Office Of The State Fire Marshal
OF
Illinois
Rescue Specialist Certification Program
1998
1
COURSE OVERVIEW
 Scope
 Knowledge
Base To Identify Collapse
Conditions
 Knowledge
 Provide
To Determine Type Of Structure
Tasks For First In Companies
 Establish ICS / IMS
 Assess Incident Magnitude
 Identify Potential Hazards
 Surface Rescue Of Accessible Victims
2
COURSE OVERVIEW (CONTINUED)
Requirements
 Firefighter
 Course
 End
II
Completion
Of Course Exam
 State
Written Exam
Review
Objectives In Manual
3
STRUCTURAL
COLLAPSE AWARENESS
Causes
 Dangers
 Rescues

4
CAUSES

Tornadoes

Wind Storms

Floods

Vehicle Accidents

Construction Accidents

Fires
5
ASSOCIATED DANGERS








Secondary Collapse
Gas & Electrical Hazards
Fire
Explosions
HazMat Spills
Uncontrolled Animal Life
High Number Of Initial Injuries
Uncontrollable Crowds
6
RESCUES ARE RARE



Minimal Number Of Incidents
Dangerous Due To Lack of Experience

Limited Funding For Training & Equipment

Hazards Are Hidden

False Sense Of Security
May Require Numerous Unusual
Resources
7
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Strategies Of Initial Size-Up
 Principle of Collapse Awareness
 Initial Spontaneous Response
 Planned Community Response
 Void Space Rescue
 Technical Urban Search & Rescue

8
STRATEGIES OF INITIAL
SIZE-UP

Assess Affected Area

Scope & Magnitude Of Incident

Number Of Structures Involved

Size Of Structures Involved

Integrity Of Affected Structures

Stability Of Affected Structures
9
STRATEGIES OF INITIAL
SIZE-UP (CONTINUED)

Evaluate Each Area
 Occupancy Types
 Number
Of Known / Potential Victims
 Availability
Of Access To The Scene
 Environmental
Factors That Affect The
Incident
 Available
/ Necessary Resources Needed
10
PRINCIPLES OF
STRUCTURAL COLLAPSE
AWARENESS
To Save Trapped Victims From
Around Collapsed Structures, While
Minimizing The Risk To Them And To
Rescue Personnel
11
PRINCIPLES OF INITIAL
SPONTANEOUS RESPONSE

Types Of Responders

Remove Surface Victims

Remove Lightly Trapped Victims
 Accounts
For 80% Of Total Rescues
12
PRINCIPLES OF INITIAL
RESPONSE (CONTINUED)

Survival Rate Relatively High

Skilled Responders

Can Participate

Better Organize The Response
13
PRINCIPLES OF A PLANNED
COMMUNITY RESPONSE

Community Response (Awareness Level)
 First
In Fire Companies
 Police

Rescue Non-Structurally Trapped




/ Local Emergency Management / PW
Call-out / Hail System
Visual Search
Light Lifting Of Contents
Light Hazard Mitigation
14
VOID SPACE RESCUE

Technical Rescue Teams

Trained Personnel

Risk / Benefit Decision

Accessing Voids Thru Existing Openings

Cut Small Openings - Walls / Floors

Shoring
 Provides Safety for Rescuers / Victims
15
TECHNICAL US&R


Technically Trained Rescue Forces

Specialized Equipment To Perform Operation

Immobilized For A Ten-Day Long Effort
Selected Sites





Re-evaluated
Re-searched
Prioritized
Extensive Cutting and Shoring
Cranes May Be Used
16
DESTRUCTIVE FORCES

Earthquakes

Wind

Floods

Snow

Heavy Rain
17
DESTRUCTIVE FORCES
(CONTINUED)
Construction
Problems
Explosions
Structural
Decay
Fire
Transportation Accidents
18
EARTHQUAKES
Cause Shaking
 Greatest Effect


Weak / Heavy Structures
Structures Dynamically Coupled
With Their Sites

Model
Building Codes
19
WIND

Hurricanes And Tornadoes Cause Damage

Wind Velocity

Airborne Missiles

Tidal Surges

Differences In Atmospheric Pressure

Light Non-engineered Buildings And
Structures
 Penetration
 Leading To High Uplift Blowout Forces
20
FLOODS

