A COMPARISON OF mOISTURg FLOW PATTERNS AS SHOWN BY
CONSTANT LEVEL AND ISCNTROPIC CHARTS BY MEANS OF A
DETAIID STUDY OF THE AEROLOGICAL DATA DURITG TIE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMISTICE DAY STORM IN 1940.
by
Willima Marine Rowe
B. S., State Teacher's College, Memohis.
1934
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRE'WNTS FOR THE DEGRE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
from the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
1943
Signature of Author
Department of Meteorology, March 22, 1943.
Signature of Professor
in Charge of Research
Signature redacted
Signature of Chairman of Departwenir
/
LJ.a sL.
Signature redacted
Commit-ee on Iraduate Students
Cambridge, Massachusetts
March 22, 1943.
Professor George W. Swett
Secretary of the Faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Dear Sir:
I herewith submit a thesis entitled "A Comparison of Moisture
Flow Patterns as Shown by Constant Level and Isentropic Charts by
Means of a Detailed Study of the Aerological Data during the Development of the Armistice Day Storm in 1940.", in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the
Department of Meteorology.
Respectfully,
Signature redacted
William M. Rowe
U.S. Weather Bureau
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
I.
Introduction.
II.
Interpretations of Moisture Flow Patterns as
III.
1
Shown by the Constant Level Charts.
3
Charts Prepared and Method of Analysis.
a
IV.
Energy Changes.
is
V.
Development of the Armistice Day Storm in 1940
21
VI.
Comparison of Flow Patterns as Shown by Isentropic
VII.
and Constant Level Charts.
24
Mean Lapse Rate and Thick-Thin Charts.
29
References to Literature
31
Figures
34
1.
Chapter I.
Introduction.
There is a definite need for time saving techniques in the
preparation of weather forecasts (1).
In the wartime meteorolo-
gical training program, little time is available for teaching the
principles of isentropic analysis. Many meteorologists use isentropic charts only to follow the quasi-horizontal movements of
dry and moist air currents from day to day. Others attempt to
obtain an estimate of the vertical component of the air motion
from these charts (2a).
It is the purpose of this paper to suggest a method by which
the horizontal movements of dry and moist air currents may be
followed from day to day on the constant level charts. Also, to
suggest an interpretation of these charts such that an estimate
of the vertical component of the air motion may be obtained, as
is done from the isentropic charts. Such use of the constant
level charts will save considerable time for the forecaster.
During this study, flow patterns of moisture, as shown by
both the constant level and isentropic charts, were compared.
Such a comparison involved a detailed study of aerological data.
Numbers in parentheses refer to the references listed at the
end of this paper. Where several references are made to the same
literature, small letters are used.
2.
The development of the Armistice Day Storm, in 1940, was select.
ed for study, as it was hoped to learn something of such development , while studying the aerological data.
As the development of the storm represented the production
of vast amounts of kinetic energy within twenty-four hours, it was
decided to study these changes of energy in the atmosphere. The
results of this study are presented in Chapter IV.
By using data for six consecutive days, all possibility of
situations having been hand-picked to illustrate the ideas preM
sented here, should be eliminated.
3.
Chapter II.
Interpretations of Moisture Flow Patterns as Shown
by the Constant Level Charts.
The constant level charts, usually the 10000 foot chart, have
been used successfully for several years in forecasting both areas
of thunderstorm activityin Summer, end areas of precipitation and
icing of aircraft, in Winter (3); these charts usually contain winds,
isobars, and isotherms. Some forecasters have found values of specific
humidity useful on these charts. Others have used dewpoint isotherms
on the constant level charts to follow the horizontal movements of
moisture (4). Recently, many contributions have been made which are
expected to increase the usefulness of the constant level charts
(5,6,7,8).
It is proposed in this paper to plot values of specific
humidity on the constant level charts and to draw iso-lines of
specific humidity in the same manner as when analysing an isentropic
chart. These lines give patterns of moisture flow similar to those
found on Isentropic charts.
If it can be shown that the information usually obtained from
an isentropic chart may be obtained from a constant level chart,
analysed in this manner, much time will be saved by the forecaster,
since the isentropic charts will not have to be prepared.
Usually,
the 10000 foot constant level chart, containing winds, isobars, end
isotherms, is prepared. If so, the only additional work involved is
the addition of moisture values and iso.1inese As with isentropic
charts, the analysis should be substantiated with atmospheric
4.
crossections.
Moisture patterns on the 10000 foot chart are usually similar
to those on the isentropic charts. This is to be expected, since the
surfaces intersect approximately over the center of the United States.
However, the absolute values of specific humidity do not necessarily
agree, since the isentropic surface is usually above 10000 feet in the
North and below this elevation in the South.
Moisture flow patterns on the constant level chart may be
interpreted in several ways. Those meteorologists, who use the isentropic chart only to locate and follow the quasi-horizontal movements
of moist and dry currents from day, may do so on the constant level
charts with the advantage of considering flow patterns at the same
elevation from day to day.
Meteorologists, who accept the assumptions of isentropic
analysis (2b,9,10), may easily interpret the flow patterns on the
constant level chart to obtain an estimate of either upslope or
downslope motion. Usually, the air flow, as shown by the streamlines (11), on the isentropic chart has a similar pattern to the
air flow, as shown by the isobars, on the 10000 foot chart. This
is to be expected, since in warm air, the isentropic surface is
usually below 10000 feet, and over very cold air, its
elevation
increases to above this height. It should be remembered that the
circulation pattern is likely to extend to great elevations in
warm air, and that the 10000 foot chart gives a good representation
of the circulation above 10000 feet, even in cold air.
5.
The contour lines (either the height, in meters, or the isobars) of the isentropic surface should have approximately the same
pattern as the isotherms of potential temperature on the 10000 foot
chart(12,13). For example, the 10000 foot (approximately, 700 millibars) contour line on the 298 0 A. isentropic chart should coincide
with the 298 0 A. potential temperature isotherm on the 10000 foot
chart.
Since (2c):
G :::
T
+.2.0
it is seen that an isotherm in degrees Centigrade on a constant
level chart is approximately a potential temperature isotherm.
Thus, each isotherm on a constant level chart may be considered
the intersection of an isentropic surface with the surface of
constant elevation. The isentropic surface slopes upward in the
direction of colder temperatures on the constant level chart.
Steeper slopes of the isentropic surfaces,
s near frontal sur-
faces, are indicated by crowding of the isotherms on the constant
level chart.
As an example of the interpretation of moisture flow patterns
on the constant level chartgdn accordance with the methods of
isentropic analysis, one may consider Rule la given by Haynes (14).
This rule may be rewritten, so as to apply to the constant level
chart, as: If the moisture gradient is steep at the tip of the
moist tongue and there is a good component of the wind toward lowDepending on the depatture of sealevel pressure from 1000 millibars, an error of sometimes 20 C. occurs. Usually, the error is 10C.,
or less.
