Field Research
Neuman and Robson Ch. 12 and 13
Introduction to qualitative
methodology
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Data in words rather than numbers
Non-positivistic orientation
Includes:
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Field research
Qualitative interviewing
Historical comparative analysis
Three General Approaches to
Research
APPROACH
POSITIVISM CRITICAL INTERPRETIVE
USUAL TYPE
OF RESEARCH
experiment,
survey,
cont. anal.
historicalcomparative
field research,
interview
PERSPECTIVE
technocratic
transcendent
transcendent
TYPE OF LOGIC
reconstructed logic-in-practice
logic-in-practice
PATH
linear
non-linear
/cyclical
non-linear
/cyclical
Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
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Context is critical
In depth, detailed
Researcher immerses self in data (nonobjective)
Researcher integrity
Bias recognized
Use of grounded theory
Can detect process and sequence
Data are interpreted rather than analyzed
Elite Studies
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Special type of field research
Elites difficult to study, especially with
quantitative methods
Preferred method is field study
But special problems
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Gatekeepers
Need for connections/contacts
Danger of manipulation
Difficulty of establishing trust
Field research
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Main types of Field Research are:
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Ethnography
Ethnomethodology
Phenomenological Study
Purposes of field research:
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Data collection
Theory construction
Ethnography
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A way of building an understanding the
culture and behaviours of a group as a whole.
Done in a setting or field site where a group
of people share a common culture.
In sociology, ethnography usually called a
field study
Uses:
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Participant Observation
Interviews with Informants
Examination of documents and cultural artifacts
Ethnography Video
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Getting People to Talk: An
Ethnography & Interviewing Primer
(Copyright © 2008 Gabriel Biller & Kristy Scovel)
Ethnomethodology
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The study of commonsense knowledge
How do individuals make sense of social
situations and act on their knowledge?
What are the tacit rules used by members of
a culture?
Detailed studies of interactions
Breeching experiments (Garfinkel)
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To uncover hidden norms
Phenomenological Study
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Understanding an experience from a
research participant's point of view
Interview several participants as to their
perceptions of an experience
Try to build a picture of the experience
through using a combination of theories,
literature in the area, illustrated by anecdotes,
to build a detailed portrait of the experience
Use of Max Weber’s “verstehen”
Topics For Field Research
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Topics that defy simple quantification.
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Topics where attitudes and behaviours are best
understood within their natural setting.
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Social processes that take place over time.
The study of meanings, practices, episodes,
encounters, roles, relationships, groups,
organizations, and settlements.
Sampling in field research
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Types of nonprobability sampling methods
commonly used:
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Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Deviant cases
Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling
Main Methods Used in Field
Research:
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Field research includes:
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Case study approach
Participant observation and nonparticipant observation
Intensive interviewing
The Case Study Approach
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To try to develop an understanding of a social
process by studying one case or a small
number of cases in depth
Can be done using a combination of intensive
interviewing and observation
Snapshot case studies
Longitudinal case studies
Pre-post case studies
Patchwork case studies
Comparative case studies.
Observation in Field Research
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Preparing for the field:
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1. Background preparation and literature review
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2. Talking to informants
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3. Gaining entry into the group
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Gatekeepers
Public vs. private settings
The Various Roles of the Observer
(Raymond Gold’s levels)
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A.
Complete participant
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B.
Participant-as-observer
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C.
Observer-as-participant
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D.
Complete observer
Recording observations
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Field journal
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To record empirical data
To record interpretations
Guidelines for note taking
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Don't trust your memory
Take notes in stages
Record everything
Organizing and Writing Notes
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Rewrite your notes as soon as possible after making
observations
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type or enter into a word-processing program
Creating files helps organize field notes for analysis.
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a. Chronological file as a master file.
b. Background files (from literature review, and
documentation of topic's history.)
c. Biographical files on key subjects in the study.
d. Bibliographical files of all references related to study.
e. Analytical files to categorize what you are observing.
f. Cross-reference files may be useful to retrieve data.
Using computers in field
research
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some software programs are now available for
field research notes and analysis of data
Can save time, especially when analyzing data
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See free demos of NVivo and XSight at:
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http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_freetrial-software.aspx
Data analysis in field work
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Data analysis in field work is an ongoing
process
Constant interaction between data collection
and data analysis.
