
1
e
f t i s t
lectuals
-
1
e a n
i
ng
"excessive
make
will
cadres
"
view
intellectuals
outsiders
as
recruitment of new party members
party
the
d e g e
ne
r a t e
.
"
72
or
,
and
intel-
from
according
to
a
report by an engineer at the research institute of the Shanxi Electric
Power Center, some party organizations have not even put the recruitment
of
scientific
editoral
of
and
People's
in
obstacles due
officials
technical
to
to
Daily
personnel
in
policy on
the
their
failure
accused
of
applying
establishing phony criteria
voice
to
was
loud;
too
fear
sway other members
for
the
in
membership under
competition;
each
case,
the
person
in
using
direction of one's
introducing bureaucratic bottlenecks as
of
a
examples
party
local
interpreting
false
pretenses;
the candidate's
position
own
power
and
prejudice;
delay tactic. 74
question was denied
^n
climb the heavens;"
to
in order to find fault, e.g.
of
seven
intellectuals;
someone's hard work and dedication as "attempting
being
work agenda. 73
identifies
1984
influences:
leftist
implement
July
on
j^
admission;
and
almost
in
some
cases, they have become so frustrated that they no longer seek admission
and
those
in
few cases
where
they
'^"Earnestly Solve the Problems
CPC," Renmin Ribao
July 4,
the
,
have
gained
admission,
a
number
Faced by Intellectuals in Joining
1983 translated in FBIS-PRC
July
,
1983
pp.Kl 1-14.
^^zhu He, "Intellectuals Bitterly Disappointed By Inability to Join
the Party," Shanxi Ribao
May 7, 1984 translated in JP RS-CPS -84 -0 5 5
August 15, 1984, pp. 102-103.
'^"Seven Examples of How Difficult It Is For Intellectuals to Join
the Party," Renmin Ribao, July 10, 1984, p. 5.
7.
,
,
,
37
re
are
hold
-co ns id e
r
i
membership because
their
ng
attraction and promise
the
did
it
to
longer
no
past.
the
in
appears
it
Nonetheless, an increase in the number of scientists and technical
personnel
of
from
among
will
not
measure
impair
the
raise
the
and
t
determining
placed
CAS.
a
"
75
Qiaomu met
into
itself
for
with
they
should
tendencies,
and
who
can
future
play
party
this
Hu specified
their
dual
role
members.
vanguard of
strong
party
technological
the
working
socialist
having
trouble
emphasis
advance.
being
In
party members
of
July
the
three goals for these individuals:
leading role in scientific research
against
support
and
Unless
is
the
to
members
important
an
leading
core
the
People's
in
party membership
precisely
is
objective
Party
of
for
responding
modernization increase,
of
editorial
the
all
the
serve
the
CCP
erroneous
Party's
the
to
they should strive to be models in party ac
ments
an
scientists who are
struggle
give
a
and
they should play an exemplary and
work;
but
time,
and
knowledge
a
numbers
large
nature
present
the
that meeting,
At
to
strategic
as
qualified
are
party
our
At
role
who
party's
scientific
on
Hu
1983,
.
ion
According
overall quality of
build
to
seen
is
"recruiting
1984,
intellectuals
to
raoder niza
Party members
leadership.
November
in
class
are
current
the
Daily
who
t i
v
i t
ie
s
.
7
6
party must
as
can
models
and
reactionary
directives;
^s
have
for
and
the require-
individuals
present
successfully
and
transform
75"ciarify the Muddleheaded Understanding in the Recruitment of Party
Re nm i n Ribao
November 21, 1984 translated in FB IS-PRC
November 21, 1984, pp.K9-ll.
7^"Hu Qiaomu Addresses Party Member Scientists," FB IS-PRC
July 6,
1983, PP.K29-30.
