GROUND ACCESS TO LOGAN AIRPORT:
AN ANALYSIS OF TWO OPERATIONAL RESPONSES
by
Claire Grossman
B.A. Mount Holyoke College,
1978
Submitted to the Department of
Urban Studies and Planning
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the
Degree of
MASTER OF CITY PLANNING
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June
1983
Claire Grossman
The author
hereby grants
and to distribute
copiesof
1983
to M.I.T. permission
to reproduce
this
thesis
document in whole or
in part.
Signature of Author:
ie 4aft ment fffUan Studies and Planning
Certified
by:
Professor Alan Altshuler
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by:
INSTITUTE
MASSACHUSEflS
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
JUL 211983
I IRRARIES
RQt
Professor Donald Schon
Chairman, MCP Committee
GROUND ACCESS TO LOGAN AIRPORT:
AN ANALYSIS OF TWO OPERATIONAL RESPONSES
by
Claire Grossman
Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and
on May 18,
for the
1983 in
partial
fulfillment
Planning
of the requirements
Degree of Master of City Planning.
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the nature and scope of the ground
access problem to Logan Airport.
While Logan itself
has been
able to keep pace with its
growth, ground access improvements
have not.
Existing
conditions
are severely
congested, and
forecasts project a rate of growth
likely to
more unacceptable levels
of congestion
For a long while attention focused on a
that
now seems highly unlikely.
A key
much can be accomplished by innovative
the existing highway infrastructure?
to
result in even
in the next ten years.
construction solution
question, then, is how
schemes for utilizing
This paper analyzes two short-term operational repsonses
ground access in Boston.
The history of increased
limo/bus usage and one-way tolls suggest that a myriad of
political
issues must be addressed to increase the likelihood
of implementing such technically feasible operational
responses.
Evaluation of the
success or failure
these measures offer insights into the way
makers
deal
of the political
with urban transportation
process
Thesis Supervisor:
Title:
itself.
Dr. Alan Altshuler
Professor
2
to
in
implement
which policy
problems and the nature
Acknowledgements
Thank
you
inspiration
I would
Tunney
and your
also
Altshuler
for
your
time,
dedication,
red pen.
like
to express my appreciation
to my reader
Lee.
The
of
Alan
this
Harris,
following
thesis:
people
Laine
were
Wentorf,
Debbie Feldman,
invaluable
in
Menno
Carol Escrich,
the
Kamminga,
preparation
Christopher
Jackie LeBlanc,
and
especially Cynthia Martin.
Finally,
to
Mom,
Grossman, thanks and
Dad,
Amy,
love.
3
and
my grandfather,
Samuel
Table
of Contents
Page
1.
Current Ground Access Situation.................
Footnotes:
2.
The
3.
Chapter 1...........................18
Future
Footnotes:
Traffic
Situation....................
20
Chapter 2...........................35
Operational
A.
Increased
B.
One-Way
Footnotes:
5
Responses........................37
Limo
Usage......-.................42
Tolis.............................55
Chapter 3...........................64
Conclusion...........................................66
Bibliography.........................................71
Appendices................... ........................
4
77
Chapter
For many
years
acquisition
accomodate
of
Logan
ground
access
the nature
has
viewed
including noise,
property and
growth
While
has
Logan Airport
pressing problems -
1
in
air
been
other
traffic
able
as
to
many of
landfill
its
most
operations,
activities
intended
"capable
resolution."
keep
pace
improvements have not.
of
with
its
to
growth,
This paper will address
and scope of the ground access
"problem."
For a
long while attention
focused on a construction solution that
now seems unlikely.
Thus,
be
accomplished
existing
Boston.
responses
This
to
Evaluation of
offer
key question
innovative
infrastructure.
operational
tolls
by
the
insights
is
schemes
paper
ground
analyzes
access
increased
for
how much can
utilizing
two
the
short-term
traffic congestion
limo/bus
usage
and
in
one-way
into the way policy makers deal with
urban transportation problems and the nature of the political
process
itself.
Much
of
following
from
several
anonymous,
information
although
interviews,
mentioned
the
in
the
text.
reasons:
(3)
Names
(2)
the
this
people
are
(1) the general
persons,
or
specific
for
paper
are
only
not
included
comes
occasionally
for
information was
interviewee
from
requested
the
received
to
remain
to
the
unusually constrained because
the
and
its
the author
deemed
it
unnecessary
content.
Logan Airport
airport
is
access
separated
is
from most
5
of the
City of Boston
suburbs by Boston Harbor,
and the
one way or
large majority of air
(see
another by the
Appendix
I
for
map
of
the
Harbor must be crossed
in
travelers
Approximately
area).
82
percent of the passengers reaching Logan by ground mode use
the
heavily
congested
Boston Harbor.
Route
end of the tunnels
Sumner
between
Because
streets.
much more direct,
approach
of this,
is
is
air
over
harbor crossing.
is
passengers
Access,
over
the tunnel
the
local
route
is
use the Sumner
Although the Bridge does provide an
important alternative
it
access/egress
to the airport
and because
almost all
under
from the East Boston
the bridge and the airport
and Callahan Tunnels.
harbor,
Tunnels
and connect to the Airport
Mystic-Tobin Bridge, the only other
however,
Callahan
1A ramps extend
An alternative
roads.
and
for non-airport
also
heavily
traffic
congested.
crossing south of the tunnels has been
crossing
A
third
the
harbor
considered.
After almost two decades of debate, it now seems that the
likelihood of a third harbor crossing
20th century is small.
Transportation
effort
Planning Review
by Massachusetts
purpose
In 1972,
tunnel,
but
being built
in the
for example, the
Boston
(BTPR),
a cooperative
public agencies,
the
Dukakis
planning
proposed a special
Administration
(1974-78)
opposed any tunnel construction as did Speaker of the House
Tip O'Neal
setts
Governor
project,
to
and Senator
study
from 1978-82,
authorized
options
Edward Kennedy.
an
for
and a strong supporter of the
Environmental
construction.
6
Ed King, Massachu-
Impact
Just
Statement
as
the
EIS
(EIS)
was
completed
December
in
Recently
Secretary
the depression
of
of
that
has proposed
Salvucci
Dukakis
1982,
Artery.
feeds the Sumner and Callahan
EIS studies
ject
to qualify
necessity
it
(The Central
Artery
it
a long highway, 1-93, with closely
narrow lanes
finished
and steep
by September
financing.
for federal
as
P.
including
Tunnels on the Boston end;
ramps,
must be
Frederick
options be studied
the Central
spaced access/egress
to office.
Transportation
other
is a 2 mile section of
returned
would
cover
90
the
ground
grades.)
1983 for
any pro-
Such financing
percent
of
a
is
project's
the
costs.
Adequacy
access
by various groups.
differently
are
of
in
defined
system
is
viewed
Often airport access problems
terms of the air
passenger.
However,
there
are other people in addition to air travelers who see the
system as
using
the
numerous
for
tunnels
professional
airport planners and
issues.
On the other
the debate
traffic engineers
are people
that the air passenger does not always need to be
They argue that access can be improved but
such
for
improvements may not
scarce financial
near
it
as
the tunnels
a
serious
be
the
Finally,
resources.
or use them frequently
issue.
7
addition,
transportation
most pressing
side of
people
In
trips.
non-airport
as one of the state's
view it
most notably,
These include,
inadequate.
who feel
catered
to.
large expenditures
appropriate
use of
people who do not live
are not
likely
to see
Logan ground access congestion represents different costs
and benefits to different parties.
three different perspectives.
Logan quickly
attractive
and reliably
trip,
Massport,
airport
growth and
Logan has
long
Although
Logan dominates
also
the smooth
the
Massport's
best
with
a "hassle."
being
is
interest
seek to reach
chief
air
not
and an
a consideration.
operator,
continued
been
Air travelers
in general,
with maximum convenience
although cost
the
There are,
is
interested
running of
source
of
in
its
operations.
Massport's
travel
in
to have
Logan
Logan's
revenues.
the area,
become
it
is
in
associated
Several other groups which may be interested in growth
include:
the
employees
indirectly
the
economy
restaurants
tourists
of the neighborhoods
opponents
of ground
who
those
depend
for business.
The
to take a more
access
adjacent
to
Logan
improvements
are
the
and of Logan
When asked what particular problems at
Logan upset the local
it's
and
and
in the years to come.
growth generally.
but
hotels
community
interest in the effects of ground access congestion on
Residents
Logan,
business
Boston and the Commonwealth may begin
local
main
downtown
area
on Logan to attract
City of
active
of
Boston
period."
area,
one local official
replied,
"We can't build more homes
OK for Logan
to keep getting
in
"It's
East Boston,
bigger," stated another
referring to East Boston residents as "victims"
The problems
range
construction
from
expansion
disruption.
Traffic
of
facilities
is
just
8
to
noise
one more
to
negative
factor
resulting
from the preceived
lives
of
local
streets
East Boston
is
intrusion of Logan on
residents.
Logan-bound
a problem just
and the abundance of parking
proximity.
first
immediate
lots
remind
experience most
involved
in
projects
on
people of
Logan's
their
consequences which the
intensely.
to
Taxpayer groups, finally, tend
costs
traffic
safety may not be
they are negative
areas
truck
as the sheer volume of cars
Although air quality and
complaints,
the daily
be sensitive
to ease, congestion.
to the
Some tax-
payers doubtless see congestion as a problem but one to be
addressed only by inexpensive means.
the
close
proximity
resource
to
the
Corporation,
cally
of
because
to
would not have
Some
their
of
a
Logan
region.
located
According
most would
of one's perspective,
Regardless
the
firms, such
location
Boston Globe
in
downtown
headquarters
close
invested
to
report
as
at
the
the
Boston otherwise.
a
valuable
the
Sheraton
Boston specifi-
in
of
is
agree that
CBD
to
time,
Logan.
Sheraton
1
Congestion can be expressed quantitatively by several
methods
the degree
reflecting
measures
referred
to
and road capacity.
speed,
throughput
the access system.
A
through F,
range
in
this
LOS is
and
of adequacy of a
are
paper
an abstract
volume
in
level
a
pictoral
Two
(LOS)
encompassing
to the
capacity of
The six levels represented by the letters
from
free-flow to jammed
A-D are acceptable operating conditions in
(For
of service
measure
relation
facility.
of
representation
9
LOS
conditions.
LOS
an urban context. 2
see
Appendix
II.)
Capacity
given
is
the
physical
ability of
a
to
handle a
volume of traffic.
The
percentage
of cross
harbor traffic
bound continues to increase every year.
1972
system
and
is
present. 3
vity
at
estimated
to
This increase
the
airport
be
is
and
between
that is
Logan-
It was 40 percent in
53
and
a reflection
57
percent
of increased
relatively
static
at
acti-
local
travel
volumes.
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
The
2.8
5.5
9.4
10.5
14.7
mil.
mil.
mil.
mil.
mil.
total
two-way capacity
(maximum achievable
flow) of the Sumner and Callahan Tunnels
is
estimated
achievable
Tunnels
4
to the nearest million)
(rounded
Enplanements
Logan
at
117,000
hourly
vehicles
flow of
both
the
the Tobin
and
per
hourly
day.
Bridge
The maximum
Callahan
and
Sumner
is roughly 1600-1630 vehicle/hour/lane, or 3200-3260
vehicle/hour per direction. 5
The maximum possible
volume
is
apparently achieved with significantly greater regularity and
frequency
in
Tunnel
the Sumner
than
in
the
even
Callahan,
though the Callahan peak periods are of longer duration on
the average.
Massport),
capacity'
between
lanes,
"a
major
performance
vehicles
at
direct
is
the
cause
the
of the
speed
tunnel
to
consultant
According to Brian Day (traffic
Callahan's
variances
entrance,
that
exist
between
and between adjacent sections of the traffic."
'sub-
6
tunnel
Speed
variances at the tunnel entrance have been due to bottlenecks
10
in
the Callahan
The
200 feet.
volume
tunnel
is
where 8 lanes
Sumner bottleneck
merged into
is
worst at
2 in
its
about
exit.
The
established by operating speed.
Some studies focus on the "daily throughput potential" of
the existing
highway facilities.
If one estimates daily
capacity as 17 times hourly capacity, 52,700 one-way vehicle
trips
per
analysis
day
is
can
be
relevant
accommodated
to
in
the
tunnel,
however,
capacity than by its
line trip demand.
7
tunnels.