Look for:
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Similarities, norms, and universals
Dissimilarities, differences, and deviations from
norms
Selective perception can be a problem as you
learn more about the topic
Asking Questions: The Field
Research Interview
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Types of qualitative interviews:
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Structured
Semistructured
Depth
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Field research most often uses unstructured
interviews
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The use of probes is important in field
research
Conducting interviews
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Try to be interactive and sensitive to the language
and concepts used by the interviewee
Try to keep the agenda flexible
Aim to go below the surface of the topic being
discussed
Explore what people say in detail
Check you have understood respondents' meanings
Try to discover the interviewee's own framework of
meanings
Avoid imposing own structures and assumptions
Need to consider how perceived by interviewees and
the effects of characteristics such as class, race, sex,
and social distance on the interview
Repertoire Techniques
Matching and mirroring
 Indicates rapport
 Uncomfortable silence
 Create a long silent pause after a question
 Echoing
 “that happened to me too, “ or “I know what
you mean”
 Letting people talk
 Avoid unintentional interruptions
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Types of questions for
qualitative interviews
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Behaviour or experience
Opinion or belief
Feelings
Knowledge
Sensory
Background or demographic
Questions to avoid:
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Affectively worded ones: avoid inducing negative
emotional response. Make questions as neutral as
possible.
Avoid asking “why?” directly.
Double-barrelled questions: only 1 issue, topic per
question.
Overly complex questions. Try to speak at same
level, be clear, know the cultural background of the
person to ensure you don’t offend
Do some prior study of the group, be culturally
sensitive and respectful of traditions and culture
Recording interviews
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Notes written at the time
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Notes written afterwards
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Audio or videotaping
Researcher as research instrument
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Qualitative interviews require considerable
skill on the part of the interviewer.
The interviewer needs to notice how
directive he or she is being
Whether leading questions are being asked
whether cues are picked up or ignored
Whether interviewees are given enough time
to explain what they mean
Maintaining control of the
interview
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Know what it is you want to find out
Ask the right questions to get the information
you need
Give appropriate verbal and non-verbal
feedback
Good feedback vs. bad feedback
Avoiding bias
Whyte’s Directiveness Scale
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1. Making encouraging noises
2. Reflecting on remarks made by the informant
3. Probing on the last remark by the informant
4. Probing an idea preceding the last remark by the
informant
5. Probing an idea expressed earlier in the interview
6. Introducing a new topic
(1=least directive, 6=most directive)
Focus Group
 Group
interview or discussion
 Facilitated
by a skilled moderator
 Manageable
 Good
size
for triangulation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
The Moderator’s Role
 Uses
moderator’s guide
 Draws out information
 Monitors informal group discussion
 Encourages free speaking
 Uses “aware listening”
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
The Moderator’s Guide
 Systematic
and procedural guide
 Introduction
and introductory activities
 Basic rules or guidelines
 Question-and-answer
 Special activities or exercises
 Sensitive issues
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Bracketing Your Biases
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First, make a list of your characteristics:
1. your gender;
2. your age;
3. your ethnic or national identification;
4. your religion or philosophy of life;
5. your political party or orientation;
6. your favourite psychological theory.
Add four more characteristics: words or
phrases that are descriptive of you as an
individual.
Bracketing (cont.)
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1. List ways in which your characteristics
might bias you in your efforts at research
interviewing.
2. Then write how you might counteract
these biases.
3. And then write how these efforts to
counteract your biases might themselves
lead to other biases!
Advantages of field research
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Can study nonverbal behaviour
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93% of communication non-verbal
Words 7%, voice quality 38%, mannerisms 55%
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Flexibility
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Natural environment
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Longitudinal analysis
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Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages of field research
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Not applicable to the investigation of large
social settings
Making generalizations can be problematic
Biases, attitudes, and assumptions of the
researcher can be problem
Selective perception and memory
Selectivity in data collection
Presence of the researcher may change the
system or group being studied
Virtually impossible to replicate the findings
Validity and Reliability
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Validity very high
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Reliability low
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Can document complexity of human behaviour
Detailed descriptions
Subjective
Difficult to replicate
Low external validity (generalizability)