Members,"
,
,
,
38
image
its
and
image
the
the
of
little incentive for tech ic a
1 1
y-or ie ted persons to
Consistent with and related
current
attempt
ensure
to
party member,
ideal
to
that
this
c o
there
ns ide
line of thinking
r
merabe
is
the
persons with scientific and
a
State Council directive,
"military and
the
(NDSTIC),
of
political
Defense
National
the
engineering and
cadre. "77
leading
SSTC,
the
to
technical
courses
defense leaders can be upgraded. 78
needs
consistent
while
with
at
Here again,
same
the
time
having
requirements
political
the
p
Commission
the goal
levels
of
develop
to
serve the country's
to
political
the
of
is
series
a
skill
the
to
addition
implemented
that
so
units
i^
Industries
has
individuals who possess the technical expertise
defense
i
According
various military
to
Technology and
Science,
counterpart
sh
the central government will successively
assign unversity graduate graduates
become
r
be
technical
skills also are placed with leading position in the military.
to
will
the
outlook
military's
party
organs--a task not easily accomplished.
where
Cases
"leftist"
the
bias
towards
scientists
technical
and
personnel has been overcome have been given wide publicity
Chinese press,
rather
than
Institute,
7" Un
an
the
25
of
indication that up
norm.
the
At
last
the
28
to
the
Nanjing
persons
in
the
present these are unusual
Forest
admitted
Chemicals
into
the
Research
Party
were
translated in
i V e r s i ty
Graduates To Go To PLA Units," Xinhua
FBIS-PRC May 26, 1983, p.K3.
^^" Defense S&T Cadres Study Technical Subjects on the Job," Guangm ing
May 12, 1983 translated in JPRS 84245, September 2, 1983,
Ribao
7
,
,
,
p.
21-22.
39
scientists and
technicians.
And,
between 1978 and mid-1984,
the
proportion of scientists and technicians who are party members has
risen
from
12.5%
party secretary
in
26.3%. 79
to
a
in
becoming
party
mediately brought
In
addition,
he
in
case,
Guangzhou pharmaceutical
for his role in expanding the use of
After
another
secretary
a
and
t e c
hn ic
several
y- 1 r a
1 1
to
of
to
i
ned
i
nd
i
the
commended
was
v id
factory,
the
ua
1 s
.
80
im-
he
as
deputy director.
his
factory and gave
serve
technicians
Zhaohan,
factory,
director
technical person
brought
a
Bei
them responsible positions even though they had "bad political labels."
In
a
third
case,
Wang
Hao
,
professor
a
systems
of
engineering
and
mathematics, was made party secretary at the National Defense Science
and
Technology University.
was
able
in
to
maintain his
His
research
appointment was cited because
activities
while
performing
he
well
his new administrative post. 81
The difficulties that S& T intellectuals have experienced in joining
the Party reflect the
inconsistent impleraention of the Party's overall
policy towards intellectuals.
from
a
general
lack of
In
many respects, the uneveness derives
commitment on
the modernization of science and
part
the
of
local
cadre
to
technology.
"...there are some comrades who neither fully
understand the backward state of China's science
'^Shi
Jinchang,
"Party Committee of Nanjing Forest Chemicals Resrach
Intellectuals Into Party Members,"
1984 translated in JP RS-CPS -84 -0 5 6
August 16, 1984, pp. 37-38.
80"Cadre Protects Intellectuals," China Da i ly July 25, 1984, P. 4.
Slpeng Ziqiang, "After the Professor Enters Into Politics," Renmin
Rj_b_a_o,
December 7, 1984 translated in J P R S - C P S - 8 5 -0 1 3
Feb ruary
11, 1985, pp. 50-53.
Institute Vigorously Develops
Xinhua Ribao (Nanjing), May 31,
,
,
,
40
and technology, nor do they comprehend the reality
that the world's science and technology is developing
As a result, they simply have little interest
daily.
in modern S&T, so they lack a sense of urgency for
studying and mastering them, or for reforming China's
backwardness.
To a certain extent, they are still in
fuzzy-minded state, even to the point of consciously
a
or unconsciously setting up obstacles to the development of science and t ec hno log y " 82
.
At
times,
several
within
setting
to
situation has
this
institutes
listen
to
scientists
example,
an
secretary,
regarding
making
however,
the
uan
was
several
to
of
drugs.
be
engineers
and
elected
failed
testing
other
into
the
occasions,
can
lead
type
an
waste
to
manage
the
follow
the
advice
alcohol
and
used
to
raw
to
Consequently,
discarded,
the
80,000
representing
a
and
the
The
bottles
of
for
party
new manager
untested
loss
other
plant,
facility.
of
creative
of
unwillingness
Jiangsu province pharmaceuticals
a
engineer
medicine had
y
In
On
research environment
the
evolving
from
described by Kaplan.
inefficiencies.
in
prevented
alcohol
of
over
cough
30,000
8 3
.
other cases,
In
inaction in implementing the policy towards intel-
lectuals derives from outright prejudice or self-interest.