Logan users as they constitute
high percentage of all tunnel traffic.
of
the
is
This
such a
The practical utility
governed
less
by
its
daily
capacity during the peak hours of air-
The fact that the peaks in airport traffic
coincide with the daily metropolitan work-trip peaks only
makes the problem worse.
moving
at
other
in
the flow of traffic
during
experiences
the
little
exception
of
morning
congestion
Monday,
a
minutes.
and
8
elapsed
In
times
contrast,
peak.
most of Boston is
The
friend
in
located
are at the
at the
tells
through
the Sumner
the Sumner Tunnel,
me).
the
Tunnel
tunnel
The
average
experiences
2
severe
Toll booths
entrance to the Sumner Tunnel,
booths exist
(with the
operates at speeds of about 30
end of the Callahan Tunnel.
number of toll
Tunnel
peaks
congestion during the morning peak; LOS is F.
are
the two
Callahan
during morning
commuting
majority of morning traffic
m.p.h.
words,
the same time.
There are differences
tunnels
In
while they
While an adequate
to serve current demand volume
in
the entrance is severely congested because
11
of the
constricted
lanes within
the
tunnel
merge
only a
egress
crossings and
from
200-foot
7 toll-booth
distance.
on the Boston side
local
lanes
traffic.
into
two
Bottlenecks exist
because
at
of pedestrian
Queues which originate on
the
Boston end of the tunnel extend through the entire tunnel and
onto
Route
lA as
(approximately
In
the
tunnels.
far back
peak,
LOS
F
operations
create
back-ups
so
Callahan
experiences long queues and delays at
bottleneck
from
interchange
exist
As in the morning peak, local street
pedestrians
The
Road
9
1/2 miles).
evening
as the Airport
the
merging
in
traffic and
Tunnel
traffic
the Boston entrance.
lanes
in
the
Callahan
entrance is made worse by the queues on the Central
and
the other
feeder streets
the next page
by time of day.
Tunnel
If
unless
it
is
trips
very
The
by mode
transportation:
car
inbound
is
reflection
available,
inconvenient or
"Driving
commented
Director.
total
Artery
The chart
traffic
to
on
Logan
1 1
owned
accessible.
culture,"
the
volumes are a direct
a privately
1 0
to the tunnel.
illustrates
both
to
Cathy
following
is
the
airport
Donaher,
of mode choice.
it
generally
another mode
is
part
former
1982 data on daily
for air passengers
12
12
is
arriving
used
is easily
of
American
Massport
Planning
person
vehicle
at Logan by ground
TOTAL VEHICLES INBOUND TO LOGAN
By Time of Day
(ADT)
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
.1800-
1400
1200-
1000800
600
10
400
200
12
mid
2
4
6
AM
8
10
12
noon
2
HOUR-OF DAY
13
4
6
PM
8
10
12
mid
%
Person-Trips
Air Passenger
Person-Trips
Mode
Vehicle
Trips
Vehicle
Trips
MBTA
1,096
6.3
None
Other Bus
Taxi
Limo
Rental
Private Car
581
3,422
893
1,965
9,492
3.3
19.6
5.1
11.3
54.4
60
4,655
251
1,638
13,829
0.3
22.8
1.3
8.0
67.7
17,449
100.0
20,433
100.1
TOTAL
(Note:
Because of drop-offs, there
0.0
are often two vehicle
trips for one air-passenger person trip. Massport ignores
transit vehicle trips in its vehicle counts because few
transit
vehicles
utilize
the harbor crossings.
Transit buses
and vans are numerous on Logan's circulation
roads, however,
mainly circulating from the rapid transit station, rental car
companies,
etc.)
In
20,433
total,
the
vehicular
trips,
per day. 1
passenger
constant
17,449
over
3
inbound
or
air passengers generate
1.2 vehicle
The percentages
the years paralleling
here
trips
per
have been
Logan's growth.
29.4 million passenger trips were made to Logan,
was:
split
84.2%
6.2%
7.5%
inbound
somewhat
In 1970,
and the mode
14
private and rental car
transit
taxi and limo
other
2.1%
In
1982,
a total of 67.7 percent of vehicle trips
private cars.
(with
limos)
accounts
Increased taxi ridership,
to
22.8
percent
for some of the decrease
(for
in
from
taxis
work
on
any
single weekday.
in
7.5 percent
only)
in
1982,
use of private cars. 1 5
Logan also employs about 12,000 people,
9,000
were
These
of whom up to
9,000
employees
generate 18,000 trips going to and from Logan at the start
and
end of work and,
according
14
to
a Cambridge
Systematics
study,
These
they make an additional
8,000 trips
26,000 daily employee trips
of all
airport ground traffic
to drive.
is
free parking
little
Massport efforts
unsuccessful.
Employee
incentive
to
hours
Systematics survey revealed
work between
one-fourth
(often guaranteed by
for employees
are,
fortunately, more
sites.
The Cambridge
that about half of all
6 am and
not
encourage car pools have been
staggered than at most other employment
start
about
and one third of airport-bound
Since employers provide
there
represent
16
private vehicle traffic.
union contract),
during work hours.
employees
9 am and end between 2:30 pm and
6 pm. 1 7
Following
are
Massport's
estimates
of
Logan
access modes as of 1982:18
Adjusted
Freq. (%)
Mode
Auto driver
Adjusted
Person-Trips
81.3
9,592
6.8
805
8.3
977
Walk
0.4
47
Taxi
0.3
35
Motorcycle
1.0
118
Other
1.7
200
99.8
11,774
Auto passenger
MBTA,
Massport
Bus
15
employee
Finally,
a brief
overview of the parking
1 9
situation:
Public Garage Parking
Capacity
8,700 spaces
Peak Occupancy
Peak Occupancy
Peak Occupancy
5,500
7,000
8,400
(average day)
(average Wed./Thurs.)
(Wed/Thurs. in Aug.)
Overnight Occupancy
year
Logan
lots
it occurred
address
the
Logan
is
a
growing problem.
overflowed only a few times whereas this
5 times during
Massport
April.
vehicles
vehicles
vehicles
3,900 vehicles
Saturation of parking cpacity at
Last year
(public)
is
currently
just
a two
week
considering
period
in
strategies
to
situation.
Air traveler parking demand seems to be highly inelastic
as a function of price.
implies
that
the
The gain
increases.
increased
total
to
hold
in
Any elasticity between -- l and 0
revenues
revenue will
demand
available
prices.
The Logan price elasticity
(-.12
affected
term
to
short-term
parkers
facilities.
to
Recent
parkers,
use
but
it
if
all
when
when price
additional
demand
is
spaces
unaltered
of demand is
extremely
increases
have
they have
encouraged
off-airport
park
seems,
price
at
rate
alternative
Massport,
leverage to control
than
to accomodate
-. 13).20
increase
be greater
constant
are made
low
will
has
relatively
not
longn'fly
little
total demand for parking.
Compared to airports in most major American cities, Logan
is
very close
to the CBD,
as
16
indicated
by the
following:
2 1
Airport
1.
2.
Distance from CBD
Seattle
Dallas
-
-
-
Sea Pac
Fort Worth
20
19
3.
Chicago
O'Hare
19
4.
5.
6.
Las Vegas - MacCarren
San Francisco International
Los Angeles International
16
15
13
7.
Atlanta -
8.
9.
Miami International
Boston - Logan
Hartsfield
9
7
3
Avg: 15 miles
(not including Logan)
By their
said
to
location,
impose
Logan's case,
proximity
airport
Boston
to what
airports
significant
access
because
roads and
peak
demands
the entire
area.
extent
are
access
access
from their
costs
costs are becoming
central
congestion
distant,
to
Logan and
to pay to improve it?
17
both
transportation
willing
travelers.
In
very high despite
strain
The questions
people
on air
CBD's can be
the
immediate
subsystem
of
that keep recurring
to
tolerate
the
the
the
are:
severe
what "price" are they willing
Footnotes:
1.
Discussion
with Bruce
Forum, Cambridge:
Chapter 1
Campbell.
April
28,
Transportation
Research
1982.
2.
Capacity estimates are likely to be based upon:
(1) a
determined level of service, and (2) peaking characteristics.
Thus, it
is possible to exceed the established
level of capacity as a result
of the peak spreading.
3.
Coverdale and Colpitts,
"Report
Study" (New York:
1972), p. 11;
Inc., "Logan Airport Master Plan
4.
Transportation"
(Cambridge:
Discussion
Karen
with
port, May 12,
5.
Brian Day,
Waite,
on Logan Airport Travel
Cambridge Systematics,
Study Ground Traffic and
April
10,
1980),
Aviation
p.
18.
Department,
Mass-
1983.
"Reports on the Effects and Feasibility
One-Way Toll Collection Policy at
and the Sumner-Callahan Tunnels"
of a
the Mystic-Tobin Bridge
(Massport:
June 1982),
p. 26.
6.
Ibid., p. 26.
7.
An example where this
is mentioned is
in Jeff
McMann's
Memo (Cambridge Systematics, Inc.:
June 17,
1980).
8.
Draft
Project,
9.
Ibid.,
p. 30.
10.
Ibid.,
p. 30.
11.
Cambridge Systematics, Inc., "Logan Airport Massport Plan
Study Ground Traffic and Transportation" (Cambridge:
April 10, 1980), p. 19.
12.
Cathy Buckley,
ties"
May 5,
"Ground Traffic Generated
(Central Transportation
1982),
p.
5.
Boston Transportation
1972),
(Boston:
p.
13. Ibid.,
14.
"Environment Impact Statement (EIS), Third Harbor
Interstate
90" (Boston, Dec. 1982), p. 30.
Planning
by Logan Activi-
Staff
-
CTPS Memo:
p. 5.
15. Cathy Buckley:
Planning
35.
May 5,
1982, p. 5.
18
Review,
Harbor
Crossing
16.
Cambridge
Systematics,
Survey
Report"
17.
Ibid.,
p. 8.
18.
Cathy Buckley:
Inc.,
(Cambridge:
Jeff
MacMann, "Logan
natives"
(Cambridge
p.
21.
Airport
Employee
p. 1.
May 5, 1982, p. 7.
19. Cambridge Systematics, Inc.:
20.
"Logan
Jan. 1980),
April 10, 1980, p. 16.
Airport Ground Transportation AlterSystematics,
Inc.:
June 17, 1980),
10.
George Jackson,
"The 20 Busiest
Airports,"
in
Ground
Access Survey, Xerox Copy from Massport Planning Department, Dec. 1976.
19
2
Chapter
The
following
section
access to Logan.
looks
Forecasts
at
the
of future
airport
the ground traffic it generates play an
policy making.
a realistic
by
instructive to
gain
Logan
(CTPS,
activities
(2)
the
year
recent forecasts of
May
1982)
methods
were
the
into
ground
2010
used
by
results.
the
occupancy
-
rates
2010.
It
are derived
ground
and
role
its
to
1990
on
modes
create
and
is
also
uses.
generated
factors:
reach
by
(1) the
the
cargo)
and
airport.
forecasts were derived
of
the
mode split
in
to help the
traffic
translation
depends
various
travelers
and
people
The
traffic
await
(enplanements and air
2010;
These are described by (1)
each of
ground
activity
important
based on two
Logan
Forecasts were made for
from
and
on forecasting
going on at
the
1990
review how forecasts
perspective
The most
of
latest forecasts are presented to
sense of the problems that
politicians
reader
The
future
Logan
second
-
available,
factor
above.
how many people use
and
how many individuals
activities
are in
(2)
vehicle
each vehicle
type on average.1
Three scenarios were developed with respect to mode split
and occupancy
moderate
rates,
increases in
and
premised
rates:
(3)
upon
(1) present
public transit
maximum diversion
major
transit
situation
extended,
and vehicle occupancy
to transit.
2
improvements
such
The last was
as
connection
of the Red and Blue rapid transit lines, doubled cost
20
(2)
for
parking
(it
is $6 a day at present),
3
and
imposition of an
airport
access
airport
boundary by the Blue Line of the MBTA and between the
station
toll.
and
Logan
terminal
is served to a station at the
buildings
by
Passengers
bus.
from
northern,
western
passengers
from downtown Boston, have no direct access to the
Blue
Line.
Line
reaches
south;
it
to
Cambridge to
includes
Park
transfer
following
Traffic
southern
Most transfer
an additional
The
or
(AWDT)
it
is
indicates
the
well
as
lines.
and
a major
necessary to
for 1977 and
as
from other
the northwest
Street,
table
suburbs,
most
The Red
Braintree
to the
downtown station,
but
reach
the Blue
Average
the estimated
Line.