Riverine Flooding

Flash type
 Rapid water rise
 High velocity
 May Produce A Wall Of Water Effect

Other Type
 Slow Unconfined Flow
 Over A Low Lying Broad Area
21
FLOODS

(CONTINUED)
Coastal Flooding
 Caused
 May
By Severe Storms
Be Combined With High Tides
 Step
Up Surges Of Hurricanes Combined
With Their High Winds Produce
Combined Forces From Wind And
Flooding
22
FLOODS

(CONTINUED)
Flooding Damage

Hydrostatic Lateral Pressure / Lifting

Hydrodynamic Forces Due To
 Velocity
 Wave Height

Debris Impact From Waterborne Objects
23
SNOW AND HEAVY RAIN
 Roof
Collapse Due To Overload
 Occurs In
 Long

Span Construction
With Relatively Flat Roofs
 Roof
beams / Trusses Fail = Partial Collapse
 Snow Buildup Can Cause More Complete
Collapse Due To Failure Of Vertical
Supporting Elements
24
CONSTRUCTION
PROBLEMS



Lack Of Temporary Lateral Bracing
Inadequate Vertical Shoring
Failures can occur

During Concrete Pours

While Placing Large Roof Beams And Trusses

While Lifting Large Concrete Slabs

Other Overloads
 Stockpiling Of Materials
 Non Engineered Alterations
25
EXPLOSIONS

Gas buildups

Natural gas

Propane

Anhydrous ammonia

Smoke explosions
Bombs
 Dusts W/ Less Than 5’ Visibility

26
EXPLOSIONS (CONTINUED)

Effect

Lightweight Wood and Steel Components
 Weakest Part Blown Out to Reduce the Pressure
 Entire Roof or Wall May Be Blown Out
 Reinforced
Concrete Structure Contains Blast
 Greater Loss of Life
 Floor Collapse If Columns and Walls Are Damaged
 Precast
Structure Very Vulnerable
 Large Concrete Parts May Become Disconnected
Or Blown Out Leading to Progressive Collapse
27
STRUCTURAL DECAY

Collapse of older buildings and bridges
 Vertical
Members Fail Leading To Multi-Floor
Collapse
 Unreinforced
Masonry Walls Can Be Left Full
Height

Walls Could Fall
 In On Floor Debris Pile
 Out Into The Street
 Into Adjacent Buildings
 Very Dangerous
28
FIRE
 Wood



or Metal Roofs / Floors
Often Collapse Due To Burn Through
Can Pull Exterior Masonry / Concrete Wall In
Leave Them In An Unbraced Condition
 Steel
Structures Have Less Strength Due To
The Loss of Original Heat Treatment
 Remaining Concrete Structures Can Be
Damaged Due To Spalling
 Concrete Shear Walls Can Be Cracked Due
To The Expansion Of Floors
29
TRANSPORTATION
ACCIDENTS
Vehicular And
Other Transportation
Accidents Have Caused Collapse
 Due
To Impact
 Spillage
Of Large Quantities Of
Materials
30
INITIAL INFORMATION
GATHERING
 Critical
To The Transition Of The Technical
Rescue Teams (TRT) In To The Incident
 Trts Shall Verify All Information Obtained
From the First Responders
 The
Physical and Emotional Issues First
Responders Have Encountered
 Physically and Emotionally Draining Work
 Not Believing Any Others Have Survived
 Emotions of the Relatives and Friend of the Missing
 Rescuers Tend to Experience Closure of the Incident
Prematurely
31
INITIAL INFORMATION
GATHERING (CONTINUED)
 Gather
Information Swiftly And
Unemotionally as Possible

Test Current Assumptions

Record Structural Information

Verify Information With Your Own Assessment
32
IDENTIFICATION OF
BUILDINGS
 A Standardized
System Shall Be Used To
Locate A Building On Any Block