I
6.
er temperatures, look for rapid spread of precipitation.
The iso-
therms on the constant level chart may be regarded as intersections
of isentropic surfaces with the constant level chart. These isentropes slope upward toward lower temperatures. By accepting the
assumptions of isentropic analysis, flow in these isentropes, to
long as the air does not become saturated, is implied. It follows
that when the wind has a good component normal to the isotherms
in the direction of lower temperatures, upelope motion results.
This is not necessarily so, however, as the isotherms (or the
isentropic surfaces) may be moving with the speed of, faster than,
or more slowly than the wind component normal to the isotherms on the
constant level chart (or the height lines on the isentropic chart).
In figure 1., the pointP may represent either an isotherm on a
constant level chart or a height line on an isentropic chart. The
arrows represent a horizontal wind from the south. Assuming that the
particle, originally at
P
,
moves dry adiabatically (stays within the
isentropic surface) and that the contour lines of the isentropic
surface move horizontally northward, with a speed of less than that of
IaMTOI
Figure 1.
PACACES
7.
the wind, the particle at? would move to point A. This would be
upslope motion. If the contour lines move northward with a velocity
equal to that of the wind, the particle would move to 3 , with only
horizontal motion. If the contour lines move northward with a
velocity greater than that of the wind, there would be an actual
downslope motion of the particle to C * In each of these cases, the
particle could have moved isentropically. Furthermore, the slopes
of isentropic surfaces are found to change with movement. Also, the
particle may not move within the isentropic surface.
8.
Chapter III.
Charts Prepared and Method of Analysis.
The six day period from 0100EST. November 7, through 0130EST.
November 12, 1940 was chosen for this study. The 2300EST. winds
aloft observations, the 01OOEST. RAOBS, and the 013OEST. surface
observations were regarded as being synoptic. Surface and complete
0
winds aloft maps were prepared from these observations. The 298 A.
and the 3060A. isentropic charts and the five, ten, and fourteen
thousand foot constant level charts were prepared, using the RAOBS.
The following seven atmospheric crossections were analysed to
substantiate the analysis of the upper air charts:
1. Alaskan Stations, Sand Point, Medford, Oaklandand San Diego.
2. Bismark, Omaha, Oklahoma City, and Brownsville.
3. Sault Ste. Marie, Joliet, Nashville, and Pensacola.
4. Portland, Lak3hurst, Naval Air Station, rorfolk, Charleston,
and Miami.
5. Sand Point, Great Falls, Bismark, Sault Ste. Marie, and Portland.
6. Oakland, Ely, Denver, Omaha, Joliet, Lakehurst, end the Coast
Guard ship at approximately 400 N. and 600 W.
7. North Island, Phoenix, El Paso, end Brownsville.
In the analysis of the upper air charts, the soundings at
St. Thomas, Swan Island, and the Coast Guard ship at approximately
400 N. and 44 0 W. were used, although these soundings did not appear
on the crossections.
Soundings taken at times other than 0100EST. were as follow:
9.
November 7, 1940. NCOO, LP04, NASO5, HABOO, NSPOO, OL02, PSV08, the
Sebago (40.40N., 44.10 W.) 04, end the Pontchartrain
(38.4 0N., 59.2GW.) 04.
November 8, 1940. LPO4, PEV03, NCO6, NRO6, NSPOO, the Sebago (40.40 N.,
44.3 0 W.) 04, and the Pontchartrain (38.8 0N., 59.2OW.)
04.
November 9, 1940. PSV07, NASO4, PH02, NR06,
0LP4, NSP00, and the
Mendota (38.9 0 N.,59.1 0W.) 04.
November 10,1940. UB02, PSV07, NSPOO, NR07, NASO5, GTO2, HABOO, the
Mendota (39.0 0 N.,8.50W.) 04, and the Pontchartrain
(40.20N.,70.20W.) 04.
November 11, 1940. J003, NA03, LP04, NAO5, NSP00, and PSV07.
November 12,1940. LPO4, NSPOO, and J002.
The first group of the RAOB Code is used here to indicate the station
and the time of the observation.
Several soundings were missing during this period. Any data that
appeared to be incorrect were checked with the original teletype
message and with the ascents, plotted on pseudo-adiabatic diagrams,
from the M. I. T. files.
Six hour winds aloft maps of the five, ten, and fourteen thousand levels were prepared for the entire period. Analysed 0730EST. and
1930EST. surface maps were available in the M. I. T. files, and
analysed surface maps, at six hour intervals, were available for
reference at the boston Airport Station of the Weather Bureau.
It was considered convenient to use specific humidity values
on all upper air charts, since exact agreement of these charts
with the corssections was required.It will be remembered that iso-
10.
lines of specific humidity on the isentropic chart are also isolines of condensation pressure (10) and may be evaluated from the
pseudo-adiabatic diagram (Fig.P). However, iso-lines of specific
humidity on the constant level chart are only approximately dewpoint isotherms. The difference is small, since the dewpoint varies
little within the range of pressures found on a constant level chart.
The despoint may be obtained accurately from the pseudo-adiabatic
diagram (Fig.2) by using the pressure and specific humidity values
on the constant level chart. Very little error is introduced by
assuming standard atmospheric conditions.
Values of the acceleration potential (usually called the
stream function), pressure, specific humidity, end saturated
specific humidity were plotted on the isentropic charts. The twentyfour hour change of both pressure and specific humidity were plotted.
The winds aloft were plotted, using the isobars to determine the
approximate elevation of the isentropic surface.
The winds aloft, pressure, temperature, end specific humidity
values were plotted on the constant level charts. The twenty-four
hour changes of pressure, temperature, and specific humidity were
also plotted. No element indicative of the relative humidity was
plotted, since the dewpoint may readily be obtained from the
pseudo-adiabatic diagram (Fig..).
Height, temperature, relative humidity, and specific humidity
values were plotted for each significant point of the soundings on
crossection paper having pressure on a logarithmic vertical scale.
The winds aloft were plotted for stations between the RAOB stations,
11.
as well as for the RAOB stations. These additional winds were found
very useful in the analysis.
All charts, including the crossections, were prepared on a
horizontal scale of one to ten million. The base maps included both
Point Barrow and Swan Island. The figures in this paper include only
the United States and a small portion of Canada.
Isobars were drawn at three millibar intervals on the surface
charts and at five millibar intervals on the constant level charts.
Streamlines, on the isentropic charts, were drawn at intervals of
0.5 unit (or, 0.5 X 107 ergs/gram).
At this time, values of the Shear Stability Ratio Vector (15)
were not being transmitted on the teletype circuits and, therefore,
were not used in drawing the isobars on the isentropic charts. Likewise, the shear vector, as defined by Fletcher (8), was not used in
drawing the isotherms on the constant level charts. However, the
direction of the thermal wind was qualitatively considered in drawing both the isotherms on the constant level charts and the isobars
on the isentropic charts. The M. I. T. method of checking the direction of the Shear Stability Ratio Vector (16)
was used for this.
