Learning Theories Goal How do we learn behaviors through classical conditioning? Learning is… • Relatively permanent • Change in behavior • Due to experience Behaviorism Psychology should focus on observable behavior Associative Learning Classical Conditioning: associate two stimuli together to anticipate events Operant Conditioning: associate a behavior with a good or bad result Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment • Founded classical conditioning • Measured salivation of dogs to food – Dogs began to salivate to the sight of the researchers, not just the food… Pavlov’s Experiment • • • • UR UC CR CS Classical Conditioning • Acquisition = pairing of CS and US, learning of the association • Extinction = CS no longer paired with UCS, CR stops • Extinction Classical Conditioning Strength of CR Acquisition (CS+UCS) Spontaneous Recovery = sudden Spontaneous recovery of reappearance of CR CR after extinction Extinction (CS alone) Extinction (CS alone) Pause John B. Watson & “Little Albert” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow8&feature=related • Generalization = • Discrimination Taste Aversion UC UR CS CR Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning Conditioning is stronger if… • CS consistently predicts UCS • CS/UCS are paired frequently (more trials) • UCS is intense (causes strong response) • CS is presented immediately before UCS • We better learn associations when… – It is useful for survival • Biological predispositions, adaptive – It does not involve cognitive processing • i.e. alcohol & nauseating drug CS UCS Learned Response Loud Noise Shock Fear Loud Noise Radiation (nausea) Nothing Sweet Water Shock Nothing Sweet Water Radiation (nausea) Avoid Water Garcia & Koelling’s study on biological predispositions to classical conditioning Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning Biological • Genetic predispositions • Unconditioned responses • Adaptive responses Psychological • Previous experiences • Predictability of associations • Generalization • Discrimination LEARNING Social-Cultural • Culturally learned preferences • Motivation, affected by presence of others Learning Theories Goal How do we acquire behaviors through operant conditioning? Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect • Cats placed in “puzzle boxes” • Use trial-and-error to “escape” • Continue behaviors w/good result • Discontinue behaviors w/bad result B.F. Skinner “Skinner Boxes” Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement – Make a behavior more likely to be performed again • Punishment – Make a behavior less likely to be performed again Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement • Increases response by presenting positive stimulus Negative Reinforcement • Increases response by removing negative stimulus Punishment Positive Punishment Negative Punishment • Decrease behavior by presenting bad stimulus • Decrease behavior by removing good stimulus (omission training) Punishment is not as effective as Reinforcement because it… • Suppresses behavior (not forgotten) • Teaches discrimination • Teaches fear • May increase aggressiveness Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer • Unlearned Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer • Learned through association Immediate v. Delayed Reinforcers Continuous v. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Shaping • Reinforce each step (successive approximation) toward desired behavior Schedules of Partial Reinforcement • Fixed-ratio – reinforcement after a set or fixed number of behaviors occur • Variable-ratio – reinforcement after different numbers of behaviors # Behaviors Fixed-ratio Variable-ratio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement • Fixed-interval – reinforcement after a set or fixed amount of time • Variable-interval – reinforcement after different amounts of time Time (hrs.) Fixedinterval Variableinterval 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Extending Operant Conditioning Cognitive Influences • Cognitive map – mental representation of environment • Latent Learning – learning not known until there is motivation to demonstrate it Biology & Operant Conditioning • Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive – Pigeons naturally peck • Easy to teach pigeons to peck to receive food – Pigeons naturally flap wings • Teach pigeons to flap wings to avoid shock – However, difficult to teach pigeon to flap wings to get food, or peck to avoid shock Applications of Operant Conditioning • • • • • School – token economy Sports Work – schedules of reinforcement Home Self-improvement - Biofeedback Operant vs Classical Conditioning Observational Learning • “social learning” • We observe & imitate others’ behavior • Modeling: demonstrating behavior to be learned Mirror Neurons • Frontal lobe • Fire when performing certain actions OR when seeing someone else perform those actions • Role in emotions, empathy (theory of mind) • http://video.pbs.org/video/1615173073/ Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” Study • http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publica tions/observer/obsonline/bandura-and-bobo.html Vicarious Conditioning • Part observational learning • We learn by observing others’ reactions to stimulus or others’ outcomes – Learn to be afraid of shots at the doctor after watching your sister cry after getting a shot – Seeing a friend get a sticker for an A on his homework (you learn to do your homework) Prosocial Effects • • • • Role models Model reading, helpful behaviors, nonviolence Consistency is key – BUT…. “Do as I say, not as I do” = children imitate the hypocrisy! Antisocial Effects • Aggression violence-viewing effect? • Desensitization to violence • Promiscuity? Drug use?