In
Xuchang
City located in Henan, strong criticisms appeared in the local newspapers
and
radio
^^Yue
Ribao
Ping,
,
broadcasts
"Combat
April
21,
concerning "the city's malpractices"
towards
Ignorance To Advance S&T Development," Qua ngm i ng
December 6,
1984 translated in J P RS - C ST -84 -040
,
1984, pp. 41-43.
S^Sun Jian and Zhu Weiqun, "What Is The Current Situation in Implementing
July 8, 1984 translated
Policies on Intellectuals," Renmin Ribao
in FB IS-PRC, July 9, 1984, pp.K8-10.
,
41
in
t
e
1
lee
t
ua
1 3
In
— even
ignored
was
Similar
with
because
many of
to
make
i
b u
t i
ear
Machine
legitimacy.
and
intellectual
Tools
new poli-
the
to
existence
an
consistently
instances of bias and
regarding
petitioned
after
leave
to
treatment
the
training
with
absence
the
the
S&T
of
receiving
city.
personnel
abroad.
Along
specialized
of
returnees encounter such problems as jealousy
tape
o n
.
— which
8 5
ultimately affects
According
to
Science
and
Technology Association
personnel
who
have
China
S&T
c o n t r
a
red
City
Consequently, many of the city's
associated
the
deaf
continued
personnel
China
to
problems
bureaucratic
and
reported
he
technical
returned
equipment,
a
their
higher officials.
to
and
facing
turned
acknowledged
they
problems exist
have
who
officials
Xuchang
Che
at
construction commission,
discrimination
scientific
example,
por
though
city's
the
84
Factory,
Accessories
cies
.
returned
mid-1984
a
Tianjin,
in
abroad
from
noted
ability
their
survey by
of
24
that
the
the
they
52
could
not carry out any useful experiments under the prevailing administrative
structure because
they
are
subjects or choose their own
government
He
a s s
i s t
decide
to
a n t s
.
on
their
research
own
86
certain cases when intellectuals have experienced mistreatment,
In
In
unable
i
lo ng
j
officials
iang
,
the
have
taken
provincial
action
to
rectify
committee
party
their
dismissed
problems.
the
party
S^Li
Jie, et.al., "The Problem Is Already Obvious, the Obstruction
Still Awaits Removal," Renmin Ribao
June 8, 1984 translated in
JPRS-CPS -84-Q56, August 16, 1984, pp. 59-61.
^^" Re turned Scientists Feeling Stifled," China Dai ly
August 31, 1984,
,
,
D.4.
^^"Boom Years for Studying Abroad,: China Da
i 1
y
November 26,
1984.
42
secretary,
Planning
Urban
According
workers
of
provincial
example,
for
in
Hubei
after
Maoist
which
in
these
units
team
party
secretary was
teams
to
are
ensure
similar
some
or
their
all
to
1 1
e c t
ua
1 s
.
8
technical
adherence
to
acted
national
and
inspect
expertise,
the
an
rewards given
indication of
the
authorities
their
send
to
adherence
enterprises
of
their
accused
of
"bullying"
basic
that
Mao's
intel-
orientation,
were
sent
political
these
during
out
formula
for
89
instances have been publicized of officials
of
remove
to
one
to
ones
to
situation became
the
Ministry of Communications,
their
in
administration and personnel management.
Several
nte
i
Provincial
situations has been
of
inspection
an
Though different
era
local
types
various
When
immediately
The
the
investigation
the
to
not.
intellectuals.
sent
lectuals. 88
to
teams
policy on
the
the
institute's main
the
of
they
CPC,
way
One
respond
to
investigation
to
four
persecuting
for
obedient or
were
they
the
begun
have
Institute
charges,
parties.
guilty
vice-president of
one
discriminated against and evaluated mainly on the basis
were
to
and
Design
and
the
to
whether
known
president
the
to
scientists
and
the
prevalence
of
taking
engineers
away
for
practice.
this
8'"Cadres Dismissed for Persecuting Intellectuals," Xinhua
November
November 5, 1984, pp.K12-14.
2, 1984 translated in FB IS-PRC
88"Ministry To Probe Bullying of Intellectuals," China Da i ly
March
,
,
,
28,
1984.
"^Naturally, however,
investigations are not
must be assumed that those engaged in such
just going through the motions and are fully
committed to seeing the policy towards intellectuals carried out.
In certain instances, some investigation teams have not been as
thorough as they might otherwise have been in making an accurate
it
evaluation of particular situations.