Use Existing Numbers
Fill In Numbers Unknown Due To Damage
 If All Are Unknown
– Keep All Numbers Small
– Odds One Side
– Evens The Other
33
STANDARD SYSTEM FOR
BUILDING LAYOUT

Sectors A, B, C And D
 Start
at street and go clockwise
 If more than 4 sides use more letters

Multiple Stories Are Designated
 Utilize
Existing Building Designations
 Sector 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

Basements Are Designated
 Utilize
Existing Building Designations
 B1, B2, B3, etc.
34
QUADRANTS WITHIN THE
BUILDING
Quadrant 1
 Quadrant 2
 Quadrant 3
 Quadrant 4

35
BUILDING TRIAGE
 Disasters
That Have Many Seriously
Damaged or Collapsed Buildings Require a
Method to Prioritize Them
 Method Must Identify and Quantify Criteria
That Will Have a Higher Probability of a
Successful Rescue
 Method Should Also Be Simple Enough So
That All Levels of Rescuer Can Effectively
Perform It
 Happens Immediately After the Disaster
36
BUILDING TRIAGE (CONTINUED)
 Recon/Evaluation Teams
Prioritize All
Affected Structures To Aid In Response
Planning
 Local Emergency Responder May Triage To
Evaluate The Overall Impact And Evaluate
Their Own Priorities
 USAR Teams May Triage To Prioritize
Multiple Buildings In Their Assigned Areas
Or Even triage To Prioritize Sections Of A
Large Structure
37
BUILDING ASSESSMENT

Time Of Day

Occupancy

Structural Type

Building Age
 Collapse
Mechanism

Prior Intelligence

Search And Rescue Resources Available

Structural Condition Of Building
38
STRUCTURAL CONDITION
OF BUILDING


Is Stabilization Needed?

None

Minor

Extensive
Danger of Additional Collapse

Low Probability

High Probability
39
STRUCTURAL CONDITION
OF BUILDING (CONTINUED)
“NO
GO” Conditions
Structures
HazMat
on Fire
Spills
Any
Other Conditions That Make
Search & Rescue Too Risky
40
BUILDING MARKING
Developed
To Inform The Emergency
Responders Of The Hazards
Based On 2 Ft. By 2 Ft. Square Using
Orange Spray Paint

Placement
 Adjacent to the Most Accessible Point of
Entry
 After the Structural/Hazards Evaluation Has
Been Completed
41
DETAILED STRUCTURAL
EVALUATION
Only After
Priority List Of
Structures Is Established
Utilize
Check-off Sheets
42
RESCUE TEAMS DEALING
WITH RED TAG STRUCTURES

Greatest Concern


Partially collapsed buildings
Term “Safe”

Different from safe for occupancy

All structures are deemed damaged

Safe for rescue team is a value judgment
43
RED TAG STRUCTURES
(CONTINUED)
 Specialists
to Work in Pairs to Evaluate
Structures

Rescue Specialist

Hazmat Specialist

Second Opinions Are Critical
 Place


Evaluation Marking on Building
Near Each Entry
UHR-4B (Page 91)
44
SEARCH & RESCUE
ASSESSMENT MARKING

Functions
Search
In Progress
Search
Completed w/ Outcome
45
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS AND
VERTICAL LOAD SYSTEM
There Are Three Major Fundamentals of
Structural Design. These Fundamentals
Follow the Laws of Gravity, With Each
Resisting It in a Certain Manner. These
Fundamental Concepts Are:
 Horizontal Members
 Vertical Members
 Combination Trusses
46
HORIZONTAL MEMBERS
Span
From Vertical Support To Vertical
Support
Must
Have Strong Tensile Attributes
Have
Little Or No Compressive Values
47
HORIZONTAL MEMBERS
(CONTINUED)
 Materials;
Steel, Concrete And Wood
 Steel
 Suited For Horizontal Design
 High Tensile Values
 Concrete
 Compressive In Nature
 Requires Addition of Steel Reinforcing
 Wood
 Limited Compressive Values
 Limited Tensile Qualities
48
VERTICAL MEMBERS

Provide Support For Horizontal Or
Spanning Members

Need Strong Compressive Attributes
With Little Or No Tensile Values
49
VERTICAL MEMBERS(CONTINUED)
 Materials;