Due to the paucity of winds aloft observations, reaching 10000
feet, during the latter part of the period, the three hour pressure (7)
tendencies were not computed.
As the figures reproduced in this paper were reduced in size by
hand, much data have been omitted in the interest of clarity. The
surface maps contain only isobars at six millibar intervals, precip is
12.
tation areas, and fronts. The reader should consult complete sur..
face maps, if available. The symbols used here for fronts are those
given by Petterseen (17.). Values of the streamlines, or isobars,
have been omitted, as have the twenty-four hour changes, on the
upper air charts.
Since this paper is primarily concerned with moisture flow
patterns, the 5000 foot charts do not extend west of Denver, Slthough the chart for 0100EST. November 7, 1940 is reproduced in
full.
Figures 7 through 12e are numbered so that the number refers
to the date in November 1940; no small letter, the surface map; a,
the 5000 foot chart; b, the 10000 foot chart; c, the 14000 foot
chart; d, the 29P 0 A. isentropic chart; and e, the 306OA. Isentropic
chart. This numbering system should save much repetition of dates.
For example, the 0l0(EST. 10000 foot constant level chart on
November 11, 1940 may be referred to as simply Fig. 11b.
It was found that the use of seven, instead of the usual three,
crossections made the analysis more difficult. It is hoped that the
use of nearly all the soundinqs on crossections increased the accuracy
of the analysis. Usually, surface fronts do not appear very marked
aloft. To avoid arguments as to their exact positions, the intersections of frontal surfaces with the constant level and isentropic
surfaces (17b)
are not indicated on the figures reproduced here.
To clarify the upper air charts reproduced here, areas of less
than 2.0 g./kg. specific humidity have been shaded in blue, areas of
more than 6.0 g./kg. specific humidity have been shaded in red, and
areas of saturated air are not indicated.
13.
Chapter IV.
Energy Changes.
The potential energy of an air column of unit crossection
is given by:.
_PE.~*Q
4,00
I
E
Substituting from the hydrostatic equation, this becomes:
where
is the height of the center of gravity of the air
column.
The internal energy of the air column is given by:
4.10
Substituting from the hydrostatic equation and neglecting
variations of the acceleration of gravity with altitude, this
becomes:
Cf
'
--
I4.11
where T, is the mean temperature of the air column.
The energy due to water vapor in the air column, which we
will call latent energy, is given by;O
LE.
JL
4.20
Substituting from the hydrostatic equation and neglecting
variations of the latent heat of condensation (L ) and of the
0
Mechanical units (M. T. S. system) are used throughout this
Chapter.
The latent heat of fusion is not taken into account here.
14.
acceleration of gravity, this becomes:
L.E
where
=
J4.2421
is the mean specific humidity of the air column.
The kinetic energy of the air column is given by:
Sr4*30
or, eubstituting from the hydrostatic equation, this becomes:
where the subscripts
indicate a suitable mean value for the air
column. It may be found more convenient to substitute from the
geostrophic wind equation to obtain an expvession for the kinetic
energy.
Values of potential, internal, and latent energy were computed for each sounding on November 7, 1940. The air columns between
the significant points of the soundings were considered. This
procedure permitted the use of arithmetical means for the suitable
means found in the equations (
was taken as the height of the
mean pressure between the significant points of the soundingsO)s
Values were combined for the air columns from five to ten and
from ten to fourteen thousand feet.
Values of potential, internal, and latent energy were also
computed from the data on the constant level charts, using arith-.
metical means, except for a
.
Values of
were computed graphic-
ally on Weather Bureau Form 1154, Pressure- Altitude Chart, using
a It was found that the arithmetical mean could not be used for n
,
the arithmetical mean temperature.
without error, when the significant points were not closely spaced.
15.
Values obtained by the two methods were compared. It was
hoped that values of potential and internal energy could be comput"
ad, within a close degree of approximation, from the data on the
constant level charts. As was expected, the values of latent energy
did not agree at all and the values of internal energy agreed quite
well. Unexpectedly, the values of potential energy computed by the
two methods showed considerable variation.
By considering a hypothetical air column, between five and
fourteen thousand feet, and assuming reasonable values for the
quantities in the equations, approximate values for potential,
internal, latent, and kinetic energy were obtained * Reasonable
errors of measurement and twenty-four bour changes were then assum.
ad and the valuem of potential, internal, latent, and kinetic
energy computed. Excep+ I 4h,
nases of latent and kinetic energy,
the errors of measurement were found to be as great as, or greater
than, the assumed reasonable changes.
Both the total values and net changes of latent energy were
found to be small as compared with those of potential and internal
energy. However, values of latent energy were found to have a much
larger percentual change from day to day. Computation of latent
energy can be made only by considering every significant point of
P.E.::7 X 10 , I.E
5 X l0s,
L4.lo0 3 , and KOE.-;120 kj./m. 2
when (PlftP2) . 2 5 ob., Ta= 2700 A., qm= *002 ton/ton, Cv,
see. 2 degree, L= 600 cal./g.,
71
J/
i=. 2800 m., (z2-ftfrr 2700 m., mean
density =0.9 X l0f ton/m.3 , and v,=10 me/sec.
16.
each sounding and the precipitation that has fallen from the air
columns. For these reasons, latent energy will not be discussed
further, although the changes in this form of energy are by no
means thought to be unimportant.
Any net loss of potential or internal energy by an air
column may be considered to result in an increase of kinetic energy
within the air column, although this is not strictly so. The kinetic
energy is dissipated through friction (18). Further discussion will
be confined to the daily changes of potential and internal energy.
The potential energy of an air column of unit crossection be..
tween five and ten thousand feet is given by*
E
I,
P-
and
PIE.
'-p')
4.01
where the primes refer to the values twenty-four hours later and the
subscripts refer to the levels.
Values of
for the five to ten thousand foot interval, comw
puted graphically, for all the soundings in the United States on
November 7, 1940, ranged from 2248 to 2273 meters. These values were
determined using the mean virtual temperature of the air columns, as
found by the equal area method from soundings plotted on pseudoadiabatic diagrams. It appears reasonable that the twenty-four hour
change in
over a station should be less than the total range of
this value over the entire country on a single day. Since the computed values of
are considered correct to within ten meters and,
since a variation of twenty-three meters from an assumed mean value
of 2260 meters would result in only a 1.0% error, it appears reason.
17.
able to assume a constant value of 2260 meters for
Then:
S---
)~n(p
= 'P
-RIO)
4.02
since, from the preceding paragraph,
meters,
2260
this becomes:
(
=M0
7.E.'-EE.
-01 P) - F/.0
PS
Likewise, for the interval from ten to fourteen thousand feet
on November 7, 1940, extreme values of
were 3618 and 3653 meters.
A mean value of 3635 meters was assumed.
As above:
PE -
P.E.