Weekday
2010 AWDT
Daily
for each
scenario: 4
Scenario
2010 AWDT (one-way)
1977 base
Increase Over 1977
(32,550)
#
%
I.
57,900
23,350
78
II.
51,509
18,959
58
III.
38,752
6,202
If the methods used to
same in
enter
2010
Logan
(Scenario
on
the
I),
reach Logan
The
in 1979
remain the
then 23,350 extra vehicles will
average
weekday.
growth will occur under Scenario
Scenario
19
II
75
percent
of
that
and only 25 percent under
111.5
following
Scenario
Southeast
I.
are capacity-constrained
Note the modest
Expressway traffic.
21
increases
forecasts under
in Central
Artery and
2010 Increase 6
1982 -
Interstate Route 93
Mystic-Tobin Bridge
Storrow Drive
Callahan & Sumner Tunnels
Central Artery
19%
9%
8%
11%
4%-10%
Massachusetts Turnpike
Southeast Expressway
12%
5%
Route
30%
lA (North to Airport)
During the morning and evening peaks in 2010, the Central
Artery
will
enter
become
the Callahan
jammed
from the
Tunnel
both the north and
long
queues
from the city.
southbound
In
directions
the p.m.
will
be
the queue will extend as far as the Haymarket
7
(approximately 2 miles).
will
increase by approximately
the Sumner Tunnel
In
2010,
junctions
A
between 1982 and
will
queue
from
Artery.
Environmental
in
9
the
will
junctions,
queues will
Logan
and
the Callahan Tunnel
and 20 percent in
Callahan
Tunnel
will
Artery
flow.
on-ramp,
not
be congested back
According to the Third Harbor Crossing
Statement
be severely
extend
(EIS),
the
will
nearly
also
problems.10
22
southbound
congested because of
to
the
Tobin
have
two ramp
Bridge
on-
Ramps generally will
excess of computed capacity.
connection
clogged
have queues from four ramp
ramp and the Callahan Tunnel off-ramp.
have volumes in
hours,
2010.8
1982 and 1990,
Impact
direction
to
Square off-ramp
block the northbound Central
estimated to exist
the
in
40 percent,
the morning peak will
that
lengthy
onto
Volumes
waiting
extreme
The Route 1Acongestion
The LOS F conditions presently existing in the tunnels
will
be exacerbated
Sumner
booth
Tunnel
lanes
continue
a
The constriction
major
into
the
source
will
be
of
where seven
two-lane
exceeded
indicator
of increased
congestion
congested hours of
is
operation.
the Sumner
last
the
Tunnel will
a.m.
and
and
two
2010 LOS E or F will
the evening,
five
12 noon and all
usually few problems
In
for
At present this
morning
1990
will
the
toll
and
2010.
below 15-20 m.p.h.
remain the same,
and 9 p.m.
as
in
of hourly distribution
6
toll
tunnel
congestion
average well
of the
in
the
1
number of
between
point
Boston entrance)
funneled
speeds will
period. 1
One
the
be
2010.
East
capacity
Operating
peak
(the
are
to
plaza's
in
today's
estimation
If
the
patterns
the LOS of E or F in
of the six
a.m.
nine hours between
congestion
of
lasts
hours
12 noon
three hours
in
the evening.
Currently there
in
the morning
the Callahan
exist
in
from 6 a.m.
5-hour congestion
in
are
Tunnel.
to 12 noon and in
period will
expand
to
8.12
These
congestion
situation in 1990.
assumptions
Scenario
levels can be
scaled to approximate the
The 1990 CTPS forecasts used the
and methods as the
2010 forecast
for
same
Scenario
I.
II differs only slightly because it arrives at the
increase in public transport and vehicle occupancy rates in a
linear
fashion
involved process.
are forecast to
from
1979-2010
instead
of
using
a
more
According to these estimates, enplanements
increase 20 percent over the 1979
23
level,
employment
activity
9 percent and air cargo tonnage 39 percent.
forecasts
1990
apply to
Logan Average
1979
II,
(36,246),
and
AWDT is
29 percent
According
Callahan
to
(one-way),
the
1977
Third Harbor
and 31 percent
Sumner
will
have
a 9
is
I,
the
projected
of 21 percent
(32,550).
higher
Under
than the
1979
1 3
AWDT.
Crossing
have a 16 percent
peak traffic
(AWDT)
1977
16 percent
over the
Tunnel will
Tunnel
Under
an increase
and 34 percent over
the projected
AWDT
Scenarios.
Weekday Daily Traffic
to be 43,700 vehicles
over
both
These
EIS,
in
increase
increase
1990,
in
in the
the
morning
evening.
percent increase
The
in the morning
and a 6 percent increase in the evening.
Traffic flow will
remain
will
at
Several
LOS
roads
Pike
(12%),
(20%),
the three
nearby
for
create
experience
1A
(16%),
of
level
the airport
the
be
exceeded.
increased
volume
bridge)
(14%),
access/egress
Central
Artery
cross-harbor facilities as well
1990
network.
traffic
junctions
instance,
capacity
the
roads
(9%).
Traffic
be more rapid from 1982-1990 than 1990-2010
roadway
The
also
sections
growth will
plaza
(north of the high
Route
and
toll
will
1-93
including:
ramp
F and
the
produce
particular
almost
substantial
would
two-fold
the northbound off-ramp
increase
to
be
in
(of about
The
average
1 mile)
queue
almost
to
time during
24
the
traffic
at
The
For
predicted
Tunnel
Artery
Congress
the peak
queues.
affected.
the Callahan
a queue extending onto the Central
ups
as most of the
14
would
in
on
Street
would
with backon-ramp.
the Sumner
toll
plaza
would
minutes
minute
in
in
increase
from
1990 and
wait
its
present
12.5 minutes
would become
8.7
5.8
in
minutes
minutes
to
2010.
The Callahan
in
and
1990
10.8
.6
14.5 minutes
2010.15
The huge
increases in traffic and congestion between 1982
and 2010 are likely
to cause many types
may be some impact on the potential
surrounding
areas
areas.
south
The
reduce growth in
development
There
economic growth in the
inconvenience of
and west may at
of effects.
some point
reaching Logan
begin
ventures.
from
to marginally
The traffic will have
its most adverse affects on business and homes located in the
streets
surrounding
the
CBD
may
at
the
some
tunnel
point
portals.
also
Property
suffer
some
Boston
are
values
in
negative
impacts. 16
Land-use
continue.
eminent
Although
domain,
increased
the
with
Massport is
recent
usage
activities,
rental
conflicts
of
East
no
concerns
local
longer
have
property
for
on
land
parking
With the anticipated increase
The effect
use and
are now focusing on
is
lots,
inelastic because most
there
flights
is
no
practical
scheduled
air journeys
zoning
throughout
25
the day,
in
about the
changes. 1
7
passenger
Air travel demand
serve needs
alternative.
and car
in traffic,
of congestion on Logan's growth in
and air cargo is likely to be nonexistent.
the
airport-related
next ten years Boston residents are worried
effects
to
taking property by
revolved around
such as freight-forwarding,
storage.
likely
The
for which
distribution
however,
could
of
be
This congestion
affected by congestion.
the overall
increased
increases
decrease
tunnel
pollution,
on
will
problems
in
is
bus,
mum,
be
the
taxi,
By
and
seriousness
of
the
transportation
demand
will
that
cannot
probably
2010,
it
is
additional
the
of CO conDemoin
East
environmental
usage will grow.
be
met
If
by
the
people to change
that
together will,
demand
has a single
cause
predicted
limo services
vehicle trips. 1 9
equivalent
the
Blue
at a mini-
to
12,800
it is assumed that each
passenger
occupant,
the
6,400
represent a tripling of present transit-limo-
20
is
unlikely
shift
will
suggests
level
a
18
traffic
vehicle
I riders
The
be
and
near
population
mode.
taxi volumes.
pedestrians crossing
elderly
that public
one way trips
Since the total percent increase of Scenario
to be much greater than 10 percent, most
be
to the
that the CTPS
switch, may be more
road
at
vibration
such as a growing
serving
private
and
There will
entrances.
the area.
airport-related
of
noise,
Boston side.
infrastructure
Line,
worsened environ-
tunnel
likely
another
in
the
increase
increased
roadway
the
increase
changes
may
of the
result
the neighborhoods nearby.
air
portals
It
will
in traffic safety for
graphic
to
in
in
centration
The
traffic
quality
Boston
affect
business climate.
The
mental
could also
capacity
limo
Scenario
II,
likely to occur
constraints
if
26
and
taxi
modes.
2 1
This
which assumes some modal
than Scenario
nothing
else.
I, because
The
extreme nature
perception
enjoyed
areas
of
by citizens
in
near Logan.
people
is
an
possible
the
relative quality of
the region as well
as those
in
a
life
local
to move free
might be viewed by some as indicators of
One question to
unconscious
become "bothered
ever
in
congestion may cause
Convenience and the ability
quality of life.
life
the traffic
deterioration
of chronic traffic
of
of
to reflect
consider
force
enough"
in
is
whether
influencing
to act
a forecast
on an
quality
whether/when
issue.
the quality
Is it
of life
as
perceived by a local population?
It
is
valuable
methdology
1979,
for
to understand
used
Charles
in
forecasting
Alan
Eng
at
(CRA)
to approximately
forecasts.
The upper
an increase
in
predicted
offered
45 million
his own
assumed a growth
passenger traffic
in
how they
per year and a
Massport
38.7 million
but
River Associates
Logan of 5 percent
enplanements
not only the
the year
information and
are
used.
a growth rate
tripling
of passenger
by 2000.22
upper- and
In
Eng's
1980,
lower-bound
rate of 4.6 percent or
from 15.1 million in
2000.
In
lower-bound,
1979 to
construc-
ted with less cheery assumptions, projected growth of
3.1
percent. 2 3
now
Some
view this
industry analysts
and aviation planners
range as overly optimistic.
These professionals
contend that continuation of past trends, as implied in these
forecasts, is not
Charles
airlines
tent
likely to occur.
River Associates,
however,
have a bright future.)
with
those
of
the
FAA
27
and
(Robert
Mellman
remains convinced
that
from
the
Eng's forecast was consisAIA
among
others
at
the
time.24
A revised
Bird
1981
rate
of
2.5 percent,
Island Flats forecasts,
1982 numbers.
forecast
year" is
17.2
2 5
high
The
Joe
educated
capture
traffic
low -
of just
forecast
envelope.
Brevard,
it
Timing can
cast.
first
According
envelope
spans 7-10
influence
full
back
2 6
year
high -
a
is
16.6
now the
to
Massport
1987
are "just
useful
in
way
to
forecasting,
years or more.
range and
for
of
is
inherent
the
The CRA projections,
the
two years
any numbers past
The
forecast
and mean -
16.0,
however,
the margin of uncertainty
when
"principal
increases to:
low rate
guesswork."
especially
The
for each year.
2.5 percent),
end of the
planner
Massport's
is similar to the most recent
when passenger
(growth rate
million.
in
In the latest forecast a high, low and mean
is given
1987,
used
accuracy of a fore-
example,
deregulation
were
which,
completed
in
according
to
industry analyst Steve Martin, undermined the credibility of
the
forecasts
Airlines
in
own forecasts
changes in
Four
times
of the
of
limited
main
predictions.
function
eyes
of
usually
aviation
of
use.
factors
One of
U.S.
influence
exclusively
on
future performance, and
these
important
air
passenger
indicators
is
the
The elasticity of air travel
as a
income and growth
recession,
The
2 7
the most
economy.
specialists.
concentrate
their own market share and
have
therefore
state
the
travel
occurs during more prosperous
28
is high.
Therefore,
decreases while
times.
The
during
the
opposite
Massport
forecasts
were
based
Data
Resources
as
on
interest
recent
Inc.
rates
national
(DRI).
and
economy
DRI
federal
forecasts
looks at
monetary
policy
policy,
prepared by
factors
among
such
others
to derive several scenarios which reflect the anticipated
pattern
of
GNP
("recovery
slope").
