Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States: Working Toward a Sustainable
Energy Future
Elizabeth Overmoe
Energy Law
SPRING 2009
INTRODUCTION
In the words of President Barack Obama, “Each day brings further evidence that the
ways we use energy strengthen our adversaries and threaten our planet. To those nations like
ours that enjoy relative plenty, we say we can no longer afford indifference to suffering outside
our borders; nor can we consume the world’s resources without regard to effect. For the world
has changed, and we must change with it.” 1 In addition to the problems addressed by most
developing countries, small island developing states face additional hurdles on the path to
sustainable development; such as fragile natural environments, little resilience to natural
disasters, rising populations, a narrow resource base that does not allow for economies of scale,
high costs for energy, infrastructure, transportation, communication, and servicing, as well as
many others issues.2 However, it was with this recognition that the leaders of the world began to
move forward with policy that gave special attention to these small islands. The road has been
long for many as the discussion of the need for sustainable development came to the forefront of
international debate and the small islands of the world joined forces in their efforts to give a
voice to what was once the “voiceless” on international policy making.
Through their cooperation with one another, these isolated States were able to become
an encouraging example of how vulnerable parties with aligned interests can represent
themselves with a force that outweighs the sum of its parts. The synergy of the small island
States gave to each of them more representation, resulting in the gain of concessions to provide
for financial aid and resources to help their communities move forward toward a better way of
life for every citizen. Although these islands have had, and will continue to have, an uphill battle
1
President Barack Obama, Inauguration Speech, (January 20, 2009), available at
http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/01/20/obama.politics/. Last visited March 20, 2009.
Anita M. Halvorssen. The UN General Assembly’s Special Session on Small Island developing states—
Sustainable Development in a nutshell. Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy. 1999
Colo. J. Int’l Envtl. L. & Pol’y 113, 117 (2000).
2
with regard to becoming developed nations; it is through renewable energy resources that many
are finding the path to making that possible. This article will focus on the history of the concept
of sustainable development as well as the history of small island developing states (SIDS),
followed by the inhibitions of small island states to move toward the status of a developed nation
and what can be done through renewable energy to make the dream of being a successful nation
a reality.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A PLAN
Sustainable development has been defined as “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”3 This
term was coined during the 1983 Brundtland Commission, also known as the World Commission
on Environment and Development; in a report entitled Our Common Future and it left many
scholars and leaders questioning how to implement policy reflecting the ideals of this new
concept.4 It is with this concept that the world continues to struggle with the idea of living
“green” but maintaining their economic and social ways of life. As the history of humankind has
challenged the very idea that a nation can achieve high economic status while also maintaining a
high regard for protecting the environment the leaders of the world decided for the first time in
its history to convene an international conference on the environment. This conference was
entitled the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, and is now commonly
recognized as the Stockholm Conference.5 Delegates from 113 States attended the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment; both from developing and developed
3
World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, 1, U.N. Doc A/43/427 (August 4,
1987), available at http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm#I. Last visited 4/12/2009.
4
David A. Ring. Sustainability Dynamics: Land-based marine pollution and development priorities in the island
states of the Commonwealth Caribbean. Columbia Journal of Environmental Law. 22 Colum. J. Envtl. L. 65, 66
(1997).
5
Problems of the Human Environment, G.A. Res. 2398, U.N. GAOR, 23d Sess., Supp. No. 18, U.N. Doc. A/7218
(Dec. 3, 1968) (deciding to convene The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (“UNCHE”)).
countries.6 Delegates from the developing world were mainly interested in the relationship
between environmental protection and development as they stressed that development as well as
poverty eradication were the priorities for their countries.7
Developing countries also brought with them an attitude of preservation as they stressed
the importance of not repeating the same mistakes conducted by the developed countries to reach
an economic advantage. They wished to promote development which integrally incorporated
environmental considerations and used resources more effectively.8 Developed countries wanted
to adopt strong measures aimed at seriously addressing environmental degradation and
understood that the ruthless pursuit of gross national product, without consideration for other
factors, produced conditions of life that were an affront to the dignity of all people. The
requirements of clean air, water, shelter and health were undeniable needs and rights of all
persons.9 As the conference concluded in 1972, the international community rose to the
challenge and adopted a set of bold and comprehensive measures to address environmental
6
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Report of the UN Conference on the Human
Environment, (hereinafter referred to as Report of UNCHE), available at http://www.unep.org/Documents.
(Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil,
Burundi, Cameroon, Canada, Central African Republic, Ceylon, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Congo, Costa Rica,
Cyprus, Dahomey, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Federal Republic of
Germany, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Holy See, Honduras,
Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libyan Arab Republic, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia,
Malta, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Morocco, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger,
Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Republic of Vietnam, Romania,
San Marino, Senegal, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sudan, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Syrian Arab
Republic, Thailand, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Republic of Tanzania, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela,
Yemen, Yugoslavia, Zaire Zambia.)
7
Report of UNCHE, Brief Summary of the General Debate, Principle 44. (The priority of developing countries was
development. Until the gap between the poor and the rich countries was substantially narrowed, little if any progress
could be made in improving the human environment. Many speakers from developing countries agreed, however,
that environmental considerations would have to be incorporated into national development strategies in order to
avoid the mistakes made by developed countries in their development, to utilize human and natural resources more
efficiently, and to enhance the quality of life of their peoples.), available at
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=97&ArticleID=1497&l=en.
8
9
Id.