43
the renumeration received by an engineer
In Guangxi,
Institute of Urban Planning and Design for solving
for two we
by
-d
1
1
r i
1 1 i
ng
a
from the Regional
technical problem
teams was regarded as "the proceeds of corruption"
certain officials.
90
addition,
in
been awarded to the engineer for
a
salary grade
a
hike
that
had
regional, first-class technological
innovation several months earlier was held back for thirteen months.
In
similar
a
expertise
d
i f f
ic u
and
ie
.
9
a
he
would
receive
would
the unit continued to lose money.
work enabled
to
given
be
engineer
junior
used
factory
the
a
15,000
yuan
the
profit
charged
be
earned
though
Even
the
engineer
award.
was
losses
its
of
5%
by
the
if
When it turned out that the engineer's
generate
to
of
5%
a
Some
240,000
yuan
profit,
however,
people,
15,000 was too much for one person to get and that
that
technical
his
the contract signed between the engineer
to
succeeded or
he
if
Sichuan,
According
1
factory,
the
factory
s
in
help the Linyang Ferilizer Factory overcome its operating
to
1 t
case
eventually awarded
the
it
he
was
suggested
was unfair.
funds
by
the
local party committee, the dispute most likely raised some apprehension
about engaging in future endeavors.
Moreover,
and
the
financial
benefit and
recognition
scientific
for
technical achievements usually prove less than initially offered.
involving
case
In
one
in
Zhejiang, each time an award was won, each of the actual recipients
^0"Guanxi
Reports
p.P3.
^^"Award For
1984, p. 3.
on
the
provincial Academy of Agricultural
Persecution of Engineer,"
FB IS-PRC
Science
July
20,
September
26,
,
1984,
Factory
Hero
Is
Disputed,"
China
Da
i
ly
,
44
received
little
as
total
the
prize.
most
In
administrative departments
political and
the
of
10%
as
took
instances,
then
10%,
the
service department took 12%, the library took 3%, the research institute
grabbed
Institute
the
at
and
15%,
really an
His
accuser marshalled
party officials,
accomplishment
the
of
envious
an
invention and
not
thus
product
by
support
was
he
for
delaying
higher
i
Beijing,
„
researcher
a
colleague claimed
that
Eventually,
.
10%. 92
Telecommunications had his achievement
Posts and
of
rejected because
twice
took
farm
the
his
actually
claims
recognition
however,
after
officials,
level
the
the
institute
researcher's
the
thorough
a
was
it
co-inventor.
a
from
to
that
evaluation
researcher
finally
received his financial award. 93
The on-going efforts
have
encountered
also
scientific
of
promote
job
combine
system of
92
give greater mobility to S&
obstacles.
At
personnel management
mobility among
formally announced.
to
to
various
planned
94
xhe
aspects
To
in
China's
July
of
forum on
1984,
scientists
main objective
assignment.
"Science Awards Cut
national
a
of
labor market
a
Under
Ribbons,"
Ch ina
Da
five
i
ly
,
the
reform
measures
engineers
and
the
new
with
the
system,
this
personnel
T
were
program
is
prevailing
outside
February
to
units
1983,
19,
3.
"Inventor
10
94
,
1983,
Wins
Award
After
Three
Year
Delay,"
China
Daily
,
August
p. 3.
"State Plan To Improve the Flow of Scientists," China Dai ly
July
The other features of the plan include creation
1984, p.l.
a
national exchange center for science and technology personnel,
e s tablishment of po s
-doc to r a 1 intermediate work assignments, improveme nts in the work assignments for those who have returned from overseas
t r aining,
and to give power to local S&T commission to intervene
in those situations where S&T personnel are not being used properly.
,
23
of
,
45
offers
can
make
job
can
then
tender
to
promote
is
also
the
selected
to
resignations.
their
technical
flow of
designed
to
S&T personnel
facilitate
other
in
purpose
The
expertise
to
of
units
technology transfers
plan
the
needed
who
areas.
is
It
through movement
of personnel.
Various
to
have
steps
been
taken
promote greater mobility.
has
been established
Theoretical
who receives
Physics
a
And,
persons
can
seek out
A new
and
CAS.
trial
use
rules
at
with
a
degrees
The
abroad
from
position at
At
a
by
program
the
employment
1
Institute
stipulate
other
or
institute
the
of
the
doctorate from the institute must find
employment contract. 95
year
facets
system of po s t -do c t or a
into
put
the
of
implement
to
that
of
anyone
job elsewhere.
a
Chinese
institutions
entering
meeting held by the
into
two
a
leading group
for science and technology under the State Council, various participants
from
the
their
industrial
factories
and
ministries
research units
construction projects.