The
outcomes
of
these
scenarios provided the basis for the high and low boundary of
The
envelope.
forecast
the Massport
relative strength or weakness of the relationship
between the national
air
economy could be
growth
path
generally
(measured
closely
carrier
in
rate
correlated
as GNP
It
(in
the
real
miles)
terms)
years
1968
has
and was
to
1977.
over these years were about at the
increases.
more slowly than air
the industry
passenger
GNP
during
and the national
seems that
revenue
national
Increases in air travel
same
industry
significant.
paralleled
most
2 8
Between 1977 and
travel
1979,
and from 1979 to 1981,
GNP grew
GNP fell
faster than air travel. 2 9
Logan
passenger
traffic
has
increased
more quickly
than
New England income over the last six years but has paralleled
national
aggregate
passenger
personal
about 9 percent
traffic
growth.
New England
income as a fraction
from 1969-1980.
and
of the U.S.
regional
dropped
At the same time,
an index
comparing Logan passenger traffic to New England
regional
income
(Logan
enplanements
New England
income),
New England
economic growth
intensively.
The
divided
increased
is
regions's
by
20
in
sectors
high
29
by constant
percent.
tech
that
3 0
1972 dollar
Furthermore,
use air
firms
are
travel
strong,
linked
closely
to
governments
continent and Europe,
and
Fuel
costs
air
of
decrease
and
in
levels
cost
(30%)
and
3 1
transport.
labor
demand.
However,
constitute
future.
the
an
major
increase
influence
more
the
is also a critical
Consequently
the Boeing 767) are to some degree
this
fuel
fuel prices can significantly
of
throughout
and seem to have a promising
The availability and cost of
element.
market
efficient
or
air
fares
models
reducing the
(e.g.,
importance of
factor.
Since 1978, deregulation has played a central role in
influencing the numbers of people flying in several ways,
primarily by intensifying
price competition
in
major markets.
Larger numbers of people are flying and flights
across the peak.
Many industry
full
of deregulation
implications
operation
are not yet fully
Three
contribute
factors,
to
(1)
numbers
ground
of
maintain
nationally
apparent.
in addition
increased
Greater
analysts
are spreading
that
and
on
the
Logan's
32
to
air
traffic
growth,
traffic:
people
are
living
and
working
outside of the CBD where there are few transportation options
besides private car.
Significant
growth,
especially
in
hotel
and office space is occurring in the central area at present,
but
a
corresponding
unlikely.
One reason
the region
leave
(2)
are likely
surge
is
in
non-auto
modes
to
Logan
that most Logan users who reside
from or return
to
their
homes,
is
in
not the CBD.
Several planned Massport harbor development projects
to increase
traffic
30
especially
the Bird Island
Flats
(BIF)
located
project,
adjacent
cipating
a
to
cargo
Logan and
increased
traffic
and
mixed
to be completed
as a
result
the
adverse
Commuter Plan" -
impacts.
MBTA pass subsidies, higher
will
bear
this
cost),
about
These
a program of ride
development,
in
sharing
ferry
expects
modeshare
limited
BIF
parking,
measures
its
existing
employees to 9.1 percent.
is
predicted
these
relevant.
help
BIF, transit
improve
the
transit/
percent
for
airport
employee auto occupancy
Massport officials
will
be
for some time,
service first.
say specific
implemented
incorporate
the
a
requires
this
limited
considering renovating
that
not
leases
more
with
transit market,
become
will
scheduled
scheduling
the
leave at peak hours.
into
they
van is
in
the
elements
as
staggered
provision
in
for example,
so a 20-seat
To promote
congestion,
agreement
Despite
6.6
Further,
percentage of employees
will
to
The use of a 40-seat shuttle bus,
defuse
developer's
34
provisions
not be necessary
to begin
of
to improve to 1.4 from 1.2 per vehicle
p.m. peak hour.
of
support
3 3
these
from
"Logan
employee parking fees (employers
soon.
Massport
to
and van pooling,
access
and
a
include:
limo service, ferry access to
BIF
Anti-
ten provisions
increased bus and
to
1987.
of the BIF develop-
ment, the Massport EIS has put forth
mitigate
use
and
Massport-BIF
than
The
a
certain
developers
their
Massport
tenants.
is
also
MBTA stations to encourage greater
usage.35
31
No
one
I
interviewed
at
Massport
measures,
however,
general.
The silence may reflect a
these measures are
(3)
Since
strategies
in
discussions
been
travel
the month,
influenced
Price discrimination
The
at
air
Logan,
traffic
following
the strike,
1978,
to
time
is vigorous.
on
the
of
strike
of
and
day,
There
spread
airline
improve
Steve Martin,
controllers
effect
load
uncertain
from a past forecast for Logan exhibits
and
were
is evidence of these
but no hard
(AWDT)
two-way
predicted
under
70,000
the
an
if
In
1972,
volume
flights.
of
constrained.
observed
two-way
3 9
in 1980.37
Sumner
and
at each
A sample
In 1972, the
In
volume
4 0
of
daily
traffic
Tunnels was
1970 to 92,000 in
vehicle
1982,
Logan would
In 1980, they
and Callahan
unconstrained
Tunnels was 82,800 vehicles.
though
one reason why some
to increase from 62,000 in
assumption
yet.
During
factors.
the average weekday
of the
data
had a similar
enplaned passengers a day at
25,300 by 1975, and 33,000
41,600.38
factors.
destination).
apprehension about forecasting is justified.
reach
pricing
3 6
incorporate
BTPR forecast that
in
time when people
the number of planes flying
hour was carefully regulated.
forecasts
issue
lack of expectation that
the numbers
week,
said
temporary
All
in
designed
has
effects
these
likely to have much effect.
Deregulation
(e.g.,
about the access
deregulation
have
mentioned
demand
on the average
the
Sumner
1980
and
and
weekday,
Callahan
The three harbor crossings
carried 33,465 vehicles one-way to or from Logan and 67,000
32
on
a two directional
It
since
is a
is
unlikely
1978.
that
According
forecasting has become more accurate
to
traffic
consultant
Brian
factor difference of 333 percent
ranging from 1.5 in
basis.
the
Study
5 percent
(November
et al.,
and
1981),
In the
Griffith Associates
Forecasts of air travel
which have occurred
Logan
the consulting
there
in growth estimates,
per annum,
past three years.
Day,
Land Use Master Plan
firm of Wallace,
Floyd,
stated:
are historically
unreliable.
DeNeufville has shown that half of the passenger
forecasts sampled by him were incorrect by approximatel4y 20 percent,
only
six
years
after
they were
make.
(Note:
the
20 percent refers to
Massport must consider the
before
they
aviation
are
staff
announced
member
to
the growth
rate.)
implications of its forecasts
the
pointed
general
out,
interest not to alarm the local
public.
it
is
As one
in
Massport's
community with forecasts of
immense growth.
He said that as a result, Massport
"understate"
forecasts
its
whenever
any press on the issue of growth.
1960s
when
the
approach
to
Now it
can
and
often
to
avoids
This is a change from the
involved
to justify big projects.
it
tends
large
growth
announcements
seems that Massport's
aim is
avert any charges that such projects are needed.
When
one
appears that
reviews
the
forecasts
of
Logan
growth,
it
forecasts are guided by the trends occuring at
the time the forecast
is
made.
1970s were
in
the
reflected
Increasing
travel
in
optimistic CRA forcasts
the
late
of 1979.
In the early 1980s, in the midst of increased fuel prices,
33
economic
stagnation,
projections
in
and
declining
become more conservative.
air
activity
and
air
Will
travel,
the
the present
surge
the upward movement of the economy result
in another revision?
Forecasters
acknowledge
the
environment plays but maintain that
cycles -
economic
though no
long-term or not.
one-time
while
events
other
varying
(e.g.,
factors
severity
price
fact
that
Each
access
Logan
to
not reflect
forecasts are
will
response
reoccur
national
to
deregulation)
at different
economic
a steady
times with
recession,
state
of the "state"
is
fuel
predicted.
vary depending
on
present merits consideration.
scenario
has
demand over the long
per year.
forecasts do
current
factors that affect
the parameters
forecast
worst case,
the
if cycles are
Consequently,
the situation at
that
one can be sure
initial
(e.g.,
changes).
The
Some
role
different
term.
implications
for
The CRA scenario
is the
from a traffic standpoint, with 5 percent growth
Drastic measures would be
continue
percent growth
to
function
per annum,
under
necessary to
this
case.
some deterioration
enable
Even with
in
Logan
1.5
access
and the rest of the Boston transportation system is highly
probable.
The
predominant
response of
Logan-bound travelers
face of worsened traffic congestion
reliability
access
time,
will
trips,
be to
leave
and otherwise
convenience,
themselves
lowered
more
travel
time
to endure the increased
and work productivity.
34
and
in the
for
cost
time
Logan
in
Footnotes:
1.
Chapter 2
Cathy Buckley, "Logan Airport Ground Traffic
(CTPS Memo: May 24,
Three Scenarios"
2010:
1, 3,
Ibid.,
pp.
3.
Ibid.,
p. 11.
4.
Ibid.,
p. 14.
5.
Ibid.,
p. 14.
6.
"EIS, Third Harbor Tunnel
Draft
p. 112.
Dec. 1982),
(Boston:
7.
Ibid., p. 128.
8.
Ibid.,
p.
121.
9.
Ibid.,
p.
128.
10.
Ibid.,
p. 130.
11.
Ibid.,
p. 130.
12. Ibid.,
p. 130.
Cathy Buckley,
"Logan
1990" (CTPS Memo:
14.
Draft
"EIS,
the
1982),
Year
p.
1.
11.
2.
13.
in
Project,
Interstate
Airpor t Ground Traffic
1982), p. 1.
in
90"
the
Year
June 22,
Third Harbor
Tunnel
Project,"
pp.
36-37.
15. Ibid., p. 37.
16.
Ibid.,
p.
17.
Ibid. p.
183.
and discussion with Alice Boelter,
183;
Department, Massport:
Harbor Tunnel
Project,"
p.
192.
18.
Draft "EIS,
19.
Ibid.,
20.
Discussion wtih Cathy Buckley:
21.
Ibid.
22.
Charles River Associates, "Logan International Airport
(Boston:
Dec. 1979),
Passenger and Air Cargo Forecasts"
p. S-1.
p.
Third
Planning
May 8, 1982.
156.
35
May 9,
1983.
23.
Joe Brevard, "Updated Logan Passenger Forecasts
(Massport Memo:
June 23, 1981), p. 1.
24.
Ibid.,
25. Joe
p. 1.
Brevard,
(Massport
26. Ibid.,
27.
"Medium
Memo:
Range
Interview
with
Steve
Martin,
Aviation
Joe Brevard, pp. 5-6.
29.
Ibid., p. 7.
30.
Ibid., p. 9.
31.
Discussion with Robert Mellman,
May 9,
Forecasts"
Industry
Analyst,
Charles River Associates:
1983.
32.
Interview with Steve Martin.
33.
"Final
Environment
Bird Island Flats"
144.
Proposed Development of
Impact Report,
(Massport:
April
30,
1981),
pp.
141-
Ibid., p. 106.
Interview with
Richard Marchi,
of Aviation Department,
36.
Traffic
p. 2.
March 1, 1983.
28.
35.
Logan
April 8, 1982),
p. 1.
Massport:
34.
for 1981"
Assistant to
Massport:
the Director
April 12, 1983.
Interview with Steve Martin.
37. Boston Transportation
35.
Planning Review
(Boston:
1981),
38.
"Massport Annual Report 1981"
39.
Boston Transportation Planning Review, p.
earlier, the
40. As mentioned
change.
(Massport:
1972),
p.
p. 36.
55.
definition of capacity can
It is possible that the estimated capacity of
the tunnel now vs. during the BTPR in 1972 is different.
Recently, lower levels of service and a wider spread of
peak travel may be influencing the numerical capacity of
the facility.
41.
Wallace,
Master
Nov.
Floyd,
Plan
1981),
et al.
Study,
p.
and Griffith Associates,
Logan
70.
36
International
Airport"
"Land
Use
(Boston,
Chapter 3
There
ground
are
physical
access problem.
and
operational
The main physical
in the last 15 years include:
solutions
to
the
solutions put forth
a general purpose Third Harbor
Crossing, a special purpose harbor crossing, and improvements
The political
to the MBTA.
solution
and
technical
aspects
have been debated and ultimately
quate solutions
at the time
of each
viewed as inade-
they were considered.
