RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
P. Raju Iyer
B.Com, FICWA, ACS, MIMA, MPhil, MBA (UK)
COST ACCOUNT
DISCUSSION ON
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What Research is and How it is defined
Distinguish between Applied & Basic Research
Meaning of Deduction and Induction
Research Process
Research Design
Survey of Literature
Hypothesis & Testing
Sampling & Data collection
Processing Data and Analyzing
Types of Research
Software packages for Statistical Analysis
Research Report
2
Meaning of Research
• An organized, systematic, data-based,
critical, scientific inquiry or investigation into
a specific problem, undertaken with the
objective of finding answers or solutions to
it.
– Must have a purpose
– Undertaken to understand various phenomena
– To solve specific problem
3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Problem Definition
Review of Related Literature
Formulation of Hypothesis
Data Collection
Analyze the Data
Hypotheses Testing
Data Interpretation
Conclusion or Findings
4
• Applied Research – If the purpose is
to solve specific problem currently
faced by the Organization
• Basic or Fundamental Research –
To understand various issues in an
organization that are likely to crop up.
Aim is not to solve the current problem
but to generate more understanding
about the various areas of interest in
an organization.
5
Scientific Method – pursues a step-by-step, logical,
organized method to identify problems, gather and
analyze data and draw valid conclusions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Purposiveness and Rigor
Reliability
Validity
Objectivity
Generalizability
Accuracy and Precision
Parsimony
6
Steps in Research
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Observation
Preliminary information gathering
Theory Formulation
Hypothesizing
Further Scientific Data Collection
Data Analysis
Deduction
7
DEDUCTION is a form of inference in which we go
from a general statement to infer a particular
statement.
Premise 1 - All ICWAI Final students have
Strategic Skills
Premise 2 - Vingnesh is a ICWAI Final student
Conclusion - Therefore, Vignesh is Strategist
For Deduction to be correct it must be both true and
valid.
Argument must have formal validity and the premises
must be true.
8
INDUCTION - Arrive at a conclusion based on a
number of observations of specific instances.
Conclusion explains the facts and the facts support
the conclusion.
Conclusions are tentative inferential jumps beyond
the evidence presented. They are subject to further
confirmation that can become true only when more
evidence is gathered. Science is full of examples of
conclusions abandoned later, when a contradictory
new evidence is found.
9
RESEARCH PROCESS
Research Problem
Identification and Statement of the Problem
Needs
Review of Related Literature
Review concepts, theories, and previous
Research finds
Leads to
Formulating Hypotheses
10
If necessary Proceeds to
Research Design
Decides sampling design, tool & Procedure
Facilitates
Data Collection
Enables
Data Analysis
Testing Hypothesis (if Necessary)
Helps
Interpretation
Comparing with previous findings
Suggests
Solution and Conclusion
Generalizations
11
Statement of Problem
Usually implies that a controversy of differences of
opinion exists.
Problems can be derived from theory, prior
research results or personal observations and
experiences.
Important that the solution to the problem or the
answer to the questions can influence education
theory or practice.
Careful formulations and presentations of the
implications or possible applications of
knowledge help to give the project and urgency,
justifying its worth.
12
Review of Related Literature
• Reports of studies of closely related problems
that have been investigated
• Design of the study, including procedure
employed and data-gathering instruments used
• Populations what were sampled and sampling
methods employed
• Various variables that were defined
• Extraneous variables that could have affected
the findings
• Faults that could have been avoided
• Recommendations for further research
13
The Hypothesis
Hypothesis is “a testable statement of potential
relationship between two or more variables”.
Hypothesis is an assumption to be proved or
disproved.
Hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question.
Formulation of hypothesis in advance of the data
gathering process is necessary for unbiased
investigations. A good hypothesis
• Should be reasonable
• Should be consistent with known facts or theories
• Should be stated in such a way that it can be
tested and found to be probably true or probably
false.
• Should be stated in the simplest possible terms.
14
Designing Research
Research purpose may be groped into
Explorations, Descriptions, Diagnosis and Experimentations.
Flexible design which provides opportunity for considering
many different aspects of problems is considered
appropriate, when the purpose of the study is exploration.
When purpose happens to be an accurate description of
situation or of an association between variables, the suitable
design will be one that minimizes and maximizes the
reliability of data collected and analyzed.
Experimental design – either informal designs (before-andafter without control, after – only with control, before and
after with control) or formal designs (such as completely
randomized designs, randomized block designs, Latin
square designs, simple and complex factorial design) out of
which the researcher must select one for his project.