=
343S][P -I3)
-(
p)4.04
Thus, the twenty-four hour change of potential energy between
two levels in an air column over a station is given by the difference
of the twenty.four hour pressure changes at those levels. Since the
twenty-four hour pressure changes are usually plotted on the constant
level charts, the twenty-four hour changes of potential energy may be
evaluated quickly and easily.
According to Haurwitz (18),
a simple relation exists between
the potential and internal energy of an air column.
-
4.12
+
where
Cp/0,= 1.405
or
hh
where
is the height of the air column and? is the pressure at
the top of the air column.
The twenty-four hour change of internal energy is given by:
18.
7L(PE.'E) + h ('P P
=
.
-
where the primes refer to the values twenty-four hours later.
For
the air column between five and ten thousand feet,
LzE - I.,
=
,A'7(RE'-RE) + i52'(i'-
4.15
and for the air column between ten and fourteen thousand feet,
I.E.' -L., =
,q7/(PE.-PE)
+P,(F
4.16
By substitution from 4.03 and 4.04 for the changes in potential
energy, these become:
r.s-)&
-
'73 6(?'-11)41
for the air column between five and ten thousand feet, and:
-IE.'
=
2 .3(P-F) -
4*A
458
for the air column between ten and fourteen thousand feet.
As the potential energy change above, the twenty-four hour
change of internal energy over a station may be computed from the
twentywfour pressure changes on the constant level charts.
The twenty-four hour changes of potential and internal energy
over the radiosonde stations were computed. Equations 4.03, 4.04,
4.15 and 4.16 were used. The air columns from sealevel to five
thousand feet were not considered in order to avoid computation of
values in the surface frictional layer and beneath the surface of
the earth.
The potential and internal changes for the air columns from
five to fourteen thousand feet were plotted on base maps. Iso-lines
of the twenty-four hour changes of potential and iriternal energy
were drawn at intervals of one thousand kilojoules per square meter.
19.
The greatest changes of potential and internal energy ocer.*a
ed on November 11 and 12 (Figs. 13 through 22). A comparison with
the surface and upper air charts (Figs. 11 through 12.) will show
that the winds were highest on these days. It might be concluded
that the large loss of internal energy in the neighborhood of the
low pressure center (Figs. 20, 21, 22) resulted in a gain of kinetic energy and a corresponding increase of wind velocity. Since these
charts (Figs. 13 through 22) represent the energy changes over the
stations, rather
than the changes in moving air columns,
conclusions
based on these charts must be reached cautiously.
From study of the potential energy changes (Figs. 13 through 17),
it
appears that these changes indicate primarily the advection of
either colder or warmer air over the stations. Conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy could account for the negative areas,
but it seems that the large positive areas (Figs. 16, 17) can be
explained only by the advection of colder air. It should be remember-
ed that the potential energy of an air column depends on the pressure
difference between two levels (Equation 4.01) . Since this pressure
difference determines the mean density (approximately, the mean
temperature also) of the air column, advection of colder air over a
station results in an increase of potential energy.
Similar reasoning may be applied to the changes of internal
energy (Figs. 1
through 22). However, there are only losses of
internal energy in regions of very high winds. The large gains of
internal energy, such es occurred
over the eastern part of the
also depends on the mean temperature.
20,
country on November 9, 10, and 11 (Figs. 19,20,21), eppear to be
associated with the high pressure area and its
attendent light
winds. Part of this increase of internal energy may have been due
to advection;
but, as the high pressure was becoming warmer dur-
ing this period, it
is thought that a larger part of this increase
was due to changes occurring within the high pressure area. With
an increase of wind velocities in this area (Fige.11,1
2
), the
twenty-four hour changes of internal energy became negative (Figs.
21,22). It seems the loss of internal energy should result in an
increase of potential energy, the lose of which increases the
kinetic energy of the system.
At present, no definite conclusions are attempted from these
energy change charts. Many subjects for further study suggest
themselves. By computing the three hour (or instantaneous) barometric tendencies at different levels in the atmosphere from the
winds aloft observations (7),
the rates of change of potential
and internal energy can be obtained from the equations in this
chapter. Since the winds aloft observations are taken at six
hour intervals, such determinations may be found useful in
forecasting.
As the method used in computing these energy changes is
based on the use of the differences of small differences, determinations made here can be regarded only as approximations.
21.
Chapter V.
Development of the Armistice Day Storm in 1940.
As the low pressure center, rest of Seattle, began to fill
(Figs. 7,$,9), the trough aloft continued to move eastward (Figs.
7b,8b,9b). An occluded front associated with this trough underwent
frontoloysis, after passing Denver (Figs. 8, 9, 10). As this trough
aloft moved inland, waves were induced on the stationary front
through Wyoming and western Montana, but it was not until
November 10 that the air mass contrast became marked enough for
strong cyclogenesis to take place (Figs. 7,8,9,10).
The increasing temperature
9b,9c,10b,10c)
and moisture gradients (Figs. 8b,8c,
indicated an increasing amount of energy available
for the production of kinetic energy. This increase of air mass contrast is thought to have been aided by the circulation accompanying
the trough aloft, mentioned above. There was very dry air behind this
trough. A small shallow wave development, on the front south of
Brownsville, strengthened the air mass contrast by feeding warm
moist air into the Mississippi Valley. As the cyclonic circulation,
centered over Colorado, increased (Fig.10), the cold front, associated with the wave over southern Arkansas, was swept northward and be-
came a section of the warm front extending from Missouri to Florida
(Fig.l1).
At 0130EST. November 11, 1940 (Fig.ll), the low pressure was
centered just west of Kansas City. There was unusually cold and very
dry air behind the surface cold fronts and warm moist air over the
eastern part of the country. This inflow of warm moist air was
al-
22.
ready shown by the constant level charts, when the low pressure was
centered over Colorado (Figs. I0alObI0c). That the air mass contrast
extedded to high levels is shown by the 14000 foot charts (Figs.10c,
lic).
During the eighteen hours from 0130EBT. to 193OEST. on November
11, the center deepened about 27 millibars and moved about 675 miles,
to just west of Houghton, Michigan. During this time much damage was
done by high winds, heavy precipitation, and a cold wave behind the
surface cold fronts (190, 20). The high wind velocities are apparent
from an inspection of the isobars on the surface map (Fig.12) and of
the streamlines on the upper air charts (Figs. 12a,12b,22c,12d,12e)
It is believed that the rapid deepening (cyclogenesis) was due
to the great amounts of energy available for conversion into kinetic
energy, as is shown by the unusual temperature and moisture contrast
between the air masses present. These contrasts extended to high
levels. As there was heavy precipitation over large areas (19),
considerable amounts of latent energy were released. With the coldor air under-running the warmer air, end thus lowering the center of
gravity of the entire system, large amounts of potential energy must
have been released@. From figures 21 and 22, it
was seen that large
losses of internal energy occurred@.