After
a
brief summary of these physical proposals and their problems,
operational
responses will be addressed.
concept
features
and
of
operational
responses
why they should be pursued to alleviate
gestion.
limo
Two
usage
examples
and
-
tolls
will
will
clarify
ground access con-
of operational
one-way
Explanation of the
solutions
then
be
-
increased
explored
in
depth.
Airport-destined
highest
traffic
demand compete with
from
the corridors with the
non-airport
traffic
for
limited capacity of the Sumner and Callahan Tunnels.
physical
solution
to this
limitation
in
the
Any
the Boston trans-
portation network, such as a Third Harbor Crossing, would
entail huge investment costs and require years for implementation.
Although earlier I concluded that the prospects for
a Third Harbor Crossing are dim at best, the issues around
the debate
are at
appropriate.
explored
the heart
For this
of whether a physical
solution
reason some of these issues will
further.
37
is
be
The controversy surrounding the Third Harbor Crossing has
focused mainly upon
the traffic
negative
and
community
options
for
discussed
of
the
exact
but they all
benefits
environmental
options also
billion
the
estimated
A special
problem.
restricted
environmental
cost of
a
fically
The
concept
limos,
The
externalities.
tunnel
approaches
2
factors have swayed the
term.
purpose tunnel,
to
been
significant disruption
first
proposed by the BTPR in
would have gone far towards alleviating
1972,
have
prominent politicians against any action
the near
in
tunnel
Several
represent future Logan growth
Together these
several
for a tunnel
the
vs.
who are strongly opposed to any tunnel.
dollars.
opinion of
of
involve either
have unfavorable
Furthermore,
tunnel
impacts.
alignment
the East Boston community or
to the residents
of the
of
buses,
a special
the disruption
purpose
facility,
taxis and trucks destined
speci-
for Logan would have insured a high level of service
for this airport-bound traffic, and would have provided a
powerful
leave
incentive for airport travelers and visitors to
their cars
behind.
The anticipated
diversion of
air-
port travelers away from auto use was expected to have a
beneficial effect
significantly
tunnels.
on the congestion
in
those
The crossing was opposed by the incoming Dukakis
administration both because of his dedication to transit and
political
considerations.
Major
tion
improvements to the MBTA is another physical solu-
considered
to
relieve
congestion.
38
The
response
of
the
current
governor
been
to
call
improve
for
service
to the ground access
transit,
rapid
between
problem at
most
often
Logan has
connect
to
the CBD and the airport.
or
Dukakis has
a long reputation as an avid devotee of the MBTA and viewed
it
as the "solution."
spacial
passengers
is
change
no reason to assume
in
the
with
two
Roughly
demand.
now come
from beyond the
that
thirds
of
MBTA network.
1
the spread of demand will
near future.
Traditionally,
Line,
of
distribution
Logan's
There
This response, however, ignores the
and especially in
Massport
bus
service
to
the 1970s,
access
the MBTA Blue
Logan,
has
been
an
appealing option because of the high unused capacity that the
system offers
without any deterioration
when demand rises.
contrast
striking
of service quality
This performance capability stands in
1600 vehicles per hour per lane.
about
which
to highway access,
is
limited
to
2
Despite these Blue Line attributes, its use as a means to
Logan
has
not
been attractive
reasons.
several
required,
actual),
to most
the difficulty
travelers
the number of
They include:
the unreliability
air
of the service
of handling
geographic spread of MBTA lines.
luggage,
for
transfers
(perceived and
and the
limited
As a consequence, ridership
of the Blue Line has remained at a low 6 percent from 1970
through
It
1979.3
seems almost
to highway access
alternative
Blue
Line
impossible
to
Park Street
to
to
and directly
39
make
Logan.
to
the
MBTA a viable
By extending the
the Logan terminal,
it
is
estimated that the mode split
to
9 percent.
congestion,
Under
the
could rise
conditions of extreme
transit
share might
from 6 percent
future
increase
highway
to 13.6 per-
cent.4
Governor
Sargent vetoed such Blue Line improvements
in
the early 1970s due to cost considerations, and this decision
has been accepted by subsequent administrations.
Logan Master Plan also
access system
rejected
improvements
The 1975
to the subway
to Logan:
...even if rapid transit lines served the Airport
directly,
with no transfer
delays, rail
transit
inherently
lacks the "flexibility"
to pick up the
large number of passengers living in scattered
locations throughout the suburbs...The result is
that fixed rail transit cannot begin to compete with
buses or automobiles and consequently can never
attract enough airport-destined riders to significantly reduce harbor crossing travel demand. 5
If anything
is to be done
about the
Logan access problem,
then the planning emphasis needs to be directed
ambitious,
making
less costly and simpler approaches to the problem,
use
of
responses do not
existing
capital
facilities.
the
Operational
respond to the access problem
of transporting people and goods to and
rather,
towards less
transportation
mum environmental
objective
is
to
as simply one
from the airport,
also
and neighborhood disruption.
ensure mini-
On and off
through the 1970s there has been support for this
The operational
these
simplicity
methods have
implementation.
lead time
and potential
served to enhance
Because
for development
construction
is short
40
approach.
effectiveness
any support
requirements
of
for
are
their
low,
and costs and disruption
are
low.
ments
are
patterns
able
of
(1)
ways:
ment)
Unlike
to
respond
behavior.
ventures,
to
if
effective
changing
They may
itself
investment and
to
operational
be more
technique
reacting
(e.g.,
swiftly;
operational
toll).
trends
reponsive
traffic
(2)
and
in
two
manage-
because
there is
a technique needs to be altered
access
improve-
population
lead time are required
(e.g.,
less
less risk
to become more
However,
the
benefits
of
strategies tend to be undramatic as well.
Several
types
of operational
have been considered
include:
scale
the nature of the
lends
involved
large
in
responses
Boston during
ferry service,
remote
the
to
last
parking
ground
access
decade.
These
facilities with
shuttle bus, traffic management techniques, downtown check-in
facilities, an access toll, employee car/van pooling programs, minor
improvements
on in this analysis:
usage
to
the
MBTA and the two elaborated
one way tolls and increased bus/limo
(hereafter referred to as
limo).
Many of the techniques normally considered to be
operational
options are
priority
lanes,
possible
lane.
Other methods,
access toll
technically
to
implement.
In
1972,
to 'enter'
Plan to
fulfill
like
an access toll,
It
of
like
is
not
into a special
are politically
an EPA study recommended
Boston as part
Some,
infeasible.
to make one lane of a two-lane tunnel
infeasible.
tation
are
infeasible
likely
a 5 dollar
the "State
Implemen-
the requirements of the Clean Air Act.
This proposal was met by a storm of public protest
aside.6
41
and set
The two operational
appear
to be technically
problems in
responses discussed in this paper
in
feasible
implementation on other
most ways
fronts.
but encounter
Massport sup-
the political
ported a pro limo policy, without realizing
trouble it would encounter with the cab drivers and other
operational
cally
difficulties.
satisfactory,
especially
A one-way
but
policy is
faced intergovernmental
during debates over
The effects of
toll
the Third Harbor
techniproblems
Crossing.
limos and one-way tolls in theory will be
presented first looking at the technical data and
tional
features.
How the solutions have fared in practice to
then be assessed.
date will
summarized
highlighting
Finally,
emerged.
opera-
The current situation will be
problems
operational
have
issues will be
and institutional
political
that
discussed.
section will
The following
cal
advantages
of
limo
increased
put forth the theoreti-
first
usuage.
A presentation of
the history of the policy reveals why and how the practical
realities
make
implementation
problematic.
Finally,
gest why the approach should remain alive -
I sug-
despite the lack
of support at present
Technical studies provide one basis to assess the feasibility
of an operational
types of operational
recent
data
why
options,
like
there
limos.
is
on limo usage and potential
No one with whom
plain
method
they
I spoke
did
or
Unlike
relatively
in
other
little
the Boston area.
about limos mentioned data to ex-
did
42
not
support
the
idea.
Three
earlier
studies, however,
dale
and
Colpitts
provide valuable analysis:
(1970),
BTPR
(1972),
The conclusions of all
Master Plan.
and
the
three put
Colver-
1975
forth
Logan
a rather
persuasive case to support limo usage.
The
Colverdale
and
Colpitts survey provides an analysis
of attitudes of Logan Airport users.
rank
order
"Direct
list.
preferences
suburban
express
for
new
bus
service"
transit
second,
to
Logan."
and
7
last
The
seeing improved,
service.
8
1972
top
most
time,
Logan.
of
the
service,"
bus service
interested
convenience,
in
and
satisfied by a limo or bus
These factors were used
as a basis of discussions
the 1975 Master Plan.
about limos in
The
were
which included travel
environment, could be
on
downtown express
people
travel
out
to
bus with rail
was "direct
factors
services
came
"Replace the Airport shuttle
was
Users were asked to
BTPR study mainly
9
addressed
the
issue
of
a
harbor crossing but it also assessed a number of other alternatives.
Of these alternatives, the study concluded that one
of the two "most effective
individual
Logan congestion was
existing
improvements"
limo
service.
1 0
to the
The Review
performed an analysis to determine the proportion of trips
to limo and found that
divertable
of the
potential
between 30 and 55 percent
"market" might take
limos.
(1) making parking
depended on a number of actions such as:
at
Logan
more
difficult
by
increasing
decreasing the number of spaces;
limo
lanes or
a special
and
(2)
purpose harbor
43
This outcome
parking
fees
and
provision of special
crossing to
increase
travel by these modes during the peak
speed of
the relative
periods.11
the
1975,
In
an
that
concluded
Plan
Master
Logan
"expanded limo system would provide the greatest net benefits
of
at
congestion
traffic
reducing
Logan."
detailed the most likely market areas
support of the
in
parking
limo demand
and
The
Plan analyzed
route at four alternative
estimated
The Report
that
limo
usage
in
of even greater
with the possibility
some areas might triple,
between Routes 128
outlying sections such as that
demand in
for fringe airport
limo services.
and operating cost per
levels of service.
Plan
The
in which expansion of
and requirements
could occur,
services
1 2
495.13
The
ridership until
projection of
with improved
levels of service,
anticipated
conclusion,
because
of
lack of
the team assumed that the high
usage
(23
coordinated"
"aggressive,
(1973-74)
growth
eliminating
and
increase,
limo
licensing
problems,
limo
especially during the start
The
program
securing
fringe
a Logan parking price
privileges
head-of-the-line
44
of
rate
This rate depended on
program.
points in downtown Boston.
subsidies,
Nonetheless,
state policy" coupled with an
a Massport marketing effort,
parking,
several
data.
% per year) would continue.
implementation of a "favorable
included:
sufficient
the Plan
ridership is
study team recognized that projecting growth of
difficult
that
27 percent of Logan passen-
In drawing this
gers would use limos.
1990
limos
for
at
The plan did not rule out
up phases.
14
Limo
service
outlying
areas
employees,
luggage.
can
of
tap
the markets of
Boston.
It
also
and
airport
those
with
Passengers can also enjoy a considerable financial
The
limo fare to Lowell was $6
1975 whereas a taxi cost $28.25.15
increases,
lower
attract
non-residents, out-of-towners, and
savings by opting for limos.
in
can
the suburban
costs
to the operator
If demand for services
drop and
the operator
fares or increase the frequency of service.
transit services,
limos offer
may
Unlike
a guaranteed seat and deliver
directly to the terminal.
Many of the operational
advantages of
usage were mentioned earlier -
tion,
low costs,
size of vehicle
such as little or no construc-
short lead time,
Limos can also be flexible
(bus,
and policy flexibility.
both in
car).
the areas they serve and
Progress can be monitored and
assessed to decide on any changes on
Although
there seem to
increased limo
routing or timing.
be many attractive features to
congestion problems,
using limos to help alleviate
the feasi-
bility of expanding their use, given operational and politiis
cal considerations,
the various parties
why
clarifies
problematic.
involved,
limos
remain
and their
a
controversial
The agencies and other parties
use
Department
Department
of
of
stake in
the issue
and
a
very
strategy at present.
modestly utilized
encourage
A review of the history,
of
limos include:
Public
(DPW),
45
in
any effort to
Massport, the Massachusetts
(DPU),
Utilities
Public Works
involved
the
Massachusetts
the Massachusetts
Turnpike
Authority
the
(MTA),
limo operators.
stake
in
Logan.
that
is
It
might
continued
would
concerned
is
these actors
help
in
diffuse
be
on
limos
The
involved
if
streets
and/or
near
the
DPW would be
other
or through
the
limos.
in
Since
City
Logan's
of
Boston
physical
Sumner
improveand
Callahan
industry while the
is
likely
to
necessary to review the status of any potential
malls would also
such as shopping
The taxi industry sees itself
to encourage
ensure
option
outlying areas then discussion with the
of
Meetings with existing owners
have to take place.
very much a part of any changes
limos as they also seek
Finally,
Logan market.
the
increased mode share of
limo operators
would
also
stake.