Steel, Concrete And Wood
Steel
 Tensile in nature
 Low compressive value
 Concrete
 Suited for vertical design
 Requires addition of steel reinforcing
 Wood
 Limited compressive values
 Limited tensile qualities
50
COMBINATION TRUSSES
Structural Members Utilize Both
Properties Of Structural Design,
Vertical & Horizontal Members, To
Maintain Integrity
51
uCOMBINATION
TRUSSES
(CONTINUED)
 Components
Function In Both Tension And
Compression In Normal Spans
 Top
chord is typically compressive in nature,
attempting to push or hold components apart
 Bottom
chord is typically tensile in nature,
attempting to downward forces due to loading
 Intermediate
components function in both
tension and compression. Working to resist
forces of top and bottom chord pulling together
52
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
There Are Four Fundamental Materials Utilized
for Building Construction. Each Specific
Material Has Its Own Limitations and Benefits
When Associated With Specific Building Size,
Height and Structural Integrity. These Materials
Include;
 Wood
 Steel
 Concrete
 Masonry
- Reinforced & Unreinforced
53
WOOD

Tough, Fibrous, Natural Material

Strength Contingent on Species

Inherent Defects Cause Stress
Concentrations. I.E.... Knots, Splits and
Uneven Grain

Wood Strength Is Classified As Bending
Stress (Fb), Contingent on Species
54
WOOD (CONTINUED)

Since Wood Is Natural Fibrous, It Provides
Additional Structural Benefits, Such As;
 Nailed
and Bolted Connections Adequately
Secure Members
 Wood
Sheathing of Structures Provides Good
Earthquake Resistant Design, Contingent on
Adequate Nailing
55
STEEL
 Tough,
Light, Ductile and Man Made.
 Steel Must Be Fire Proofed to Ensure
Structural Integrity
 Steel Is Often Considered the Ideal Building
Material
 Steel
Can Be Slightly Damaged or Bent and
Still Maintain Structural Integrity
 Warning
of Structural Collapse Is Evidenced by
Sagging Members
56
STEEL (CONTINUED)
Structural
Steel Can Be Efficiently
Connected by Bolting, Welding or
Riveting (Riveting Is Typical to Older
Structures)
Steel
Framing Must Be Braced to
Prevent Weakening or Buckling
57
CONCRETE

Strong Compressive Abilities With Minimal
Tensile Strength.

Steel Reinforcing Is Typically Added to Provide
Additional Strength.
Longitudinal Steel: Tension Members In Concrete
Beams
Stirrups: Shear Resistance In Beams At Support
Horizontal Ties: Confine Steel In Place
58
CONCRETE (CONTINUED)
 Concrete
Can Be Strengthened As Follows;
 Pretensioned:
Cables Are Pre-Stressed Prior to
Placement of the Concrete and Cast Directly in
Poured Concrete.
 Post-Tensioned:
Cables Are Placed in
Continuous Sleeve Prior to Placement of
Concrete. Once the Concrete Has Cured, the
Cables Are Tensioned With the Use of a
Mechanical Device. Thus Inducing Stress in
the System
59
CONCRETE

(CONTINUED)
Cracking

Cosmetic = Shrinkage Cracks

Structural = Differential Cracks
60
MASONRY (REINFORCED
AND UNREINFORCED)

Components Of Construction

Clay Brick

Hollow Concrete Blocks

Mortar
61
MASONRY (REINFORCED AND
UNREINFORCED)

Properties

Reinforced Masonry (RM)
 Steel Is Typically Added to Add Tensile Strength

Unreinforced Masonry
 Does Not Utilize Internal Steel Reinforcing
 It Is Not Compatible With Seismic Regions

Integrity Of Wall
 Contingent on Workmanship
 Specifically - Mortar Joints and Reinforcing Placement
62
MASONRY (REINFORCED AND
UNREINFORCED)

Construction Of Masonry Wall
 Three
or More Bricks End to End, for Five or
Six Courses Vertically
 Then
a Brick Is Placed at 90 Degrees (Header
Course) To Tie Inside To Exterior