It has been noted, in similar cases of rapid movement accompanied by deepening, that the motion was retarded when the moisture
A more complete description of this storm is given by this reference.
0 Chapter IV.
23.
supply was cut off. .Tt is thought that further study of this point
would be valuable. Such cases show that considerations of deepening
and movement should not be combined. Forecasting rules state that a
deepening low usually moves slowly (17), but many exceptions to this
rule occur.
24.
Chapter VI.
Comparison of Flow Patterns as Shown by
Isentropic and Constant Level Charts.
In the analysis of both the isentropic and constant level
charts, it was thought advisable to carefully consider the data
and to avoid any exaggeration of the moisture flow patterns. For
example; the 1.0 and 2.0 ge/kg. specific humidity iso-lines on
figures 7b and 7d could have been drawn around northwest of New
England to fit the precipitation area in eastern Canada (Fig. 7)9
but this would have been done without data and would not have
agreed too well with the Sebago and Pontchartrain soundings (see
page 9).
From a consideration of the isentropic charts (Figs. 7d7),
it must be concluded that the saturated air, resulting in the
precipitation in southeastern Canada (Fig. ?), was at some slevae.
tion beneath the isentropic surfaces. But, at what elevation?
Considering the constant level charts (Figs. 7va,7b,7c), it
is seen that the respective temperatures and dewpoints at Portland
(from Fig. 2) are approximately: .500.
and -18 0 C. and -220C,
ard -500., -11 0 C. and ,l30C.,
(Actual and saturated values of specific
humidity, from figure 2, might Just as well have been considered.)
Even though Portland is reporting clear skies, it is seen that the
air at 5000 feet is nearly saturated. Since the air becomes colder
northwest of Portland, while there is not a very rapid decrease of
dewpoint in this direction (as shown by the weak specific humidity
25.
gradients on figures 7a, 7b, and 7c); it may be concluded that the
air over this precipitation area is possibly saturated as high as
10000 feet. To the airway forecaster, it is apparent that a flight
over the precipitation area could probably be made at 10000 feet and
could certainly be made at 14000 feet. The temperatures at the higher level would not be favorable for icing of the aircraft. Should
such a flight have been made at 10000 feet, the pilot would have been
instructed to climb, should icing be encountered.
When used with surface maps, a set of analysed constant level
charts give a better picture of conditions at the levels in which the
forecaster is interested than do the isentropic charts.
It is hoped that the reader will compare the moisture flow
patterns on the constant level and isentropic charts with the
precipitation areas on the surface maps throughout the period (Figs.
7 through 12e). For this reason, all the upper air charts have been
reproduced here. If complete surface maps are available, much additional information may be obtained from the cloud forms and their
heights.
A comparison of the figures reproduced here shows that upslope
or downslope motion of the air currents may be estimated from the
constant level charts with the same degree of accuracy as from the
isentropic charts . The constant level charts have a distinct advantage in that motions at significant levels are being considered.
It is thought that the position of the 00C. isotherm should be
considered, when using either the isentropic or constant level charts
for pricipitation forecasting. According to Bergeron (17d), coexist-
0 See Chapter II.
26.
ece of water droplets and ice crystals in the cloud is necessary
for great amounts of precipitation to form. This means that most
precipitation is formed at temperatures slightly below freezing.
From figure 2, it is seen that the isentropic surfaces used in
this study cross the 0 C. isotherm at about 740 and 675 millibars
(or, at about 8000 and 11000 feet) respectively. It is thought
that a better idea of the distribution of the 000. isotherm in
the atmosphere is obtained from the constant level charts than
from the isentropic charts.
During the study associated with the five-day forecasting
project, it was found that, for precipitation forecasting, the
presence of moisture on the prognostic five-day mean isentropic
chart "is best used where the isentropic surface is expected to
lie between 600 and 800 millibars" (21a). This is the pressure
interval in which the commonly used isentropic surfaces cross the
000. isotherm (Fig.2). Since the 10000 foot chart lies midway of
this pressure interval, it could be expected that the moisture
patterns shown on a five-day mean (or daily) 10000 foot chart
should correlate well with precipitation areas, especially in the
neighborhood of the 000. isotherm on the constant level chart.
Upon correlating precipitation areas with the moisture
supply, as shown by isentropic charts, Smith found less correlation
in the northern sections of the United States, east of the Rockies,
than in other sections (21b). This has been explained by the isentropic surfaces, over these sections, being above elevations at
27.
which precipitation is usually formed. It is suggested here, as a
topic for future study, that the moisture supply, as shown by the
mean 10000 foot charts, be correlated with precipitation areas (or
anomalies) in a manner similar to that used by Smith. It is felt
that the correlation coefficients would be much higher than those
obtained by Smith, since the 10000 foot chart is more nearly at a
significant level than were the isentropic surfaces, used by Smith.
Since the OOC. isotherm is usually at a lower level in the
northern than in the southern sections of our country, it
is thought
that the moisture patterns on the 5000 foot chart should be considered, especially in Winter, when making precipitation forecasts for
northern sections. Likewise, the moisture patterns on the 15000 or
20000 foot charts may be found useful, in the South, in Summer. If
only one of the constant level charts is prepared, it is thought
that the 10000 foot is the most useful. If the forecaster has access
to three or more analysed constant level charts, the distribution
of both moisture and the 00C. isotherm may be clearly seen.
There are objections to analysis of the moisture patterns on
constant level charts, as advocated in this paper. It is claimed
that there is no physical basis for assuming horizontal, rather than
isentropic motion. As was pointed out in Chapter II., the moisture
flow patterns on the constant level charts may be interpreted assuming either isentropic or quasi-hori zontal motion. It is believed
that neither of these interpretations can be strictly followed.
Another objection to the use of moisture flow patterns on the
constant level charts is that the same air particles are not being
28.
considered from day to day. It is believed that the advantages of
dealing with changes at significant levels far outweigh any disadvantages the constant level charts have in this respect. According
to Schuknecht (22), moisture flow in the free atmosphere is not an
isentropic process and does not take place in isentropic surfaces.
It is believed that a more detailed study of the actual movements
of air currents in the free atmosphere should be made.
It should be kept in mind that much time will be saved, if
the constant level charts are analysed in the manner suggested
here, instead of preparing the isentropic charts.
29.
Chapter VII.
Mean Lapse Rate and Thick-Thin Charts.
Charts of the temperature differences between the constant
levels were prepared. Since these charts represent the mean lapse
rate in the layer considered, unstable and stable areas are easily
located. These charts were consistent with conditions as shown by
the surface maps. Only the most interesting of these charts is reproduced here (Fig. 3). The areas marked "Stable" and "Unstable"
are relatively so. The area of instability from Brownsville to
Joliet is especially interesting, since thunderstorms occurred
within the southern part of this area (Fig. 11), and a tornado
occurred in western Tennessee on this date.