Debate
about
the
(e.g.,
increase usage of
the BTPR
early
1970s
until
1976 that Massport
statement about limos.
Study).
limos began
Although
it
in the
was
not
incorporated an explicit policy
This statement set forth four ways to
encourage use of limos and decrease the number of
They
private autos.
be
of access
limo service
lots.
actively
problem
included provision of
sites for acquisition of
have a
different
the
The City also regulates the taxi
require parking
the
and
has a
and
MTA and
a limo policy
privileges
regulates
lots
industry
mainly as one
congestion
accessibility.
Tunnels.
DPU
taxi
with the overall
interested
head-of-the-line
ments
Each of
the
the policy.
Massport
to
the City of Boston,
served;"
(2)
included:
assisting
(1) "identifying new areas
with
46
the
permit
process;
to
(3)
working with the
in
the
City of
Boston to
(4)
provide
and,
city;
head-of-the-line
limo
"to
public more
to
Cab
routing for
Donaher,
and
by
and
1976 Massport met with
and
to
worked
Massport pro-
not an operating
publishing
the
make
brochures
subsidy,"
with
limo
fees.
drivers,
jeopardized
subsidy,
limos
lanes
priority
aware of the services available.
Cathy
schedules
In
routes
discuss
vided "a public relations
said
for
1 6
privileges."
operators
improve
in
turn,
saw
their most
interest
by this vigorous
and cabs from outlying areas,
who
in
lucrative
limos.
technically
rides
Boston cabs
are not allowed
to pick up fares from Logan but prefer to "dead head"
the way
back rather than lose the fares, began to fight limos in the
All
DPU licensing process.
required by law to satisfy
One part of
the DPU.
this
scheduled
limo operators are
certain
regulations
process
is
overseen by
a public
Large
suburban and Boston cabs were a significant force.
would come to each hearing and voci-
numbers of cab drivers
the DPU to deny approval
pressure
ferously
limos which passed
The
traffic
cab
times the
size
to
of new routes
into their areas.
drivers
and pollution
ported Taxi
in
Together the
and town the route passes through.
every city
hearing
Digest,
feel
that
Massport's
"has a hollow ring."
a bus
aim
to
reduce
After all, re-
(or large limo) "is
of a car" and "spews more pollution."
some
three
1 7
The
cabs, with an extremely effective network and a few large
operators,
were prepared
to "fight every step of the way."
47
In
the
spring
of
1977,
cab
drivers
went
on
a
3-day
strike, accusing Massport of unfair support of their competition.
Massport
had
assisted
a
limo operator
permit for a route which
included
hotel.
Massport Board
Ann
said that
Hershfang,
judging by the
Globe, public
service
secure
a
to a Newton
Member at the
time,
to the Editor of the Boston
opinion was not very sympathetic to the strike
but it
did cause substantial
place
with
which
represented
cab,
Letters
shuttle
to
the
disruption.
State acting
as a
Negotiations
broker
the cab companies,
took
between
the City
Massport.
and
Share-a-
a program which enables cabs to have access to an addi-
tional
segment
Hershfang,
a strong
share-a-cab
As
a
of
outcome
result
the
advocate
the
of promoting
to
a "gift
of
emerged
market,
the
upheaval
as
limos,
a
result.
called
the
cabs."
of
the
strike,
Massport
maintained, during the 1977-1979 period, a relatively low
profile on the limo
demand
issue.
analysis looking
Again in
at
1980 the agency did some
existing
routes
and
isolated
corridors which were not being served. Ted Baldwin,
port aviation planner at the time,
recalls that the main
issue for limo operators was the high capital
interest
of expanding their
rates)
mated demand.
and
then
interest
could
them
limos,
be viewed
for Massport,
fleet
costs (due to
to meet this
esti-
The operators urged Massport to buy vehicles
lease
in
a Mass-
back.
the
as a
agency
Despite
refused.
limo subsidy,
because it
Massport's
Such
overall
an action,
was "political
which
dynamite"
could provoke the cab drivers again.
48
There are mixed
views about Massport providing
of any type to limo operators.
think
the
agency
should
subsidies
Some Massport staff members
not
ties in the private sector.
in
such
activi-
become
involved
Others
like consultant Brian Day
support
efforts
limos.
He is convinced that Massport should cross subsidize
to
subsidize
"high-occupancy
modes"
such
as
limos using revenues from the imposition of higher landing
fees on air carriers.
The
volatility of the cab drivers surfaced again
year when
they went on
unscheduled
for
3 days.
They
limos, many not properly authorized,
ting passengers
port
strike
intervene
the resolution
were solici-
to
stop
the
limo drivers.
setting
services
that
require
One
observer
up a "limo
operators
taxi position because a limo pool
limos at the curb.
strike,
neither
solicit
passengers.
Another
limos
was
taxis
On the other hand,
The
favors the
unlike before
nor limos can enter
lanes.
the
lessens the presence of
the terminals
policy Massport considered
priority
felt
pool" for
to provide
and passenger name before leaving the pool,
flight
that
inside the terminals and demanded that Mass-
of the action,
unscheduled
alleged
last
in
agency's
1976
the
to
regarding
commitment
was
tempered by Boston's angry reaction to the introduction of
diamond lanes (priority lanes for high occupancy vehicles) on
the
Southeast
Expressway
in
1977.
"good news" by the local news media.
Their
1 8
removal
termed
Additionally, there
are operational problems with priority lanes.
49
was
"You can't put
them where
you want
Weinberg.
They
also,
tunnel,
them,"
"out
are
the
Boston
an
informal
observed
the
of
street
Massport
in
question"
a
is
configuration
Robert
Chair
two-lane
not
easily
adaptable.
At present
limo operators exists.
and
analyses
no
data
on
Green,
Director
Massport
Massport staff carries out demand
quietly
the
has
encourages
success
of
worked
also
to
resulted
in
a rise
in
1977,
limo
mode
share
thereby
surpassing
limo
offering
one bus
and
-
are
6.0
to
an access mode. 1 9
Of these,
have been added.
25 new limo services
one
from
scheduled.
2 0
specific routes at specific
complicated
MBTA have
in the
volumes.
increased
Joe
permits.
licensing
limo passenger
transit as
the
cutbacks
These efforts combined with
to
is
services.
transportation
streamline
limo
There
according
-efforts,
ground
to secure
expansion.
service
of these
Massport's
process
bureaucratic
relationship between Massport and
From 1970 to
8.4
percent,
Since 1978,
two -
only
Scheduled services,
times,
as mentioned
earlier are required by law to have a permit from the DPU.
Non-scheduled
any city or
limos do not need
town.
a permit and
or town.
schedules or
vations in
from
Massport requests that unscheduled opera-
tors have a letter with approval
city
can operate
Unscheduled
solicit
of operation
from
its base
limos are not allowed to publish
passengers;
passengers must make reser-
advance.
Massport
records
since 1981
show improving
numbers of passengers on most bus and limo
50
revenues and
lines. 2 1
The rise
and just
may be illusory
since
gathering
picture of
1981.22
this
month.
has probably made
to circumvent
state
their
it
To
a database
payment.
2 3
of services
The "pool"
more difficult
popularity
system.
to have a more accurate
In an effort
limo operations,
be completed
of more complete data
a projection
for
unscheduled
for unscheduled
Limos might be encouraged
due to the structure
Logan,
access
revenues whereas taxis
pay $.50 for
5
percent
each trip.
It
to
limos
services
to under-
of Massport's
pay
limos
is due
fee
of
gross
is
worth
considering how much Massport stands to gain financially from
limos vs.
cabs.
2 4
According to M.E.
Sullivan
of Massport,
this aspect of ground transportation has not been explored.
Despite these
that
felt
tions, the
potential market
increase in
have
and operating
limos was extremely
member felt
that
limited.
only a 0.5-1.0 percent
Furthermore, almost no one I spoke to seemed to
positive
anything
to
say
about
the
future
approach though many advocated it in principle.
-
condi-
mode share could be achieved by more extensive
2 5
activity.
for
recognition that
interviewed for this
pricing
under current
One Massport staff
and
most people
was increasing,
ridership
paper
positive developments
- were
of
the
Two types of
cited.
Opera-
tional problems included the infrequency of service,
the poor
problems
peak hour
operational
service
that
and
is
political
"unlikely
to
improve,"
and
the
limited market.
Perhaps there
widely used.
are several
reasons
limos are not being
There are too many other "costs" incurred for
51
passengers.
tive
Frequent travelers, for example, are less sensi-
to transport
A short
limo
prices and
outbound
may make
tend
to value
their
time highly.
journey can be time-consuming
several
stops.
Also,
while
because the
passengers
may
expect taxis to be available when they arrive at an airport,
they may not know of a limo service.
many
travelers
have
to
For an inbound journey
transport themselves
to
the
limo
service.
Aside
a limo
port
from
the
inflammatory nature
policy entails other political
is
more directly
agencies
and
"responsible"
it
any blame
is
or
situation,
considerations.
involved with this
consequently
for
of the cab
issue than other
likely
receive
Mass-
to
the
be
viewed
credit
for
outcome of a policy. When the cabs are causing chaos in
of
Boston,
easy
or
parking
to divorce
becomes
Massport
impossible
at
from the event.
Logan,
it
Massport
is
as
any
all
not
assumes
that the taxi industry will continue to react as it has in
the past,
which constricts
promote an explicit
The threat
fits
the
agency's
ability
to
limo program.
of a cab strike
of increased
is
immediate while any bene-
limo usage are long-term.
of one way tolls
which are discussed
cannot be used
to measure success.
later,
Unlike the use
a "trial
Public
reaction to changes such as increases in parking
fewer
lity.
spaces available are likely to be an
People may not yet be prepared
venience
actively
in their
period"
outrage
in
fees and/or
immediate liabi-
to tolerate
such incon-
lifestyle to help alleviate what they
52
consider
if
a "normal"
Salvucci
Crossing
had
issue
funding
a
"bureaucratic
(i.e.,
issue),
failures"
part of Logan
building
controversial
Weinberg
triumph" on
a
then he would
(i.e.,
travel.
consensus
be
the
and
"allowed
a
felt
that
Third
Harbor
resolving
the
few potential
policies) such as some type of
limo subsidy.
Weinberg
views ground
access
as EOTC's problem.
Since the
degree of momentum at the agency is so strongly influenced by
who
is
governor
governor
not
and
has appointed
surprising
that
who
'controls'
the
Board
(i.e.,
which
the majority of Board members
Massport's
initiatives
on
),
the
it
is
issue
during the King administration were limited by his agenda for
the
Third
Harbor
question
Crossing.
whether
authority to
subsidies
is
it's
Furthermore,
Massport's
promote
limos -
role,
some
or
if
Massport
only
staff
EOTC has
especially when the
issue of
involved.
Support by other public agencies
is another necessary
political consideration which an agency such as Massport must
not overlook.
cerns
of
support
For example,
agencies
the
East
any
initiatives that
Boston community
promoting Logan's growth.
If
sensitive
might
could
be
to the conbe
reluctant
to
interpreted as
Massport aggressively
advocated
a limo policy, many constituencies, including other agencies,
would be affected.
the
DPW might
using
DPW
instances,
Some public responses may be negative -
receive complaints
lots
for
a forceful
airport
from communities opposed
fringe
parking.
In
to
other
limo policy might coincide with the
53
aims of
an
agency
such as the City
sophy" of the City,
an
operational
existing
according
approach
before
to
of Boston.
Phil
Caruso,
supporting
the
The "philo-
is
essentially
use
there are any construction
of
efforts."
policy seems to be the type of policy the city
der.
"what
A limo
would consi-
Also, a limo policy might possibly be agreeable to
residents
of
East
Boston
(another
concern
residents begin to view limos as
tion
relief
Despite
usage,
and
the need
the
political
as option
of
for a Third Harbor
risks
mitment
of
that with careful
involved
Massport and
opinion to challenge
a real
political
Crossing.
in
promoting
The
cab
dilemma
must
not likely
carefully
there
benefits but
Thus, pur-
figures willing to commit
themselves with few pay-offs at the outset.