Id. at Principle 48.
decline.10 The participants were able to come to a consensus on the first universally adopted
environmental agenda. The States also established the United Nations Environment Program
(“UNEP”), which is based in Nairobi, Kenya. This Program is composed of fifty-eight
international leaders and scholars for the purpose of being “the voice for the environment within
the United Nations system. UNEP acts as a catalyst, advocate, educator and facilitator to
promote the wise use and sustainable development of the global environment.”11
A session of the UNEP Governing Council to commemorate the ten year anniversary of
the Stockholm Conference was held at UNEP’s headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. The
conclusions reached at this Conference led UNEP to establish a special commission entitled the
World Commission on Environment and Development (“WCED”).12 The WCED, also known as
the Brundtland Commission, in recognition of their chair, Prime Minister of Norway Gro Harlem
Brundtland, were asked to formulate a Global Agenda for Change on the environment.13 In their
report, the General Assembly of the World Commission on Environment and Development,
“concerned about the accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources
and the consequences of that deterioration for economic and social development,”14 emphasized
the need for a new approach to economic growth, as an essential prerequisite for eradication of
10
Kofi A. Annan, The Secretary General, Report of the Secretary-General on the Millennium Summit, We the
Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century PP 259-60, U.N. Doc. A/54/2000, available at
http://www.un.org/millennium/sg/report/full.htm.
11
About UNEP, available at
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=43&ArticleID=3301&l=en. (“UNEP work
encompasses: assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends; developing international
and national environmental instruments; strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment;
facilitating the transfer of knowledge and technology for sustainable development; encouraging new partnerships
and mind-sets within civil society and the private sector.”)
12
Our Common Future, supra note 3, available at http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/aeo-1/017.htm
Id. (The WCED’s Environmental Perspectives were to: examine issues in their relationship to the challenges of
social and economic development; set out goals for environmentally sound and sustainable development; and call
upon governments, international organizations, industry, financial institutions and NGOs to take specific actions to
achieve those goals.) .
13
14
Report on the World Commission of Environment and Development. 1. U.N. Doc A/42/187 (December 11,
1987), available at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm. Last visited 4/12/2009.
poverty and for enhancing the resource base on which present and future generations depend.
This vision has led to a variety of changes within our international policy-making and has
demanded from our leaders the need to see peripherally, think globally, and remain to act locally.
Over ten years later, the world convened to evaluate and observe the implementation of
environmental policy as well as to examine the probability of elaborating general rights and
obligations of States, as appropriate, in the field of the environment.15 This gathering of world
leaders was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and was termed the Rio Conference, and is also
commonly known as the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development.16 At
Rio, the leaders of 178 countries were able to create twenty-seven non-legally binding principles
concerning sustainability in conjunction with a wide array of documents, future conventions, and
commissions.17 There were also three major agreements adopted at Rio: The Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, The Statement of Forest Principles, and Agenda 21.
All of the documents from the Rio Conference carried a special significance in the
advancement of social progression and environmental protection, but one such document stood
above the rest as being the most comprehensive plan of action or blueprint for sustainable
development to date, and it represents a broad and detailed commitment by nations around the
world to take actions to further development; this document is more commonly recognized as
Agenda 21.18 Agenda 21 is divided into four sections: Social and Economic Dimensions,
Conservation and Management of Resources for Development, Strengthening the Role of Major
15
G.A. Res. 288, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., 85th plen. Mtg,. at Section I, P. 1.15(d), U.N. Doc. A/RES/44/228 (1989).
16
Id.
17
Martin S. High, Sustainable Development: How Far Does U.S. Industry Have To Go To Meet World Guidelines?,
Albany Law Journal of Science and Technology 2003, 14 Alb. L.J. Sci. & Tech. 131
18
John C. Dernbach, Sustainable Development as a Framework for National Governance, 49 Case W. Res. L. Rev.
1, 22 (1998).
Groups, and Means of Implementation.19 Each section is dedicated to a wide array of subject
matter as the leaders at Rio looked to establish a comprehensive environmental plan. It is within
this comprehensive plan that the world began to look at the affect the current economic way of
life was having on one very vulnerable group of nations; the small island developing States of
the world. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 is devoted to the protection of the oceans through the
objective of committing themselves to addressing the problems of sustainable development of
small island States. By adopting and implementing “plans and programs to support the
sustainable development and utilization of their marine and coastal resources, including meeting
essential human needs, maintaining biodiversity and improving the quality of life for island
people.”20
SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES: THE ISSUE
Chapter 17.128 of Agenda 21 cites the distinctive obstacles to the “[s]ustainable
development of” —limits resources, geographical dispersion, market isolation, ecological
fragility, extensive biodiversity, and political marginalization—and pledges assistance to “enable
these states to address environmental change, mitigate impacts, and reduce threats posed to
marine and coastal resources.”21 These States are more easily characterized through their
19
Report of United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Brief Summary of the General Debate,
Principle 44. (The priority of developing countries was development. Many speakers from developing countries
agreed, however, that environmental considerations would have to be incorporated into national development
strategies in order to avoid the mistakes made by developed countries in their development, to utilize human and
natural resources more efficiently, and to enhance the quality of life of their peoples.), available at
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=97. Last visited 4/12/09.
20
UNEP. Agenda 21. Protection of the Oceans, All Kind of Seas, Including Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed Seas, and
Coastal Areas and the Protections, Rational Use and Development of Their Living Resources. Ch. 17. G.
Sustainable development of small islands. Available at http://islands.unep.ch/da21c17g.htm.