Since the information obtained from these charts may be de-
duced from inspection of the surface and constant level charts,
it is thought not worthwhile to prepare them. If the soundings,
plotted on pseudo-adiabatic (or any other thermodynamic) diagrams,
are available, preparation of these charts is considered a waste of
time.
It
has been suggested that charts of the pressure difference
between two isentropic surfaces be used to indicate areas of stable
or unstable lapse rate (10). Studying a wintertime thunderstorm
situation, Lenahan (23) found thick-thin charts of this pressure
difference and the changes of this pressure difference indicative
of convergence or divergence within the layer between the isentropic
surfaces. Assuming isentropic motion, there is convergence within
30.
the layer, when the pressure difference between the isentropic
surfaces increases.
Thick-thin charts were prepared for each day of the period
studied. Similar charts, using the height difference (in meters)
between the isentropic surfaces, were also prepared. That these
charts give different patterns is readily seen from a comparison
of the data at Great Falls and San Diego (North Island) on
November 7, 1940 (Figs.4,5). The chart for November 12, 1940
(Fig.6) shows an area of relatively unstable air over the surface
cold front in the eastern part of the country (Fig.12). Areas of
convergence
are indicated over Miami, across the northern boundary
of the country,
and in the Southwest. These charts did not always
show such good agreement with the surface maps.
Prehaps the use of changes over the stations, rather than in
moving air columns, during a period of such rapid movements was
not a fair test of the usefulness of these charts. If the changes
in moving air columns are considered, much time must be spent in
computing the trajectories, which may not be the same for both the
tops and bottoms of the air columns. It is concluded that these
charts are of more use for teaching and study purposes than for
forecasting purposes. The determination of convergence or divergence
appears more feasible by other methods (24).
31.
References to Literature
1
Allen, R.A., Cn Engineering Techniques in Meteorology. BAUS , V23,
No.7, September 1942, page 318.
2
Namias, Jerome, and Others. 2 Lir Mass and
s,
pc
alysis.
Fifth
Edition, 1940. Chapter X.
(a) Relation of Isentropic Flow to Precipitation. page 150.
(b) Basis for the Analysis. page 136.
(c) Technique of Analysis. page 141.
(d) The Processes Which Tend to Disrupt the Continuity of
Isentropic Analysis. page 155.
3
Minser, E.J., The Ten Thousand Foot Constant-Level Chart and Use in
Weather Forecasting. BAMS, V23, No.4, April 1942, page 186.
4
Kraght, P.L., M teorolory-for Ship and Aircraft
oration. Cornell
Maritime Press, 1942, page 319.
5
Rossby, C.G., Oliver, V., and Boyden, MI., Weather 3stimates from
Local gerological Data; A
Rport.
University of
rreliminary
Chicago, 1942.
6
Rossby, C.., Kinematic and Hydrostatic -rgperties
of Certain
ong
Waves in the Westerlies. University of Chicago, 1942.
7
Miller, E.H., and Thompson, W.L., A-Proposed Method for the Couputa
tion of the 10000foot Tendency-Field. University of Chicago,
1942.
8
Fletcher, R.3., Some Practical Relations Involving the Vertical Wind
Shear. BAMS, V23, No.9, November 1942, page 351.
Bulletin ofthe American Meteorological-Society.
__4
32.
Shaw, Sir Napier, Manual of Meteoroloa.v
9
V3, Cambridge University
Press, London, 1933.
Byers, H.R., On the Thermodynamic Interpretation of Isentropic Charts.
10
MWR, V66, March 1938, page 66.
Montgomery, R.B., A Suggested Method for Representing Gradient Flow
11
in Isentropic Surfaces. BAMS, V18, No.6, June-July 1937, page
210.
Showalter, A.K.,The Necesit
32
and Surface-Weather M
of Upper Air
for Coordinated Anlypis
, (Preliminary Draft), March 1941.
13
Starr, V.P., Basic Principles of Weather Forecasting. Farper, 1942.
14
Haynes, B.C., Meteorology
orPilots. C.A.A. Bulletin No.25, 1940,
page 133.
Spilhaus, A.F.
15
3
The Shear Stability Ratio Vector and Its Use in
Isentropic Analysis. BAMS, V21, No.6, June 1940, page 239.
The Decoding ofUper Air Data and the Plotting and Construction of
16
UMerLir Charts.Massachusette Institute of Technology. Un-
published.
Petterssen, S., Weather AnaLysis and Forecasting. McGraw-Hill, 1940.
17
(a) Chapter XI, page 445.
(b) Chapter XI, Figs. 246 and 247, pages 484 and 485.
(c) Chapter X,
Rule 31, page 437.
(d) Chapter I,
page 44.
HaurwitzB., Dynamic Meteorology. McGraw-Hill, 1941. Chapter XII&
18,
0
Monthly Weather Review.
A
33.
19
Knarr, A.J., The Midwest Storm of November 11,1940. MWR, V69,
No.6, June 1941, page 169.
20
Ingells, D.J., Freight Trains Afoat. Coronet. March 1942, page 61.
21
Willett, H.C., and Others, Report of the Five-D
Forecasting
troceduro, Verification and Research as Conducted between
July1940-and
1941.
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 1941.
22
(a)
page 36.
(b)
page 80.
Atual
Schuknecht, L.A., A Compa
in the Free Atmosphere.
l
tentroic Flow
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
1941. Unpublished S. M. thesis.
23
Lenahan, C.M., An Investiption of the Development-bymeans of
gyclogenesis of a Winter Thunderstorm Situation.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1942. Unpublished
S. M. thesis.
24
Gilman, C.S., Covergence and
xcessve Prec
itatin.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1943. Unpublished
S. Mi. thesis.
PSEUDO-ADIABATic DIAGRAM
TEMPERATURE ('C.)
-40-
10
-30'
-20,
-10*
0.
10,
20*
40'
30*
'X
a-
N
N,
V
\N0
D
N
1'\,M A \ LI I V . N1 A I\'
)T MA\3KI41
"Z
-\V
r
\
AIX
)
A
\1
I
,A
INIK
1
,
A
A
M
i
21
24
x
A ,A
VT
113\11
1 1 1
11
i "J,
\X
Al 1 1
L1
'A.W,
0
N
IS I \"INN
A 11"
0
CI
-kI
RA 1\ A
'1k
L
All A
A,
- , X
N
A
I
A.
_t "A
N T
AL
V A
Fl ,
4\ I-A
1 \
\IJ
>,
\J,\
V,
'i
i
I,
N
I
1
15
N
M
\
,
\Ak
Vl.