Over
several
outside of
CBD,
constituencies
East Boston,
cabs
in
the taxi
and
a
less
business
legislators,
and
to apply
favorable media
industry might begin
powerful
in
etc.) began
conjunction with
limos,
in
(e.g.,
is
addressed.
emerge for several years.
suing a limo policy needs political
public
in usage of limo
These efforts might also generate some political
they will
I
the com-
by the cabs,
increase
be
limo
considered.
planning,
the position taken
if
in conges-
EOTC, and mobilization of
possibility of substantial
services.
the City)
to aid
I think a strategy should be actively
am convinced
on
is
to find
time,
if
the
pressure
attention to
itself
isolated
position.
Since 1972, the percentage of private cars used to access
Logan has decreased
from
82.4
54
to 67.7
percent.
Although the
largest mode
increase was
in taxis,
use modes other than private
most
people
limo
policy
Shifts
do
in
not
to
be
think
of
viable,
public opinion
car
increased willingness to
should be noted.
taking
a
these
can
limo
to
Logan.
attitudes
stem
Still,
must
For
a
change.
from many sources:
a
united political front on the issue, persuasive technical
information, vigorous public relations and marketing, financial
incentives,
depth.
etc.
Finally,
a
These
limo
policy
by those
willing
to
attempt
at
approach.
this
take on
would have
requires
the
to be
energy
task of
This would
explored
and commitment
organizing
require
a serious
financial
backing, a willingness within public agencies to
active development of the policies,
The use of one-way
tolls,
to improve the traffic
Tunnels,
over
ten
is
political,"
liano,
Since
according
it
is
to
will
"90
percent
Boston
not surprising that
improve access was not so
sis
simple method
the Sumner and Callahan
an idea which has been discussed
years.
simple
of
Traffic
this
to
the
in
Boston for
arguments
Commissioner
"logical
implement.
Vitag-
2 6
This analy-
look at the technical studies of one-way tolls
Then,
the history and political
are
approach" to
Boston followed by an explanation of some of
features.
support
and sheer brain power.
an operationally
capacity in
in
in
its traffic
issues will
be
presented which will clarify why this policy has been implemented.
55
The
one-way
Tunnels and
the
toll
tolls
the
in
instituted
Tobin Bridge
the
inbound
the Central
Artery
for
and ease the traffic
technical
Sumner
into
to
Boston
designed to relieve
to Logan in
for
a
pay double
and nothing
in
the evening
the Callahan
one-way
Callahan
congestion on
northbound motorists
justifications
and
require motorists
direction
The policy is
outbound.
the
in
toll
Tunnel.
policy
The
include
favorable data from recent studies and many attractive operational
Lisco
features.
The
(CTPS, 1980),
1983) have all
technical
Day
studies
performed
(Massport, 1982),
concluded that one-way tolls
and
by Tom
Chia
(MIT,
would aid traffic
flow.
Lisco's
study
especially
Lisco
useful.
answered
effects.
When
question -
wrong
Lisco's
data
Chia's
subtleties
of toll
booths
and the
series
but
removed,
itself
in
are
the
to
capacity -
not
that
way.
He
speed
the
"right"
then, as Day's
they suggest a potential capacity increase
Day
concluded
analysis
in
of
that
the p.m.
one-way
booth and tunnel
tunnel
continue
have
to
200-300
service
fluctuate.
becomes
the
point of
56
the
The toll
times that
constraint.
27
examines
interaction.
Once
additional
peak hours.
tolls
and people don't slow down at that
clearly
are
right
applied
tunnel
vehicles could use the facility
David
tolls
would have negligible
that of potential
percent.
one-way
question
one-way tolls
study points out,
7-14
that
Robert Weinberg maintains, however,
the
determined that
of
concludes
the
point,
work
in a
booths
are
the tunnel
The
tunnel
will
remain congested;
better
but
greater.
28
the
for any given
number
able
to
individual
pass
There are also several operational
tolls
including
earlier.
The cost is
requirements
nature
of
although
tain
one-way
of
through
be
advantages to one-way
lead time is
mentioned
short,
disruption
makes
should
characteristics
and overall
tolls
is
the
low,
minimal
Boston
construction
is
a-demonstration
low.
period
The
easy
the only city
to ever have a demonstra-
Perhaps this
suggests that
policy makers were uncer-
of the outcome.
There is
tion.
on
many
may not be
it
from
bridges
Gate
other
practical
cities. California
with one-way tolls
Bridge.
The
New
since
York-New
experience to draw
has operated
1969,
about nine
including
Jersey
Port
the Golden
Authority has
operated nine bridges and the Lincoln and Holland Tunnels
with one-way
these
tolls
since
1979.
cases have been deemed
successful
capacity of the facility and
In
U.S.
have
the years.
facilities
are their
many
increased
report,
several
The owners of the
the MTA operates the tunnels
while Massport operates the Tobin Bridge.
because
of
which originated
Department of Transportation
been involved over
involved
all
improved traffic flow.
facilities are key players;
is
in
because of
the Boston debate over one-way tolls,
from a 1971
parties
One-way systems
of
responsibility.
the
The City of Boston
roads
It
is
to
and
helpful
from
the
to have
the support of the Traffic Commissioner of Boston, who is
member of Massport's
Board.
57
The approval
of the
Mayor
a
is
also
useful.
the East
Other
concerned groups
Boston community,
and the
include the
local
tolltakers,
banks.
Both Massport and the MTA floated bonds to build their
respective
facilities
and,
hence,
are
repaying a fixed sum to the bondholders.
are paid off,
ties
facility).
the
the banks
agencies
could
should
hinder
Until the facili-
the
revenue gathering
their payments, technically,
to make
intervene.
Many of the tolltakers
acquiesence
for
the banks have a claim on the asset (the
If anything
ability of
responsible
have their
jobs
at
stake.
Their
is necessary for the smooth implementation of the
policy.
Finally,
the Governor plays a role in
he makes appointments
the willingness
often stems
to the Massport
of EOTC to back
directly
from the
and
The coordination of these actors is
first,
MTA Boards;
selected
Governor's
two ways:
second,
policy initiatives
stance
on
the
issue.
no simple task.
As
the history of the issue shows, there is no "natural" leader,
or
constitutional
home
for
this
policy
other
than
Despite some debate about the idea prior to the Lisco
there was little
the central
favored
that
agencies
one-way tolls
in
involved
the discussions.
while the MTA opposed
in
traffic
58
in
revenues
The MTA postulated
that a one-way toll system with double fares would
reduction in
Massport
the idea arguing
diversion of toll
the agency $600,000 annually.
a 7.3 percent
study,
progress when only Massport and the MTA were
the change would result
costing
EOTC.
result in
the Sumner Tunnel.
29
To avoid the tunnel
one of the three
some drivers
free
would
-
bridges
via
enter
Malden,
the city
over
Wellington,
or
Route 93.
Another
reason
the MTA was opposed
to the toll
though not explicitly stated by MTA staff,
MTA's
support of the Third Harbor Crossing.
policy,
relates
to the
The MTA, former
Governor King and other strong proponents of the Third Harbor
Crossing
dered
believed
in
the
Crossing.
little
one-way
context
of
the case
should
analysis
access
in
the
tolls
of
relief generated
for a Third
Despite
as
short-term.
MTA was "foot-dragging"
traffic
tolls
only be
consi-
Third
Harbor
the
Thus as long as King was Governor, there would be
progress on one-way
improve
the
that
an
Vitagliano
because,
like
by one-way tolls
Harbor Crossing.
the opposition
independent
option
to
suggests that
King,
they saw the
as detracting
from
3 0
of the MTA,
the studies
produced
But any hopes for the policy vanished when
some interest.
King gained "control" through appointments to the Massport
Board in 1982 and delayed further discussion.
Dukakis was
reelected
regained control
forefront
late
that
year and,
of the Board did the
again.
Secretary
Salvucci
Only after
by a quirk,
issue appear
then
in the
initiated
and
became the driving force behind the adoption of the plan.
Two
other
circumstances aided
tolls' success. Ken Pierson,
Massport,
took
an
early
the
chances
of one-way
Operator of the Tobin Bridge for
retirement.
Pierson
had
been
adamantly against one-way tolls, although Massport staff
59
could only speculate on the reasons why.
cluded:
cut;
(1)
(2)
that
that
it
he considered
cause cars would speed;
committed
himself
issue -
was a "turf"
to
one-way
or,
(3)
it.
Their ideas in-
his staff
tolls
to
would be
be unsafe
be-
that he just took a stand and
The
second
development
is
the
approaching conclusion of the MTA Director John Driscoll's
Since Secretary Salvucci,
present term this July.
power behind one-way tolls, has a
lot of
Governor's
transportation-related
appointments,
illogical
that
Driscoll
felt
influence
some pressure
it
a major
in
the
is
not
to agree
to
a
plan.
Before the MTA would concur,
The consultants
experimental
for
reliable
report,
saving
of diversion
the effects
to assess
it
estimated
insisted
on its
but suggested
period would be the only way to provide
forecasting.
Also,
according
the revenue losses would be paritally
of
$400,000-$500,000
so
1977 data the firm used,
continuously
emerged.
viewed
The
union,
altered
an
a basis
to a Boston Globe
offset by labor
3 1
Citing "uncertain-
one of the consultants
admitted to David Chia that the parameters of the
were
that
that the net cost would "pro-
bably be $100,000 to $200,000 a year.
ties" in the
on MTA revenues.
of cars
$600,000,
own study
until
an
1983 study
appropriate
number
"There was no methodology," observed Chia who re-
the report.
toll
affiliated
32
collectors
remain
with the
sters, has sued Massport.
opposed
International
to
the policy.
Their
Brotherhood of Team-
An injunction to delay the three-
60
month demonstration was denied, but
that
the suit
half
completed.
was filed
3 3
it
when removal
Massport's
of the toll
Executive
said that none of the 70 tolltakers
the
is interesting to note
Director,
would
innovation became permanent.
3 4
booths was
Dave
lose their
jobs if
It seems the toll collec-
tors are not satisfied with reemployment elsewhere
Additionally,
agency.
to accept
some
of
those
less appealing shifts.
Finally,
residents
in
the
Davis
not
switching
in the
have
had
35
East
Boston
and
Chelsea
areas
are worried about traffic problems associated with the new
policy.
Increased
congestion
traffic using
local
There
concern
sive
be
is
also
speeds
required
Aldermen in
streets
may
result
the outbound
to
slow down at
Chelsea adopted
diverted
to avoid the high inbound
that cars will
in
from
direction
the
be traveling
because
toll
at exces-
they will
booths.
a resolution
toll.
urging
not
The Board of
Massport and
the MTA not to go ahead because of these issues
(and their
concern with the lay-off of Chelsea residents employed at the
36
facilities).
the experiment;
There has not been any further action against
it commenced on May 2nd.
Clearly most of the debate
surounding one-way tolls has
had to do less with whether it will help the traffic problem
than with
the
political
concerns
There are some positive political
appeal
to
agencies.
The
of each of
characteristics that might
number of agencies
any blame to be diffused among them.
stration
format
offers
an excellent
61
the parties.
involved allows
Furthermore, the demonopportunity
for agencies
to "save face"
way tolls
there
is
if
needed.
that
it
is
Another appealing
not disruptive
is no massive construction or
aspect
of one-
to people's habits;
forced behavioral change.
People can still drive their cars just as before May 2nd.
Finally,
public officials
like to be seen as taking action on
issues to show that government
one-way tolls
vity
is
about it
of
One
according
the
is
system."
political
useful
that
represents some acti-
its
proponents have no
difficulties
deNeufville,
that
"there
is
of
one-way
MIT professor
just
too much
tolls
and airport
inertia
in
the
These projects require a lot of time for what seems
a rather uneventful
agree.
while
might argue
solving the problem.
to Richard
specialist,
like
significant because it
to improve the situation
illusions
One
"cares."
It
is
easy,
ideas but it
result.
Weinberg would probably
Weinberg
says,
is making
to
think
it happen
and
develop
that takes
time.
"There are no aggressive proponents in the bureaucracy, so it
sits,"
he commented.
prised
that
one-way tolls
thought one-way tolls
more
significant
Salvucci's
staff
solution.
took so long.
would not help,
solution
the political
but some viewed it
one-way
and
Chia
did
A
tolls
top member of
a "band-aid"
not
MIT research assoview
the
before Chia's contribution.
drive
is
62
in
as a
the blood coming and keep
observes Tom Humphrey,
DeNeufville
No one I spoke with
than others.
at EOTC calls
information as adequate
once
people said they weren't sur-
"But a band-aid can halt
away infection,"
ciate.