96
in
Huangpu Shipyard were allowed
concerns
about
agreed
possible
transfer
to
to
support
Guangdong,
to
resign
brain drain
363
and
major
13
several
national
engineers
transfer
problems
S&T personnel
from
jobs. 97
the
the
at
Yet,
interior
to
95i
Scientists in Big Jobs Shake-up," Ch ina Da i ly
October 18, 1984.
96" Meeting on Technical Personnel Transfer Ends," Xinhua
March 30,
1984 translated in FB IS-PRC
April 3, 1984, pp.K18-19.
°^"Doing Away with "Departmental Ownership of Talents," Re nm i n Ribao
December 17, 1984 translated in JPRS-CPS -8 5-02I
March 7, 1985,
,
,
,
,
p.60
.
46
the
coast
particularly the stubborn adherence
and
departmentalism
to
prevents large-scale job mobility in the imnmediate future. 98
According
to
report from the National Talent Exchange Consulting
a
under
Service
Center
received
more
than
1,200
number,
more
than
930
unrelated
are
to
requests
are
training
their
persons
from
more
and
because
categories
for
two
center.
time,
because
bureaucratic
of
individual
the
original
concerned,
they
of
training
In
one case,
or
the
payment
to
in
jobs
are
from
are
have
o
persons
ve
r
-s
t
a
who
f f
registered
given
vacancies.
— the
ed
.
at
requests
Yet,
spite
in
exchange
The
center
unit in need of personnel,
original
the
receiving
corapenmsate
for
the
to
employed
units
the
amounted
are
people
from
fee
this
the
conventions.
the
of
that can be filled is extremely
frequently request
units
require
or
and
has
it
out
units
of
180
2,100
must gain the consent of three parties
the
240
their
over
over
who
than
89%
the number of requests
this situation,
small
same
identifying
center,
the
the
At
account
Personnel,
transfers. 99
job
for
actually underemployed
These
the
to
Ministry of Labor and
the
loss
work unit.
return of
unit
of
to
addition,
In
housing
their
cover
qualified
the
cost
personnel.
2,000 yuan in advance.
Implications for the Future
August
Talent Held Up By Personnel System," China Da i ly
1984, p. 4.
^^" Ind i g e no u s Policy Hampers Talent Exchange," Xinhua
December 4,
1984 translated in FBIS-PRC, December 5, 1984, pp.K8-9.
98"Flow of
,
17,
,
47
spite
In
concerted
the
of
determined
and
efforts
underway
to
improve the status and utilization of scientific and technical personnel,
obstacles
serious
in
claim
party's
scientific
must
It
regime's
Communist
a
its
to
to
relationship
the
to
the
mobilize
the
country's
to
but
loyalty of
"scientific"
n
i
the
at
e r p r e
t
laws
same
t
a t
i
o n s
S& T
1
basis
it
on
to
must
ensure
xhe
also
Party
its-
promote
the
credibility
give
to
The
development.
resources
community
.
the
socialist
of
time
scientific
the
community.
S& T
authority rests on
the
inherent
seeks
control
achieve these ends; scientific and technical personnel seek autonomy.
China,
In
as
scientific
Soviet
the
in
and
most
will
technical
likely
alter
give
the
extent
and
pace
of
tension for some years
political
cadre
new elite.
especially
these
is
over the
lOOoavid
to
bottlenecks
Other
who
And,
the
last
the
community
into
limited
to
party-S&T relationship
of
political
will
the
policymaking
nature
change
incorporate
the
the
continue
apparatus
authority.
to
Yet
source
of
prejudices
of
positions
to
be
a
come.
reflect
do
to
of
the
the
effort
character
not
self-interest
the
want
to
still others derive
amendable
the
Union,
the
new definition
and
a
bottlenecks are
the
of
understanding of
national development,
political
Some
legitimate
to
able
be
remain.
numbers
some
of
change,
relinquish
and
their
from the physical
S&T
the
personnel.
limitations,
While
each
of
difficulties encountered
several years of reforms suggests that
a
confluence
Holloway, "Scientific Truth and Political Authority in the
Soviet Union," in Leonard Shapiro, ed., Political Opposition in
One-Party States (London: MacMillan Press, 1972), pp. 152-178.