IN
AA
K VX
01 1\\
It
A
A
IN,
r\1
1 lk
I
)0
It
q
A
N
X
I\" IN\
\N
1,
X 1%
\IN
11, N',
I'll KX
K
V
't,
I I \\
N
M
\A X
'Kk
V111 'KAI IN,
\1
q\X
L
A\L
'1\' A\L
NM
-j,
1ULA
JUU
IN
It I "A N
1-1
I
1
N
'1 N
q,
k
\N i"IN N V\ k M
CA\
I
1
-4
A4 I
0
1k
V
-8
1X-w I
hN
V_ I I V 4
11
Nj
6
t A '1KA'\ I
I
lk"
V I
"'A MW
N 1 10A -
N
V Z.v
17
LI
i
EN I NS
DO
I A
1
4k,
-4
\A "k
"k
X
INI
V\14t, IN \11 IN,,
2:
N
2.
V
lk 11
sA W
"1 1X I N ',,N
INk
'N
4,4 -3
7
-C\
04
\.
-1
S,_
1,
,J
X \1
N
I N
N
I
N
M
QN
A
1 N
I
\1.
I
N I
\XX
'<1
Ix
DO
AA
r J\ 1, 1 Nkk I
I \1
N I
N
IX
S;
\N N
\4
k
A
IN
INI
N
-4 N 4_11
V
30c
-9
L
A' N\
NIL
-40 (C.
I III I
-40c (F.)
0
N
Al
4L
L
1AI
KN X
L
k'\
Nk
V11
'KIN
,
VNI
VN
N1 )4'
NA \A
1
_j
0:
12
LM
0
&
N
\ 10, T\
13 0
X
IN
V1 1
)0
4
N ',,j
"I
V-A\
18
5- - 16
\_4 N \'J
IE-'E
N
500
L
X V\\
N
19
"A"
IN, I
)0
20
6
17
A
\\\41\
21
0
14\ 1\
N\1
22
-
7V IT
N\kJN\\
(5) Unbroken, overprinted curves are lines of
constant saturation mixing ratio, giving water vapor
contents, in grams of water vapor per kilogram of
ry air, required for saturation at the indicated
eratures and pressures.
(6) The latter two sets of curves are computed under the assumption,
that for all temperas, including those below O'C., saturation is
with respect to a flat surface of liquid iter.
\1
m
AX
E
(I ) Abscissas are temperatures in OC.
(2) Ordinates are the 0.288 powers of the
pressures in millibars.
i .3) Slooing, straight lines in 6rown are dry
adiabat,, i, ., fines of constant potential temrerature. These are drawn for every two degrees
absolute.
(4) Broken, overprinted curves are pseudoadiabats. Figures therecn are equivalent potential
44
C
400
LEGEND
-30_20*
! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I r-1 I
-200
-100
00 (F.)
-10,
100
T\
\ \A' "V I'L
'1 I \a
N
I X IN, I IN-
"1
'NAIX
V
- - 2
it
if
IV -1
111,11
A ",W NAII
N V
'06',
01 (C.)
10*
20*
30*
400 (C.)
If III III 1 11 111 111 1 1111 11 111 111 1111 11 111 11 11 1111 11 11fI II II I II I II If I III II II1 1 rI I
20o
36"
400
500
60o
70'
800
900
1000 (F.)
TEMPERATURE
plrx 20
0-
0
1
-67/00
s
l
7
...io
-4
-
II00.-
I
'A
-0
Nov. I 1 9q01
-
TEr1ERA TURF DI FFERENCE
5000O TO /0000 FEET.FGS"
-10
p
b0(4).
I:
BC'
so*
.90*
so
100'
-10io-
120'
"39
/.3,2,
0.
70'
I
I
/:o
I'
*-
111
j%.0
I
/0;0/A
40
No.-0 O
-IOE7..
THI
/-i"
IN
17000
f
-C AR
(MEERS
30I
Iis00
IF'114.70
I
/ .9.'
- '900
soo
40
&o
50
04
90
//*
.20\
02
r
Ol00B00
(MWS0)
18- 306'
F*
-
r HIGK(-T HjtYCH ART5
120'
120
,
jam.
1AP,
144o
aI
l
-I---
/
70'
80*
inn
-1-0- o
'In
//Ow
7,7v
fi
o/-C,01
150
_4
1
lol
<Z6--
.
--
t30
SL.~ -70
_,Q0IS
ov*9JOOOETFG.6
L~P
7
THICK-THI C)-A1~J
l.?a_ IHa(00s-G=30M6
/00,
410
-
,
ILL,
cr~so
Mi
S-
--
------
~~..-
---
~~~~--
---
h0*1
w
10-'
10*
~
[3d?
/0
oa0N~-X"-8
-
r
jcK
0
Nov. 7/9 YO.
3 0 E ST.
FSoo
\
/20
/3 *0
40V
Nh
(
(
.& 3 I
3-9
N
V
/
K
-<'N>
853
~
It,--
Nov.7, /90
'ti'
0/00 E ST
5,000'
F.7
~-
-~
-
400,
o
\oo
r
~0
'15-
~ ~ ?o
14.j
--
/000)
FIG. 7b.
f
',k--
-.
Of
-
~
p
f
50.000Fo~c.n49
00
--
3 9
/3
/,(O"
/200
\0
-
/*4
2s
1401
,, 4so
0.w\
.01
SOOI-
'70 0
7
/
Z50
I
(
3d
-50
Nov. 7, 19'O.
oIOQEST
E) .298*
IG.
7
'00
p
I
0700
Nov.7!4
**
NiTsii
i
1.300
//0o
I
/ 00
2'0
,go*
f- II
LIL
go
10,0
B
8.
JoWi
I
I
,
II
IL-
10 I
90"
IO
'900
80
lid)
/20
/~3 ',-
I
t.~.
-,
i;6
I
--
vv-'
ll
-~
-I
lk'o
I
I
~
19
L
/
/
i
f
Vl
14ci
A'
A
\
ISS3
2X
Ij Av\
olO
9 15
4,
Nov. 8, 1 9A10,
0 10Di5750T-7
W4
4A
SGr
.3
-;
- ---- 1
20
A -.
I",-,-11)
I
0
I
~\
-01
70Y
/
2
'706-
-
/
-.
-
~
~-
4.
Nov. 8, /991%0
/0,000"
HI
~1
Fr
I'
I1
I
I
IA
Nov. 8) /91y
$
H I
-
00,oo
Jell.
51.t
ipoll*
I
I
A
'0o
I,
1.0 8ZO
I
/
/
Q
7
IA
/
/
80
I
4.
NVOV.
Q~'
~8Q{
11
.
I
2.7
7
77
lqo,.8 /~9-YO
oloo E ST
77
F .10
G~3O6FG.
8 e.
40
0
Co7s'
1
40
k)
-
NOV.
CE5
19
/
/0/
\h13
F,
Gi
9
4oi
so*
80
/ 00
/10
70
7470.
* ~,
11
/
IJ~
p
/
-~
I
~
-,,~
/
K
/
N
.~
4
J
'p
'K
I
'-'I
Co
40
/
!
~'
* 4P
/
/
I
J\
-
I
fi
,/
/
N
\
~
/
r
KNOY.91!I?#O.