21
Biliana Cicin-Sain & Robert W. Knect, Implications of the Earth Summit for Ocean and Coastal Governance, 24
Ocean Dev. & Int’l L. 323, 346 (1993).
common name: Small Island Developing States, also known as SIDS.22 SIDS are small-island
and low-lying coastal countries that share similar sustainable development challenges.23
This class of approximately 52 nations represents only five percent of the world’s
population, a minute portion of the world’s gross domestic product, and is the most vulnerable
class of states throughout the world.24 These island nations are found throughout the world,
although almost ninety percent of them are located in the wider Caribbean and South Pacific
regions.25 The land-to-sea ratios for the SIDS are largely skewed as well as population density.
Their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), which is the sea zone over which a particular state has
specific rights over exploration and marine resources, are often larger than their land area.
Nauru’s EEZ, for example, is nearly 15,000 times the size of its land area, whereas Samoa’s is
eight. Many SIDS – the Maldives, for example – have solely or mostly low-lying land areas;
others, such as Haiti, have a varied terrain, including mountainous areas.26 For example, an
estimated 50 million people live in Small Island Developing States, based on population data for
22
SIDS are divided into three regional sub-groups: Caribbean, Southeast, Africa, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and
South China Sea (AIMS). A list of both UN and non-UN member SIDS: Antigua and Barbuda, Mauritius,
Bahamas, Nauru, Barbados, Palau, Belize, Papua New Guinea, Cape Verde, Samoa, Comoros, São Tomé and
Principe, Cuba, Singapore, Dominica, St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominican Republic, St. Lucia, Fiji, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines, Grenada, Seychelles, Guinea-Bissau, Solomon Islands, Guyana, Suriname, Haiti, Timor-Lesté, Jamaica,
Tonga, Kiribati, Trinidad and Tobago, Maldives, Tuvalu, Marshall Islands, Vanuatu, Federated States of
Micronesia, American Samoa, Guam, Anguilla, Montserrat, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, British Virgin Islands,
New Calendonia, Commonwealth of Northern Marianas, Niue, Cook Islands, Puerto Rico, French Polynesia, U.S.
Virgin Islands. UN Office of the High Representative for the least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing
Countries, and Small Island Developing States. Available at http://huwu.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm.
23
http://www.sidsnet.org/2.html
24
Daniel Brindis. Sustainable Development Law & Policy. WHAT NEXT FOR THE ALLIANCE OF SMALL
ISLAND STATES IN THE CLIMATE CHANGE ARENA?, Winter 2007.
25
UNFCCC. Climate Change: Small Island Developing States, January 2005, available at
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/cc_sids.pdf
26
Id.
various years covering the period 1990–2002.27 The average SIDS is fairly densely populated,
yet the differences between countries in this respect are large.28
The economies and social structure of the majority of what are now considered SIDS
were developed during a time when they were considered under colonial rule.29 When the
majority of these countries became independent nations they inherited economic structures that
were based primarily on providing commodities to their former ruling nations.30 Independence
did not bring about any major changes in the nature of the economy or trading relationship. The
trading relationship continued as before and was considered beneficial to both the former ruling
country and the newly independent state. This relationship remained the same until the creation
of the World Trading Organization (WTO) in 1994. Under the WTO rules for trade, there would
no longer be continuation of favored markets for the merchandise from these former colonies
beyond a contractual period of time.31 After that period these former small colonies had to
compete with other countries producing the same materials.
Prior to being involved in the WTO, these newly independent SIDS were already
struggling in the national economy - a major cause was the drastic shock for their small
economies brought about by the increase in petroleum prices in the 1970s.32 This impact of the
escalation in petroleum prices for SIDS can be best reflected in the change in the terms of trade.
27
Id.
28
See Ring, supra, note 3, at 114.
29
Peter Prows, Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy. A MOUSE CAN ROAR: SMALL
ISLAND STATES, THE UNITED NATIONS, AND THE END OF FREE-FOR-ALL FISHING ON THE HIGH
SEAS. Winter 2008.
30
Id at 9.
31
World trade Organization. REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS: RULES. Available at
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/regrul_e.htm
32
Dr. Al Binger. Potential and Future Prospects for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) In Small Island
Developing States (SIDS). Available at
http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:tnwsSpwYVXMJ:www.sidsnet.org/docshare/energy/20040428105917_OTEC
_UN.pdf+Dr.+Al+Binger,+otec&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us. Last visited 4/16/09.
For example, in the 1970s through the 1980s, a ton of sugar was worth more than a hundred
barrels of petroleum and by the mid-1980s, the ratio had declined from greater than 100 to 1 to
about 20 to 1.33
SIDS are increasingly recognized as deserving of special consideration both in
international law generally and in international environmental law in particular. During the 1990
Second World Climate Conference, SIDS had established the Alliance of Small Island States
(AOSIS) to give them more clout on the international forefront.34 Special recognition has grown
since 1992, as UNCED identified SIDS as a very special case of environment and development
based on the degree of difficulties.35 Also, in December 1992, the United Nations General
Assembly (UNGA), at its 47th Session, adopted Resolution 47/189, giving international
designation to SIDS as a special case for environment and development.36 In May 1994, the
designation was followed up by the convening of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States and the formulation of the Barbados Program of
Action (BPOA).37 The BPOA set out the necessary actions that SIDS were to follow as well as
the basis for international assistance in helping SIDS to pursue sustainable development. The
BPOA was subsequently adopted by the UNGA in late 1994.38 The Program of Action for the
Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States focused global attention on the
33
Id.
34
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), Background. Available at http://www.sidsnet.org/2.html. Last visited
4/16/2009.