Strength Of Mortar Bond

Contingent on Mortar Design
 High Lime Content Provides Low Strength but
Better Workability
 Low Lime Content Yields Higher Strength With
Less Workability
63
BUILDING TYPES
Based On The Inherent Strengths And
Weaknesses Of Specific Building
Materials And Construction Methods,
Each Specific Building Has Its Own
Design Methodology And Integrity
Concern.
64
CATEGORIES

Wood Frame Buildings (W)

Diagonally Braced Steel Frame Buildings (S2)

Light Gauge Metal Buildings (S3)

Concrete Frame Buildings (C1), (C3)

Concrete Shearwall Buildings (C2)

Precast Concrete Frame Buildings (PC2)

Post Tensioned Lift Slabs

Tilt Up Concrete Wall Panel Buildings (TU)

Masonry Buildings (URM / RM)
65
WOOD FRAME (W)
Typically
One To Four Stories In
Height
Classifications
By Method
 Platform
 Balloon
66
WOOD FRAME (W) (CONTINUED)
Principle
Weakness Maybe In The
Lateral Strength Of Walls

Racked Openings

Brittle First Story Failures

Shifting Off Foundation

Damage To The Masonry

Fire
67
DIAGONALLY BRACED
STEEL FRAME (S2)

One To Twenty Stories In Height

Typically Non-Structural Exterior
Covering

Diagonal Members Providing
Structural Stability
68
DIAGONALLY BRACED
STEEL FRAME (S2) (CONTINUED)

Principal Weaknesses

Story Drift
 Shedding
 Brittle, Finish Materials
 Whipping

Buckling (Compression)
69
LIGHT GAUGE METAL
BUILDINGS (S3)

One Story Pre-Engineered Buildings

Sheathed With Metal Siding and Roofing.

Principal Weaknesses



Loss of Sheathing = Loss of Structural
Integrity
Whipping Action
“Weakest Link” Theory
70
CONCRETE FRAME
BUILDINGS (C1) AND (C3)
 Older
Structural Frames Are From One To
Thirteen Stories in Height
 Hazardous
 Soft
Configurations
First Stories (High, Open Framing)
 Open
Front Structures (Typical Retail
Structures of One and Two Stories)
 Corner
"L" Shaped Structures Due to Torsion
71
CONCRETE FRAME
BUILDINGS (C1) AND (C3)
(CONTINUED)

Principal Weaknesses
Columns
Break at Intersection With
Floor Beams
Severe
Structural Cracking
Weak
Concrete and Poor
Construction
72
CONCRETE SHEARWALL
BUILDINGS (C2)
One to Thirteen Stories In Height
 With Structural Walls on All Four Sides
 "Punched Openings" for Doors and
Windows.
 Principal Weaknesses


X- Cracking of Wall Sections Between
Punched Openings.

Severe Cracking or Collapse of Columns May
Occur in “Soft Stories”
73
PRECAST CONCRETE
FRAME (PC2)



One to Ten Stories In Height
Precast Wall Panels May Be Made for
Taller Applications
Typical Weaknesses

Joint Failures
 Wall

Panel Separation
Progressive Collapse (Domino Effect)
74
POST-TENSIONED LIFT
SLABS
 Typically Three
to Thirteen Stories in
Height
 They Are Laterally Braced With Cast in
Place Concrete Walls
 Slab Construction

Typically 6" to 8" in Thickness

Poured As a Pancake And Lifted Into Position
75
POST-TENSIONED LIFT
SLABS (CONTINUED)

Principal Weaknesses
Changing
Effects of Reinforcing
Members During a Building
Collapse
Structures
Become an Unreinforced
System Due to the Above Condition
76
TILT UP CONCRETE WALL
BUILDINGS (TU)


Usually One to Three Stories in Height
Components

Poured Concrete Wall Panels
 Wood
Framing For
 Roof Structures
 Floors


Concrete Floors
Steel Framing With 1 1/2” Concrete Filled
Deck Floors
77
TILT UP CONCRETE WALL
BUILDINGS (TU) (CONTINUED)

Principal Weaknesses

Wall Separation

Suspended Panels Fall Off

Short Weak Columns
Most
Failures Are Limited to
Exterior Walls
78
UNREINFORCED MASONRY
BUILDINGS (URM)



Usually From One to Six Stories in Height
Components

Unreinforced Walls

Wood Floors.
Principal Weaknesses

Inadequate Anchors for Parapets

Weak Mortar Cause Split Walls

Non-Load Bearing Walls Tend to Fail Earlier.