Several
place
to implement
technical
However,
a policy,
studies assume a less important role.
Given the arguments for a one-way tolls
surprising
that I think the policy
is
policy,
it
long overdue.
is
not
The
issue to consider then is how such projects can be achieved
quicker and with minimum political
was the common response.
viewed one-way tolls
hassle.
"Not in Boston"
Perhaps if the MTA and Massport
as an opening for more cooperation on
ground access issues they might together anticipate issues in
the future and address them more efficiently.
Informal dis-
cussion among the Boards and/or staff could begin soon on a
variety of Logan-related
one-way tolls
issues.
The role of EOTC in making
a reality was critical.
Its importance in
future policy initiatives cannot be overstated.
EOTC can
serve a critical function to inspire and enable other state
agencies to see that they have a shared stake in some issues.
EOTC can also
provide
the necessary
support
to agencies
unwilling to pursue more politically controversial
projects
that might have impressive long-run results despite short
term
risks.
One-way tolls can be seen as the foot in the door for
operational
responses.
the noticeable
Perhaps its smooth implementation and
improvement in
traffic
flow will serve to
stimulate agencies to consider more operational
actually have momentum to see them happen.
responses and
Active interest
inside public agencies from the staff and leadership combined
with the recognition of the merits of a project to relieve
traffic congestion is a solid beginning.
63
Chapter 3
Footnotes:
1.
Jeff
McMann,
natives,"
2.
"Logan
Airport
Interview with Brian Day,
Feb.
Ground
Transportation
17,
Traffic
Consultant
to Massport:
1983.
3.
Jeff MacMann, p.
4.
Internal Massport Memorandum.
5.
Massport Master Plan Study Team, "Logan Airport
Plan Study" (Massport:
Sept. 1975),
p. V-81.
6.
Padnos and Selig, "Transportation Controls
The Plan that
Failed" (Boston:
1976).
7.
Coverdale and Colpitts,
Study," (New York: 1972)
8.
Ibid.,
9.
Massport Master Plan Study Team
10.
Boston Transportation Planning Review, p.
11.
Boston Transportation Planning Review, p. 48.
4.
"Report
Exhibit
on
L,
Master
in Boston:
Logan Airport
Sheet 1 of 5.
Travel
Exhibit L, Sheet 2 of 5.
12. Massport Master Plan Study Team
13. Ibid.,
Alter-
p. 5.
pp.
Ibid., pp. V-23.
15.
Ibid.,
16.
Massachusetts
national
pp. V-17.
V-23.
Port
Airport"
17. "The Logan
p. 2.
(1975),
54.
V-29.
14.
pp.
(1975), pp. V-17, 18.
Airport
Authority,
(Boston:
"Master
April
Dilemma,"
Plan
1976),
Taxi Digest,
p.
Logan
Inter-
49.
June
1982,
18. National Highway Research Program Synthesis of Highway
Practice, John J. Roark, "Experiences in Transportation
System Management"
(Washington,
D.C.:
Research Board, Nov. 1981), p. 12.
19.
Internal Massport Memorandum.
64
Transportation
20.
Interview with and
information
from Mary Ellen
Planning Department, Massport:
Sullivan,
March 14, 1983.
21.
Ibid.
22.
Ibid.
23.
Discussion with Cathy Scanell, Ground
May 6, 1983.
Department, Massport:
Transportation
24.
Discussion with
April 28, 1983.
MIT
25.
Internal Massport Memorandum.
26. Commissioner
Cambridge:
27.
Brian Day,
Richard
Vitagliano,
April
28,
DeNeufville,
Transportation
Professor:
Research
"Reports on the Effects and Feasibility
One-Way Toll
Collection
Forum,
1983.
Policy at
of a
the Mystic-Tobin
Bridge
28. Interview with David Chia, graduate student, MIT:
11, 1983.
April
and the Sumner-Callahan Tunnels."
29.
Fred
Pillsbury,
Revenues,
Study
"One-Way
Says,"
Tolls
Would
Boston Globe,
Reduce
Feb.
8,
Traffic,
1983.
30.
John A. Vitagliano, "Speed Tunnel Traffic with One-Way
Toll," Boston Globe, June 27, 1982.
31.
Fred Pillsbury,
32.
Interview with David Chia.
33.
Interview
with Judith
Bernstein,
Manager, One-Way Tolls Experiment:
34.
"Round-Trip Tolls Urged to
Boston Globe, May 18, 1982.
35.
Interview with Judith Bernstein.
Boston Globe,
Feb.
36. "Aldermen Opposed to One-Way
Record, Sept. 23, 1983.
65
8,
1983.
Massport Project
April 21, 1983.
Speed
Bridge
Evening
Tolls,"
Traffic,"
Chelsea
Conclusion
to
Improving ground access
technical
problem
for
time frame as well
under
creased
the Boston
this
solutions.
limo
an ongoing
Given
of the
paper
is
the extended
physical
examines
two
solutions
short-term
The cases of one-way tolls
usage
must be addressed
Region.
as the expense
consideration,
operational
Logan Airport
suggest that
political
before operational
and in-
factors
approaches
exist
that
be
imple-
can
mented.
The
previous
postures of
outcome of
chapters
state
and
have
local
these operational
a one-way tolls
governmental
policy
issues.
several political
in
shown
agencies
how
have
responses.
the
political
influenced
the
Failure to implement
the past has been due
to
inter-
After years of discussion, however,
factors that were critical
to the implemen-
tation of the policy are now in place.
First,
the one-way
responsibility
so that
the success
however,
when
a
tolls
no single
or failure
that
policy allows
of the outcome.
the chance of backlash
policy
is
as
as this one is.
way tolls
the second
little
construction
behavior
is,
for
the most
66
for
considerably
both
physically
for
its
success.
construction-related
associated with implementation.
travel
accountable
of
less
and
The minimal disruption of one-
reason
and
diffusion
It should be noted,
is
non-disruptive,
behaviorally,
is
agency is
for
In
part,
addition,
left
There is
disruption
the public's
intact.
One-way
tolls provides
agencies
with the opportunity
to be
seen as
Policies are more
taking
action on the congestion
issue.
likely
to be pursued by agencies when policies
can be con-
strued by the public as demonstrating a genuine interest
solving
the problem.
Like one-way
tolls,
increased
tionally
viable
factors
have,
cessful
implementation.
drivers
has
to
in
the
approach to relieve
to date,
been
needs
groups are
limo
cab drivers,
well
is
an opera-
but political
barriers
to its
suc-
The vocal dissatisfaction of cab
difficulty.
of constituents,
Politicians respond
particularly when
organized and,
strike to attract
Political
congestion,
presented-major
one major
vocal,
usage
as in
interest
the case of the
attention to their case.
difficulty often
arises when
an
agency
is
directly linked to the negative ramifications of a policy
decision.
linked
strike.
In
to
this
the
case,
Massport
disturbance
has
generated
been
by
the
consistently
cab
drivers
The unfavorable public reaction the agency received
provides little
unattractive
incentive for it
aspect of a limo policy is
of actions needed
some adequate
be increased,
to act.
to
A third politically
the disruptive nature
supplement such a policy.
To ensure
level of success, parking rates would have to
most probably causing negative public
reaction.
What then can be concluded about future solutions to the
ground access
problem?
methods,
as one-way tolls
political
such
pressures.
As has been suggested,
Neither
67
and limo usage,
policy quite
fits
operational
are subject to
the mandate
Operational
support.
but may
have vocal
agency nor does either
of an existing
few
yield
solutions
impose significant costs when
constituency
visible
benefits
they disrupt
patterns of travel. Although physical
projects
existing
also have
costs and create controversy, their benefits are clear:
public
can visually
see
the project
produces jobs, contracts and
the
emerging and construction
immediate congestion relief.
One might conclude, therefore, that unless an organized vocal
constituency exists to support operational
political
rewards for such solutions are minimal.
The
two cases
examined
in
political process inhibits the
responses.
this paper suggest
The aim of political
officials
to keep contro-
is
in the limo issue where it seems there
little activity and no coherent strategy since the
has been
first
or as an objec-
Lack of movement
that works against the process.
evident, for example,
that the
implementation of operational
versy at a minimum can be viewed as desirable
tive
solutions, the
in
three day cab strike
1977.
Some might argue that
this reveals the weakness of the political process cannot recover from such a disruptive event.
however,
that
so
confront an issue,
away from politically
long
as
there
the actors in
is
no
missed opportunities to deal
with
argue,
I would
pressure
direct
the political
to
process shy
This results
risky issues.
that it
in
many
issues efficiently and
effectively.
The
do
parameters of political
change.
What
may be
viewed
68
feasibility, though, can and
today
by
the
public
as
a
disruptive
and
unacceptable
response,
may
in
the
future
represent a more tolerable imposition compared to the current
inconvenience
of traveling
to
Logan
haps only when agencies perceive
problem
is
groups will
In
solving
they be prepared
the course of waiting
political
environment,
however,
reach the crisis level.
vate and build
now.
that
the
Per-
congestion
also an effective way to satisfy a large number of
constituent
risks.
during peak hours.
to take political
for such changes in the
traffic congestion could
To avoid this,
initiatives
support for operational
solutions
to cultishould
begin
The cases display the difficulty of developing support
for operational
tions.
To
assist
port could,
policies
in
across
several
this process EOTC,
political
the
institu-
MTA and/or Mass-
for example, create a reasonably high
level
position such as Director of Traffic Management to be respon-
sible
for addressing both the technical
of selected operational
and political
responses.
One must of course consider
how such
a position
become a useful mechanism to promote operational
given that the poltical
in
future
initially
tions,
It
would be helpful,
in conjunction with other
involved
in
on
generating
interest
for example,
become
Joint input would aid
Such a Director could
focusing on broad objectives
conflict.
initiatives,
agencies were to
developing this position.
communication.
could
process does not appear to encourage
"public entrepreneurship."
if EOTC
needs
inside
political
that coincide
concentrate
institurather than
That is, to build a consensus on the less contro-
69
versial
aspects of
serve
to
operational
facilitate
agency
solutions.
The
involvement
position must
with
operational
issues, and to minimize political risk, on issues such as the
limo
policy
that
have been controversial
Development of the position
several
highly
port
inside
work
to
Momentum
political
create
to
next ten years
any
respected
larger
public
in
requires
the commitment of
top transportation
institutions
people.
develops,
interest
develop responses
in
to
solution.
If
As sup-
agencies
operational
traffic
must begin now regardless
physical
the past.
can
measures.
congestion
for
the
of the adoption of
political
issues now
hindering the adoption of viable operational measures can
begin to be addressed through some formal mechanism, such as
a Director of Traffic Management, then the political
lity
of
greatly
these solutions
to the ground access
increased.
70
feasibi-
problem would be
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Judith Bernstein
Alice Boelter
Joe Brevard
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Joyce Hall
Ann Hershfang
Tom Lisco
Cathy Buckley
Phil Caruso
N. Chapman
David Chia
Larry Coleman
Brian Day
Richard DeNeufville
Carolyn DiMambro
Richard Marchi
Steve Martin
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Jim Purdy
Cathy Scannell
Peter Scheinfield
Mary Ellen Sullivan
Catherine Donaher
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Residents
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76
Lincoln,
Mansfield,
East
Appendix
77
I
Appendix II
Level of Service A: Traffic is free flowing without
Vnysical restrictions on speed or maneuverability.
Level of Service'B: Traffic moves in a stable flow with
slight delays. Tne driver is reasonably free to choose
lane and speed.
k-4
7-7
Level of Service C: Traffic volume controls speed and
cnoice of lane. to a Oegree. but satisfactory movement
isstill maintained Moderate delays are experienced.
Level of Service D: Traffic volume affects the maintenance of soeed and choice of lane, causing congested,
unstable flow.
~N.
'a
Level of Service E: Traffic moves in an unstable flow
with low speeds, increased congestion, and delays.
Traffic volumes are at or near capacity.
Level of Service F: Forced flow conditions (stop and
go). Traff ic moves at very low speeds, if at all, resulting
in significant congestion.
Pictorial Representation of Level of Service
Source TheTransooianon Research Boa- Washinion. D C
78