5'ooo'
-
\
/
NI
F
-w
-
-
(
-
I
-~
4-
,
I
-~
N,,
-~
-
0
-'
iN4~
-
%~
(1
I
-~
-
K,
/
-~
/
/
N
'iii-~
/
1~
N N
N,
N
~
N
N
N,
-
N
N
I
N
~
N
L.
N
N
ooV.
N
-i
i -4'A'6
,
,JQ.
9p
11
-Ne"
~
1q, ooo
w . ",
.
,
Nov.9,/9
olooi EST
3H
G
N
N
~
-%
N\~
'780
.
N
~
-
I
__
A.
~
:%f
'~1
_
\
75'
000,
/
~o'
~
-
\
80
8510
Nov.9P1
N
N
N
F
120'/
ii
/00
__
__
N
N
74~
7.3
~
~ 7
7
Nj'
\
4-
I-
Nov.
OtioceST
V.-
1 6 SIP
11
~0*
60
7o
'
~70v
/i00~
000
/ /0,
GH
UL
0
*11
044
!N
-
LOW
No./0)YO
0/3 0E ST
OZO
I
L-
F1G..
41
4
V
I
I
I,
OfI
I!1
-. 000,
I
I
'
\
~
y- \
/
OD7
i
i
/
/
/
-I
~
1'
\~
-
\
11'
'C-'
~'
~
'.~ I.
~X ~
ii
>i
e_
'
~
I
~
I
I
/
f
/
/
/
/
/
/
7
N
\
*\\~
!\
N
%~.
\~
\
\\\
1%
~
N
I
x
I
I
f
\~t-,$'~7'L
N
/\I
/
/1
C-
I
I
I1,V/ 1
I>-r
j
/
I
-I
F
0
0
/
.... _....---.. .. . .... ..
. ..
...:. :-- . .
.:: .:::::- . .:.- -.. :.- -
---
. :: .
- +- ---. - . .a .:. --.
..:..
.. -
......
....
. ::.. .
. ....
.
x
-
-.
-
-
....
............
...
.........
...........
x..:..
........
s..x ....
....
x..... :a...............:..........:.:..........:...--.:...:...:..:.
:...
...4..
:.:..
....
3....:
...
......
x
34:.- ram:.
/1
/
1'
t/
6 0 I.
Ooo*
Nov.
SLI
/3g.
A'
- ,i I
/
\
t 4,!P7
80
.
T 11. -.
I
-
I'
- -
.-
- I
-
Im
-
-.
i~m
,mnaw~na
4 a
..
na 4
+
wl
m
vo'
\20-
44
4t
-
s
3me
\
\
-
A
0
--
-
1
-
.
7-7-
4-7
-A)3
7x%
42
S
/00
/0/10
1
70
01
41..
-
\
i
O
kA
40
4
Nov.,
013o EYJ'.
F7&.11oop
/30
I,',
SO'
60'
/10
- 2 i,
/00
"
~0'
700
1 I
-/0
-
/20
/30
7~c~
/
-~
dff.
0
1
~
-4
YIle
Al'
Nov.
o-e
-if
N
a
I 3 -4
III
00
N
(
XI,,
'I
A
/
I.)
--
7
1~
~1
NA
-,
71
1~~~
-
I
I ,p
a
-)L
* -
II, ii',~6.
-
.- ~
4
N~to.
N
I
~>
I
HIGH
Nov.i /// 40.
o;oO ST.
M
Ii
/
)
750
/
vkfo
<,~
K'
-----
-i-~-__
3
,1
"I'
-
I
-
>1~'~
.1~
7~760
V
340,
oo
870
00s
1
10
Nov.02,/9VOL
F7.12
/20
/20'
/10
//O*
-
3 ~.
/3
tc:1
f
I
~ I
~~1
I
/
I
/
N
1-
-u
/
\
N
N
~?
'N,
-~
N
I
J11
44$
~\
~
I.
L~
\
4
I
/
I
'I
It
/~-11
No V.
/00
/
7
7~1,
-~
9iAl
~
s
9
7
I /f
//
Y
I' ~
/
/
//
7#
I~A~iV
6
-
)
}N
N
--
(
~xi-
-~
-~
$
v.,~
I
G 5-r
SIlo
4
-~
-~
14
707
16f
4#1
*i
010909,WAT
1
I
-
imh5
'
4n
I
5.4
41
ell
N4
000
-k
N
750
Nov.
--
N~~~ra
0
19=306*
12 e.;
(>
I-
~
'We
/20
/00w
/I0~
so.
80*
/
/508
~1
r
1~1000
L
7-
/
4
I
0
I
/
*1~1
K,
K
I-
/
f.2
N
K~f
hr.
?OT~NTIA~ ENEI~G
J R /)9410
INo%
IVOV.O,
II
f
5000
W.
/~~0~
IL
10
-/01
717P
70
-WO-F~0*
1
120-
-0- o~o
-i00-.900-
+-1000
1~
NN
/
-to0 0
-I
e-7
V
2MIkE.i GE
5000' -1'oo'
rov. 9,1910.
FGL
n'0
120
-- I
'C.
/00,-
I/O
...........
r1l
I
4'I
-/000
NOV0/0) 1140.
FE4r5.
*
ii
_____
___
.-"2
7-.'
*
7
.;
.- *-..
-
-.
-.---.
-
-
-.
0
1/
120
0
-fG80'
IN..
.00
-j4
-/O~oo
-4
tfI
Er
-0,/
0
No11 19YI
iNo
20
/30'
1,'
,o
7070
-80
-lOo
I-1000
P E.4 a
NVOv.
,/0.1
S
(
+ 1140
0
/so,*
/1 / O'
/T2-0"6
/A 9
;1~o0~~~
0
0~
t,
so*
80
90*
19
.90*
/
00
/20
~
-'~
/ 00
~~'0
/10
So0
/00
70
70v
p
-
/4
+#000
+'%O0O
-
14VII
0&
I
It.~~
-
- --
40
\
+0000
'I,
ou/u
0
i
,
I
450&O'-4gog
-00
/00,
I
I
-1000 .2or 0
so*7ow
1/0
0/
rt+
%
5
DO
5000~
Ir+
+4000
600
A.--
+S;ooo
5000000
No .9;,11o0.
F.19.
41000
AOO
in el-
j -1/1-
I.-.
I
/I
. - -I'
/00s
0
8
70
4LL
00N
?y
/..o
-000
E0-0--
-000V
2 00.
rooo'eno
Nov./0,1
0yo.
s0o
-15.00
7
,,o6
11
I I
/A/
-
-~
-**
7-
VN.
O004"
0/
o----f--I
D~oS4
00,
jr/
I0
I
doz
.09
.0of
,0//
/o/
.J-v
"i
ap 0
90z8
10
/O
//Oo
1200
too
7-60
70v
so*
6.0
0>
o
')00
*Soo
-.
/
I
f*a.P
/
/
40
N5O V,.'~
I IL
/00
-
L
80