Lack of Interior Supports
79
ADVERSE STRUCTURAL
LOADING

Earthquake

Wind

Explosion

Fire

Flood

Bracing, Urban Decay And Overland
80
EARTHQUAKE

Lateral loads

Gravity weight

Vertical loads
81
WIND
Damage

Elevation and Terrain Effects Velocity
Partial Loss of Exterior Sheathing /
Cladding


Peeling off of Masonry

Destructive Missiles
82
WIND (CONTINUED)
 Collapse

Up Lift Pressures
 Roof
or Wall Collapse Due to Loss of Lateral
Support

Tall Unsupported Walls Are Unstable

Buckling or Bending of Light Metal Building

“Closed” to “Open” Type Building
83
EXPLOSION

Conversion of Energy

Shock Waves

Terrorism
84
FIRE

Burn Through Material

Distorted Steel

Spalling Concrete
85
FLOOD


Pressure

Hydrostatic Lateral

Hydrostatic Lifting Pressure
Damage

Partly or Completely Move Buildings From
Foundation

Broken or Tilted Foundation Walls

Undermined Foundations

Impacted Objects
86
BRACING, URBAN DECAY
AND OVERLOAD

Gravity Loading

Inadequate Materials
87
GENERAL COLLAPSE
PATTERNS


Lean To

Failure of a Single Bearing Wall

Requires Stability of a Second Bearing Wall
V-Shape

Interior Support Fails

Requires Stability of Two Exterior Walls

More Common in Urban Decay / Overloaded
Column Failure
88
GENERAL COLLAPSE
PATTERNS (CONTINUED)
 A-Shape



Exterior Supports Fail
Requires Stability of Interior Column /
Wall
Pancake

All Vertical Supporting Members Fail

Floors Collapse on Top of Each Other
89
GENERAL COLLAPSE
PATTERNS (CONTINUED)


Cantilever

Pancake With Extended Floors

Most Dangerous Type of Collapse
Overturn

Failed Shearwall

Foundation Failure
90
SURVIVABILITY PYRAMID

Spontaneous Rescue

Community Response

Emergency Service Providers

USAR Task Forces
91
BASIC SEARCH AND
RESCUE PLANNING

Stage I
 Recon
 Immediate
 Scene

Rescue of Surface Victims
Organization & Management
Stage II
 Exploration
& Rescue From Likely Survival
Places
 Locating
Victims Using the Hailing System
 Breaching
& Shoring
92
SEARCH AND RESCUE
PLANNING (CONTINUED)


Stage III

Selected Debris Removal

Handling & Removing a Victim
Stage IV

General Debris Removal

No Live Victims - Body Recovery
93
SEARCH AND RESCUE
PLANNING (CONTINUED)

Stage V

Post Incident Debriefing

Critique

CISD
94
HAZARD CONTROL

General

Hazard Reduction By Type

Victim Access By Type

Rescue Operations Checklist
95
GENERAL
 Avoid

Shore

Remove

Recognize
96
HAZARD REDUCTION BY
TYPE
Light
Frame Buildings
Heavy
Wall - URM
Heavy
Wall - TU & Low Rise
Reinforced Masonry
Heavy
Floor Buildings
Precast
Buildings
97
VICTIM ACCESS BY TYPE
Light
Frame Buildings
Heavy
Wall - URM
Heavy
Wall - TU & Low Rise
Reinforced Masonry
Heavy
Floor Buildings
Precast
Buildings
98
INCIDENT
DOCUMENTATION

Size Up Information
 Structure
Type
 Occupancy
 Hazards
 Basic
Safety Checklist
99
COURSE REVIEW
100