35
Alexander Gillespie. Small island states in the face of climatic change: the end of the line in international
environmental responsibility. UCLA Journal of Environmental law of Policy, 22 UCLA J. Envtl. L. & Pol’y 107,
107 (2004).
36
See Halvorssen, supra note 2 at 117.
37
Id.
38
International Institute for Sustainable Development. PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE
INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON THE TEN- YEAR REVIEW OF THE PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SIDS: Vol. 8 No. 38 April 2004. Available at
http://www.iisd.ca/vol08/enb0838e.html.
special circumstances of sustainable development in those States and recommended a series of
national, regional and international policy measures to address their concerns.39 These cover a
wide range of issues in the areas of environment, tourism, transport, science and technology, and
human resource development.40
These documents all reflect the same consideration: that most SIDS will face many
challenges along their mission toward a sustainable future. Accordingly, they already need
specific assistance to meet the economic, social, and environmental problems which already
affect them. As a result, the Political Declaration of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable
Development concluded, the countries of the world will, “continue to pay special attention to the
developmental needs of Small Island Developing States.”41 However, neither the special case
designation, nor the adoption of the BPOA, which should have brought additional international
assistance to SIDS, has had their intended outcome.42 Consequently, the economic and
environmental conditions in the vast majority continue to deteriorate and the promised support
has not become visible. Funding to these nations has declined. So have commodity prices they
so earnestly have relied upon throughout their history. And environmental threats have grown.
SIDS are more vulnerable than ever, while their ability to cope with environmental or economic
shocks has shrunk.43
39
Program of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island States, Report of the Global Conference on
the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, Global Conference on the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States, ch. 1, Annex II, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.167/9 (1994). Available at
http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf167/aconf167-9.htm.
40
Id.
41
See Gillespie, supra note 24, at 108.
42
Report of the Secretary General, Meeting of Representatives of Donors and Small Island Developing States, 24-26
February 1999, U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development, 7th Sess. (1999), E/CN.17/1999/18
43
Geoffrey Lean, At a glance: Seas, oceans and small islands. Available at
http://www.unep.org/OurPlanet/imgversn/151/glance.html.
In August 2004 in Mauritius, the international community assembled under the aegis of
the United Nations to hear the progress that SIDS have made in implementing the BPOA. 44
Over 2,000 participants from the islands, their traditional donor partners and other countries,
including some 25 heads of State and Government participated in the event.45 The report was
not encouraging; below is a summary of some of the major social, environmental, and economic
issues that presently hinder SIDS in their ability to succeed on an international level as they
merge with the biggest threat to small island States: climate change.
THREE PERSPECTIVES HALTING PROGRESSION TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE
FUTURE
THE SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE
Population
For SIDS, an increase in population reduces the quality of life reflected in education,
health, housing, and nutritional status. Limited employment opportunities and chances for career
advancement are leading to emigration of professionals to developed countries, which results in
less innovation for these small island nations.46 In some small island developing States, the rate
of population growth exceeds the rate of economic growth, placing serious and increasing
pressure on the capacity of those countries to provide basic services to their people and placing a
heavy burden on women in particular as heads of households.47
44
International Center for Trade and Sustainable Development. SIDS: MAURITIUS MEETING ADDRESSES
CLIMATE CHANGE, TRADE ISSUES. Bridges Trade BioRes Vol. 5.1. January 2005. (The Mauritius Strategy for
the Further Implementation of the Program of Action for the Sustainable Development of SIDS covers a number of
areas, including: climate change; natural and environmental disasters; management of wastes; resources, including
coastal and marine; graduation from least developed country (LDC) status; and trade - globalization and trade
liberalization.) Available at http://ictsd.net/i/news/biores/8946/.
45
Edward Cameron, The Human Dimension of Global Climate Change. Hastings West-Northwest Journal of
Environmental Law, Policy. Winter 2009.
46
47
See Binger, supra note 21.
G.A. Report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States,
Bridgetown, Barbados. A/CONF.167/9. October 1994. Available at http://un.org/documents/ga/conf167/aconf1679.htm.
Yet, in most SIDS, narrow coastal plains provide attractive locations for human
settlements and a variety of infrastructure – social services, tourism facilities, airports, port
facilities, roads and vital utilities – to support economic and social needs.48 With the projected
rate of sea level rise and changes in the patterns of extreme events such as storms and coastal
flooding, these settlements and critical infrastructure will be at severe risk.49 In some countries,
particularly low islands and microatolls, resettlement outside the national boundary may have to
be considered.50 Implementing this could become extremely complicated, however, especially
for densely populated coastal lowlands.51 In extreme circumstances, some atolls may be
abandoned altogether, which could be socially and culturally disruptive as well as resource
intensive and which may be well beyond what most of these island countries can afford.52
Disease
Many SIDS lie in the tropical zone, where the climate is favorable for the transmission of
tropical diseases such as malaria, dengue, and schistosomiasis.53 In recent years, tropical islands
have experienced high incidences of vector- and water-borne diseases that were attributed to
changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, which may be linked to events such as El Niño,
droughts and floods. Malaria transmission is particularly sensitive to weather conditions. In dry
climates, heavy rainfall can create puddles that provide good breeding conditions for mosquitoes.
In very humid climates, droughts may turn rivers into strings of pools, preferred breeding sites of
48
Clem Tisdell. Global warming and the future of Pacific Island countries. International Journal of Social
Economics. Vol. 35. Issue 12. 889-903 (2008).
49
Id.
50
Id.
51
Id.
52
Id.