48
forces existing
of
since
will
1949
continue
obstruct effective
to
implementation of the policy toward S&T intellectuals.
Nevertheless, the attempt
and to introduce
a
grant more autonomy to the S&T community
to
variety of institutionalized mechanisms for evaluating
research proposals and projects, such as the science fund administered
by
state.
to be
to
may
alter
To
certain degree,
CAS,
allow the
will
it
community and
this
scientific
the
community
relatively more "independent." Relatedly, the concurrent decision
bring greater market-type
outcome
and
a
relationship between
the
for
research will
of
forces
foster
also
in
on
selection
the
autonomy
more
role of science and research
the
bear
to
China.
and
scientists
for
Some will clearly
oppose putting financial incentives in the forefront of the scientific
endeavor.
Others will view the contract system as
further
dependence
Chinese
scientists
and
peer
judged
the
on
attached
review and
by
market,
the
becoming more
bigger
the
split
may
there
ideal
the
to
other
the
While
state.
the
will
means to decrease
a
be
concept
split
a
of
pure
science
comfortable
with
continue
be
to
among
being
between
scientists and the echelons of the bureaucracy.
The
on-going
personnel
important
into
attempt
leadership
the
implications
and
social
are
obvious,
but
the
Soviet
Union
incorporate more scientific and
to
system.
it
the
for
The
the
to
years
at
evolving
possible
remains
in
ranks
be
all
levels
nature
parallels with
seen
ahead.
whether
It
was
promises
China's
of
technical
the
China
to
political
Soviet
will
suggested
have
look
Union
like
early on
49
S&T
intellectuals.
but
rather,
the
literati
run
by
scientists
and
the
be
attained
without
S&T community and
as
will
and
less
the
same time,
and
not
is
key
the
less
by
upward
party
the
catchy
intellectuals
Their
one.
capacity
the
country's
to
technical
themes
career mobility.
as
to
such
revolution."
have
ability
to
subordinate
source
a
prestige.
of
At
the demands of modernization
as
"the
The
slowly begun
gain
Scientists
third
wave"
current
additional
"the
environment
flourish
to
or
is
a
in
fair
freedom and mobility
based on the assumption that the modernization program will proceed
respects,
in
a
balance
future
and
In some
scientific community remains vulnerable
the
political struggle
if
the
cooperation break down.
Xiaoping may be
Deng
the
like
society
a
their
support of
ahead, albeit gradually, without any major problems.
up
Party,
modernization program cannot
sustained
and
this group,
want
not
do
know that
also
the
in
to
to
technological
new global
weather
they
they must be sensitive
taken
be
S&T
full
the
leaders
the
towards
institutions.
qualifications
which
out
set
"coopt"
thera
party membership may become
time,
look
Chinese
engineers,
goals
achieve
have
policies
his
in
simply to coopt
not
is
to
While
old.
of
to
In
respects,
Russians
the
objective
His
some
in
than
further
has gone
Deng
that
one
perspective of both
of
present
Their
convenience
sides.
And,
it
being caught
to
levels of political
present
rather
goes
important
alliance
with
than desire
from
without
saying
that
the newly acquired perquisites of the scientists and technical personnel
could
be
easily
taken away
should
the
political
winds
shift
in
an
50
unfavorable direction.
again,
Once
their
future
may
well
depend
on their "successes" with respect to meeting the needs of the country's
agricultural, and defense sectors.
industrial,
Despite
is
ambiguous.
still
scientists
that
will
in
time
its
upset
be
there
before
newly
reforms,
There
by
will
up to Deng and his
to
changes
be
China's
acquired
And,
efforts
scientific
high-status
successors
to
position of
the
always
will
technicians.
and
likelihood,
some
promising
the
there
those
be
promote
at
the
who
many
are
personnel
S&T
do
not
vested
interests
intellectuals.
margins,
community
position.
can
It
but
feel
will
trust
it
In
will
all
be
comfortable
therefore
be
ease the apprehensions of the scientific
community by ensuring that campaigns such as the one against "spiritual
pollution"
do
scientists
have
not
be
will
remain an
to
provide
uneasy
security and
the
obtained over
difficult
will
threaten
the
any
last
system's political cadres.
several
guarantees
tension between
access
in
China's
that
years.
this
China's
Since
respect,
scientists
it
there
and
the
c^254
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