53
Bob Holmes. Will climate change spread disease?. NewScientist. Issue 2703. April 2009. Available at
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20227033.300-will-climate-change-spread-disease.html. Last viewed
4/16/09.
other types of mosquito. 54 With a warming climate and disrupted water supplies and sanitation
systems due to droughts and floods, there could be even more of an increase in the incidence of
these diseases.55 Malaria, for instance, is associated with a temperature above 22ºC. Outbreaks
of water-borne diseases could increase as a result of disruption of sewage and water supply
systems and the interior highlands of many islands are currently free of vectors that transmit
malaria, dengue and other tropical diseases.56 Thus, when weather conditions favor transmission,
major epidemics may occur.
Crime
The Caribbean was plagued with unacceptable levels of violence which afflict children
and adolescence in their homes and in their schools, where the character of violence has its own
gender dimension. He noted that the region also ranks first when it comes to murder rates of
homicides among 15 and 17 year olds. 57 In the Caribbean, the proliferation and misuse of small
arms and light weapons is a major factor behind the violence plaguing countries across the
region. The Caribbean and Latin America presents the highest rate of armed violence in the
world – 42% of all homicides globally.58 This level of crime halts the progression of
development as these countries continue to deal retroactively with their citizens.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE
The participants of the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small
Island Development States in Barbados first identified the major environmental problems facing
54
World Health Organization. El Niño and its health impact. Fact Sheet. Available at
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs192/en/. Revised March 2000.
55
Id.
56
Id.,
57
Nils Kasteberg, UNICEF Regional Director, Startbroek News, Tuesday, March 18,2008. Available at
http://www.caricom.org/jsp/speeches/12special_cohsod_kastberg.jsp.
58
Id.
SIDS.59 It was through this recognition that it was becoming apparent to the world that
sacrificing environmental security was lowly leading to destruction of these small island nations.
The major impact has been witnessed mainly through the following environmental events:
freshwater, sea-level rise, vegetation, and coral reefs.
Freshwater
Dependant on the oceans, they can be especially affected by such threats as overfishing
and marine pollution. Surrounded by the sears, their remote locations are often short of
freshwater; rainfall is unpredictable – what does fall often runs quickly off the land, and what
remains is often prone to pollution. Many of these countries rely entirely on a single source of
water. A reduction in rainfall coupled with sea-level rise, changes in El Nino intensity and
frequency, and changes in rainfall seasonality would decrease the volume of drinking water. 60
They are short of space for wastes and particularly vulnerable to the natural disasters of the
world. With these factors taken into account along with their dependence on a routine rainfall a
change in such circumstances could claim to be fatal for SIDS as they would not have the
necessary freshwater to survive.
Sea-Level Rise
And climate change also brings perhaps the greatest environmental hazard of all as rising
sea levels threaten the very existence of SIDS and have already made others uninhabitable.
Rising sea levels inundate wetlands and other low-lying lands, erode beaches, intensify flooding,
59
G.A. Report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States, supra
note 35. (Small island developing States are particularly vulnerable to natural as well as environmental disasters and
have a limited capacity to respond to and recover from such disasters.) Available at
http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf167/aconf167-9.htm.
60
US Climate Change Science Program / US Global Change Research Program. US National Assessment of the
Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change Educational Resources Regional Paper: US-Affiliated
Islands of the Pacific and Caribbean. Available at http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/nacc/education/islands/islandsedu-3.htm
and increase the salinity of rivers, bays, and groundwater tables.61 The loss of land along
coastlines due to sea-level rise is likely to disrupt all the economic and social sectors in these
countries.62 For example, if sea level rises by 1 meter, the Maldives will disappear entirely, and
in Grenada, up to 60 percent of the beaches would disappear in some areas following a 50centimetre sea-level rise.63 For an international perspective of this issue, the International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent, and the Stern Review suggest that as many as 50
million people worldwide will be displaced because of drought, desertification, and rising sea
levels.64
Vegetation
With climate change, the growth of subsistence root crops and vegetables is likely to be
influenced by heat, by changes in soil moisture and evapotranspiration, and by changes in intense
weather events, such as hurricanes, floods and droughts.65 Moreover, sea-level rise and its
consequent saline intrusion will have major impacts on crop production, especially in low islands
and atolls in the Pacific, where all the crop agriculture is found on or near the coast.66 Fisheries
resources make a significant contribution to the protein intake of island populations. In tropical
islands, marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, sea grass communities and salt ponds are
important forage sites for a variety of fish species.67 The availability of fish can be affected by
61
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Coastal Zones and Sea Level Rise. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/coastal/index.html. Last updated on Friday, February 20th, 2009.
62
James T. Titus. Rising Seas. Coastal Erosion, and the Takings Clause: How to Save Wetlands and Beaches
Without Hurting Property Owners. Maryland Law Review, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 1279-1399, 1281.
63
See Lean, supra note 43. (Human activities such as sand mining, coastal and beach erosion are already a problem
on many of the islands – a problem that is likely to only be exacerbated by sea-level rise.)
64
Edward Cameron, The Human Dimension of Global Climate Change. Hastings West-Northwest Journal of
Environmental Law, Policy. Winter 2009.
65
See UNFCCC, supra note 24. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/cc_sids.pdf.
66
Id.
67
Id.
changes in water temperatures and the distribution of food sources they depend on.68 The
unfavorable effects of higher carbon dioxide concentrations on these ecosystems, coupled with
ongoing widespread coral bleaching, pose serious threats to the resilience and livelihood in many
small island states.69
Coral Reefs
Coral reefs have a huge influence on the lives of people in many SIDS. They function as
natural breakwaters along the coasts of many tropical islands and they represent one of the most
important natural resources for food, beach sand, and building materials.70 They also provide
habitats for marine animals and reef fish, generating significant revenues for many island
economies through tourists interested in snorkeling and scuba diving. On many islands, coral
reefs are already facing threats from climate change and other stresses; The Caribbean has the
largest proportion of corals in high extinction risk categories, but the Maldives reefs are also
severely threatened.71
Due to their narrow temperature tolerances, some species of corals currently live at or
near their thermal limits.72 Projected increases in sea surface temperature suggest the thermal
tolerance of reef-building corals will be exceeded within the next few decades. Moreover, the
incidence of bleaching may rise rapidly.73 Mangrove forests, another coastal resource, have
diverse and important ecological and socio-economic functions, providing protection against
68
ACIA. Scientific Facts on Arctic Climate Change. (2004). Available at http://www.greenfacts.org/en/arcticclimate-change/l-2/5-arctic-animals.htm#2.
69
Id.
70
See UNFCCC, supra note 24. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/cc_sids.pdf.
71
Edward Cameron, The Human Dimension of Global Climate Change. Hastings West-Northwest Journal of
Environmental Law, Policy. Winter 2009.
72
Clive Wilinson. 1 Status of the Coral Reefs of the World 28 (2004).
73
Id.
cyclones, storms, tides, storm surges and the introduction of pests and exotic insects.74 They also
function as nutrient sinks for animal and plant productivity, as soil stabilization forces, and as a
source of wood products. However, many mangrove forests are under stress from excessive
exploitation, reducing resilience to the projected rise in sea level.75
THE ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE
Governments and government agencies are themselves an important part of the problem
for creating an environmental and economic agenda. Existing public policies, such as agriculture
and transport, give very powerful support to unsustainable development.76 Governments and
government agencies will come under steady pressure to rectify that, yet policy makers need not
see it as a negative to enforce policy reflecting sustainable development.77 For example, the
proposed changes in existing structures of taxation and public expenditure aim not merely to
remove incentives to unsustainable development, but to replace them with powerful positive
incentives in favor of sustainable development.78 It is through the following areas of economic
development that small island developing states are hindering their mobility toward sustainable
energy development.
Tourism
For most SIDS, tourism is an important contributor to national economies, foreign
exchange inflows, and employment.79 Islands are a natural attraction for tourists, and this in turn
generates jobs and much-needed revenue. But the tourism industry has reached such a scale that
74
Erik Haites. Assessment of the Economic Impact of Climate Change on CARICOM Countries. Margaree
Consultants Inc. Report. Page 18. Available at http://www.margaree.ca/reports/ClimateChangeCARICOM.pdf.
75
76
Id.
James Robertson. THE NEW ECONOMICS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. A BRIEFING FOR
POLICY MAKERS. A Report for the European Commission. European Commission. (1999). Available at
http://www.jamesrobertson.com/book/neweconomicsofsustainabledevelopment.pdf.
77
Id.
78
Id.
79
See UNFCCC, supra note 24. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/cc_sids.pdf.
it endangers those very ecosystems and cultures that attract tourists.80 For example, tourism
accounts for 95 percent of the gross national product in the Maldives, and 70 percent of the labor
force in the Bahamas is employed in the tourism sector.81 Tourism could be disrupted through
the loss of beaches, coastal inundation, and degradation of coastal ecosystems, saline intrusion,
damage to critical infrastructures, and the bleaching of coral reefs.82 Physical loss and damage to
coasts and infrastructure in SIDS coupled with the projected milder winters in North America
and northern Europe, would threaten the tourism industry by reducing the appeal of the islands as
favorable destinations.83
In addition, the tourism industry may suffer from climate change mitigation measures,
such as levies on aviation emissions which would increase the cost of air travel.84 Climate
change could have other direct and indirect economic and social impacts in some SIDS. The
insurance industry is among the most sensitive to changes in the frequency and intensity of
extreme weather events such as hurricanes and floods.85 Any increase in frequency or magnitude
of such phenomena would trigger an increase in insurance premiums or lead to the withdrawal of
coverage, as islands in the Caribbean have experienced after a series of severe hurricanes.
Food
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization 2006 State of Food Insecurity Report
estimated that 854 million people worldwide suffer from hunger and malnutrition, including 820
80
U.N. Press Release. Small Islands Seek to Reverse Trade Losses More Market Access, Information Technology,
Renewable Energy and Sustainable Tourism Can Help. New York, April 2004. Available at
http://www0.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd12/press_release_sids2.pdf.
81
See UNFCCC, supra note 24. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/cc_sids.pdf.
82
Id.
83
Jerome L. McElroy. Tourism Development in Small Islands Across the World. Available at
http://www.saintmarys.edu/~jmcelroy/WD-McElroy2-revised.htm.
84
85
See UNFCCC, supra note 24 at page 23. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/cc_sids.pdf.
Id.
million in developing countries.86 The strain on small island developing states to grow or import
enough food for their citizens takes precedent over protecting the environment and working
toward a sustainable future. The impact of little food for these countries takes a lasting hit on
their economic policy making as importing food becomes their top priority in national spending.
THE HARM OF THREE PERSPECTIVES
Inevitably these vulnerabilities to small island States are intertwined. Economically,
many SIDS depend on tourism, but this is threatened by environmental degradation.87 For
example, up to four fifths of shallow-water coral reefs in some parts of the Caribbean have been
destroyed due to inappropriate waste removal from the islands.88 The Maldives two principal
industries, tourism and fisheries, are entirely dependent upon the reefs as they account for 40
percent of the GDP and more than 40 percent of employment.89 Some SIDS are reliant on
extractive industries, like forestry or mining, which too often severely damage the
environment.90 And most are seeing their vital fish catches level off or decline as overfishing
affects the world’s oceans.91
World Hunger Facts 2009. Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion. June 2004. How have the world’s poorest fared
since the early 1980s? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3341 Washington: World Bank. Available at
http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002.htm. Last visited 4/16/09
86
87
Lean , supra note 43.
88
Id.
89
Edward Cameron, The Human Dimension of Global Climate Change. Hastings West-Northwest Journal of
Environmental Law, Policy. Winter 2009.
90
U.N. International Meeting to Review the Implementation of the Program of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States. A/CONF.207/CRP.5. January 2005. Available at
http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/MIM/A-conf.207-CRP5.pdf.
91
Lean, supra note 43.
ENERGY: A SOLUTION
Energy is and always will be central to achieving the goals of sustainable development.
Some two billion people have no access to modern energy services.92 Energy was one of the
major themes of the ninth session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-9), held
in 2001. Countries agreed at this Commission that more emphasis should be given to the
development, implementation, and transfer of cleaner, more efficient technologies and that
imperative action is required to further extend and expand the role of alternative energy
sources.93 As the Commission on Sustainable Development reported:
“The magnitude and scale of energy needs facing the world
today in relation to sustainable development can be gauged by the
fact that nearly one third of the global population of six billion,
mostly living in developing countries, continue to lack access to
energy and transportation services. Wide disparities in the levels of
energy consumption within and between developed and developing
countries exist. Current patterns of energy production, distribution
and utilization are unsustainable.”94
Small island nations hope that funding from foreign investors will allow them to
accelerate their transition to sustainable energy. The need for energy remains a major source of
economic vulnerability for many islands, due to their remoteness, isolation and heavy
dependence on imported petroleum products, especially for local transport and electricity
generated by thermal plants.95 And the cycles of high petroleum prices versus low commodity
prices have impacted negatively on their terms of trade and on the momentum of their economies
92
UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Division for Sustainable Development. Areas of Work: Energy.
Available at http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ene/ene_index.shtml.
93
Id.
94
Commission on Sustainable Development. Energy for Sustainable Development. Report on the Ninth Session.
A/CONF.167/9. May 5 2000 and April 16-27 2001. Available at
http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N01/375/52/PDF/N0137552.pdf?OpenElement.
95
U.N. Press Release, supra note 64.
during the last 35 years.96 Moreover, many are reliant on biomass as their main source of
household power, which has a harmful impact on ecosystems.97 The U.N. released information
in 2004 explaining that,
“[o]ver the last decade, research has produced new, commercially
feasible options for energy supply, such as wind, solar and ocean
tidal energy. Small island nations are keen to develop an energy
agenda through these options that would be consistent with
sustainable development principles and less prone to disruption
from external forces. That is why they seek support to undertake a
comprehensive assessment of their energy resources, to identify
and develop renewable energy that is affordable and readily
adaptable.”98
With this new found attitude came the formation of the Global Sustainable Energy
Islands Initiative (GSEII).99 This group is a consortium of international non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and multi-lateral institutions that have been working with Alliance Of
Small Island States (AOSIS) nations to mitigate barriers and transform their energy systems from
fossil-fuel-based to sustainable energy systems.100 Specific objectives of the project include:
reducing dependence on fossil fuels, eliminating related trade deficits, securing energy
independence, reducing negative impacts on local environments, reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, encouraging private investment and trade, enhancing socioeconomic development. 101
In the Caribbean, many projects and programs have been undertaken to tackle
significant barriers to renewable energy development. Phase I GSEII interventions, with
guidance and support from Rockefeller Brothers Fund, US Agency for International
Development, US Department of Energy and the Organization of American States, have
96
Id.
97
Id.
98
Id.
99
Global Sustainable Energy Islands Initiative. Available at http://www.gseii.org.
Id.
101
Id.
100
proven successful in catalyzing this transition in the Caribbean, particularly in the island states
of St. Lucia, Grenada and Dominica.102 Each of these States has partnered in the development
and implementation of sustainable energy plans that identify project and program activities to
increase utilization of sustainable energy options; recommend appropriate policy, regulatory
and incentive measures; establish targets and timetables for action; develop industry capability
and partners for project design and implementation; and assist in securing financing and
investment sources.103
In the fields of energy and transport, a promising experiment has been initiated in
Vanuatu, where coconut oil is being used with very little modification as an alternative to diesel
in automotive engines.104 More than 200 mini-buses already use a coconut oil/diesel mix, and a
dozen use a pure coconut oil fuel.105 Such a system is potentially less costly, at least in the South
Pacific, is environment-friendly and could stimulate employment among local coconut growers
and coconut oil producers.106
Over the past few years, tourism in Saint Lucia has been rising steadily, and,
consequently, there has also been an increase in the use of hydrocarbon fuel to produce
electricity.107 With an abundance of sun, wind and volcanic heat, Saint Lucia became a perfect
location to test renewable energy projects.108 Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology was identified
102
Id.
Id.
104
One Country. In Vanuatu, a proving ground for coconut oil as an alternative fuel. Volume 15, Issue 1 / AprilJune 2003 http://www.onecountry.org/e151/e15101as_Deamer_profile.htm.
103
105
Id.
106
Id.
107
Small Island Developing States Network. Solar Energy for Bouton. Available at
http://www.sidsnet.org/successtories/25.html.
108
Id.
as one scheme that could bring electricity to sites that are either inaccessible because of terrain or
have low electricity demand, which made electrical grids too expensive to install.109
Bouton is another village that is in an isolated location on the west coast of Saint Lucia
and according to the electricity authorities the cost of bringing in mains electricity was estimated
at $300,000 and no plans existed for this purpose.110 Saint Lucia’s Sustainable Development
Science and Technology Office, in concurrence with the UN Trust Fund, successfully
implemented the PV project in 1999, in which electricity is generated directly from solar panels
placed in the interior of the island’s forest.111 The project has brought electricity and hence
lighting to the village of Bouton, deep in the foothills of the Pitons. Electricity generated by solar
energy now means that lighting, computers, televisions and VCRs are accessible throughout the
village and in both its school and library.112
Another example for success of island use of renewable energy is that of Iceland.
Renewable sources of energy account for less than 5% of the world’s energy production,
whereas about 70% of Iceland’s energy use comes from clean and renewable energy
resources.113 Although Iceland is a developed country, it’s efforts surpass almost every country
in the world, as it could possibly become the first country in the world to stop using fossil fuels
altogether, especially if they continue to stay at the forefront in introducing alternative fuels such
109
Id.
Id.
111
Id. (The installation included: Solar panel sections of 200 watts each are hoisted onto the roof; A locking battery
container made from corrosion free recycled plastic located inside the teacher’s storage room; An inverter of 2,400
watts was installed, which supplies power to standard fixtures and appliances; Eight double 4 feet lamp troffers with
prismatic lenses in the classroom interior, which are suspended from the ceiling to provide IES Photometric
Standards of 50 foot candles at the desk level; Wiring that complies with codes including plenty of switches, wall
receptacles and all wiring in conduit; Twenty students, including college professors, electrical engineers, electrical
and solar contractors and members of the Ministry of Finance and Planning and the Ministry of Communications,
Works, Transport and Public Utilities, attended a comprehensive school-training program.)
110
112
Id.
Ministry for the Environment. Welfare for the Future. Iceland's National Strategy for Sustainable Development.
Available at http://eng.umhverfisraduneyti.is/publications/nr/393.
113
as hydrogen for vehicles, as domestic energy resources would be used for the production of
hydrogen. The use of the country’s renewable energy resources has improved Icelanders’
standard of living and increased economic diversity.
CONCLUSION
As explained in an article by the Washington Post regarding the global food crisis, the
article opened with the following paragraph:
After she work in the dark to sweep city streets, after she
walked an hour to buy less than $2 worth of food, after she cooked
for two hours in the searing noon hear, Fanta Lingani served her
family’s only meal of the day…But when it comes time to eat, men
and children eat first, and women eat last and least.114
The world’s most vulnerable people live on the margins and those factors threatening
their very existence are constantly pushing them closer to the edge. “Last and least” accurately
describes their position in international discussion on what is to be done to protect the planet; one
of these very vital discussions would be that of renewable energy resources. They are least
likely to be heard at the negotiating table as they lack political weight and as a result their
vulnerability goes unnoticed and their voices go unheard. Small Island States small size,
remoteness, geographical dispersion, vulnerability to natural disasters, fragile ecosystems,
constraints on transport and communication, lack of natural resources, and limited freshwater
supply, means they are susceptible to even the smallest change in international policy. 115
Kevin Sullivan. Africa’s Last and Least; Cultural Expectations Ensure Women Are Hit Hardest by Burgeoning
Food Crisis. The Washington Post, July 20, 2008, at A01, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/story/2008/07/19/ST2008071900998.html.
114
115
IPCC. 2007: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 7-22.Available at http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2spm.pdf.
Regardless of its criticism, sustainable development is a philosophy that ought to be
practiced more than preached and for the small island nations around the world it is a concept
that is out of reach due to the current dependence on foreign support. As the world struggles
with the “how” of sustainable development, small island nations work to answer the “when”
because for these nations time is running out. A leader in the world for the awareness of the
vulnerability of small island nations explained during the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change, “[w]e are not in a position to change the course of events in the world. But
what you do or do not do here will greatly influence the fate of my people. It can also change the
course of world history.”116 Every policy change to increase the availability of renewable energy
resources to small island developing states will have a devastatingly positive influence on the
world and it is with this attitude that world leaders should continue to support the development of
renewable energy for these nations.
“Sadly, this paper ends where it began. The world is rapidly growing warmer; divergent
interests in the international community fiddle while Rome burns.”
117
The author of the
following quotation believes economic interests, represented by the most powerful parts of the
international community, will prevail until the consequences become unbearable. She also
believes the people of small island nations have no voice and will suffer until it is in the interests
of the powerful to take a different path. This author must disagree. It is through the
collaboration of small island States that the world has seen the greatest influence. As small
islands continue to work together and with the developed countries of the world, their voices will
be heard on an international policy-making level and their contributions to sustainable
116
H.E. Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC. December 4, 1997, Kyoto, Japan.
Available at http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/climate.
117
Ruth Gordon. Climate Change and the Poorest Nations: Further Reflections on Global Inequality. The Climate
of Environmental Justice: Taking Stock. 78 U. Colo. L. Rev. 1559, 1623.
development through renewable energy resources will never go unnoticed. The Stockhom
Declaration affirms that “man’s capability to transform his surroundings, if used wisely, can
bring to all peoples the benefits of development and the opportunity to enhance the quality of
life” for all.118
118
World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, 1, U.N. Doc A/43/427 (Aug. 4,
1987), available at http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm#I.