15
Guidelines for Research Designs
• Means of obtaining Information
• Availability and Skills of the Researcher
• Organization and reasoning of way of
obtaining the Information
• Time available for Research
• Cost factor relating to Research
16
Determining Sample Design
• Sample Design is a definite plan determines before
any are actually collected for from the population.
• Samples can be either
• Probability samples
• Non-probability samples
• Collecting the Data
•
•
•
•
•
By Observation
Through Personal Interviews
Through Telephone Interviews
By mailing Questioners
Through Schedules
• Execution of the Project and Analysis of Data
• Hypothesis testing
• Preparation of the Report
17
Processing Data
• Data processing is an intermediary stage of work
between data collection and data interpretation.
• Processing of data requires advance planning.
Cover such aspects identification of variables,
hypothetical relationship among variables and
tentative research hypotheses.
• Editing is a process of checking to detect and
correct errors and omissions.
• Codification and Classification of Data
• Transcriptions of Data
• Tabulation
18
Analyzing Data
• Critical examination of assembled and grouped
data for studying the characteristics of the object
under study and for determining the patterns of
relationship among the variables relating to it.
Quantitative and Non-quantitative methods are
used.
• Summarizes large mass of data into
understandable and meaningful form.
• Makes exact descriptions possible
• Facilitates identification of casual factors
underlying complex phenomena.
• Aids the drawing of reliable inferences from
observational data.
• Making estimations and generalizations from the
results of sample surveys.
19
•
•
•
•
•
•
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of Association / Relationship
Standard Error of the Estimate
Hypothesis Testing
ANOVA
20
Nature of Social Science
Researches
Sciences are broadly classified into
• Natural Science – study natural phenomena.
• Physical Sciences
• Biological Sciences
• Social Science – study phenomena concerning the
life of human beings in society. Attempt in a more
or less systematic and objective manner, to study
–
–
–
–
Social systems
Social structures
Political processes
Economic processes
21
Meaning and Objective of Social Research
Encompasses scientific investigation conducted in
the field of social and behavioral sciences.
• Aims to understand human behavior and its
interaction with society and social institutions
• Acquire new knowledge in order to gain insights
into existing problems
• To understand social life to have better control
over social behavior
• To improve tools of analysis and concepts which
will lead to a better understanding of social
phenomena.
22
•
•
•
•
•
Limitations of Social Science Research
Social Sciences deals with intangible, nonquantifiable, ever changing, complex social
phenomena.
Too big a laboratory for controlling the
factors.
Findings are less authoritative.
Generally lacks objectivity – own values and
beliefs in interpretation of data.
Guarding against biases and prejudices is
rather difficult though possible.
23
Types of Research
• Exploratory / Qualitative – seeks to
discover new relationships.
• Search of Secondary Data
• Survey of knowledgeable
• Case Study
• Conclusive / Quantitative – designed to
help to choose among various possible
course action.
• Descriptive Research
• Experimentation
24
Case Study Method
• Intensive study of a relatively small
number of situations.
• Features which are common to all cases in
the general group
• Features which are not common to all
cases, but are common to certain subgroups
• Features which are unique to a specific
case
25
Conclusions are formulated from
comparisons of these similarities
and differences.
Design of case studies will be based
on the specific objectives of the
study and is primarily a question of
good judgment in selecting cases to
be studied.
26
Advantages of case study
• Inferences are obtained from study of an
entire situation, an entity, rather than from
study of one or several selected aspects
alone.
• Description of a real event or situation.
• More accurate data are obtained, longer
intimate association, greater rapport,
reduced reliance on formalized questions
and answers.
27
Disadvantages of case study
• Difficult to describe the complete situations,
develop formal method of observations.
• Lack of objectivity carries over into analysis of
case data. Analysis is based on intuition of
investigators.
• Investigators inclined to generalize. Because
sample is usually very small, selected
subjectively and tendency exists to select
unusual cases, generalizations is dangerous.
28
• The case study method has its greatest
value in exploratory research where the
objectives is to find hypotheses to be
tested by more formal research methods.
When data from a case study are
classified and summarized, the study
becomes statistical rather than case in
nature. When this so, Statistical Methods
should be used.
29
• Descriptive Research is designed to describe something –
characteristics of users given product, degree with which
product use varies with income, age, sex, etc.
• Statistical Method involves study of a few factors in large
number of cases and uses different methods of analysis –
averages, percentages, measures of dispersion and more
sophisticated statistical procedures.
• Experimental Research is the process in which one or
more variables are manipulated under conditions which
permit the collection of data which show the effects, if any, of
such variables in an unconfused fashion.
• Laboratory Experiment is where the test subjects are
brought to a conference room and exposed to an
experimental variable, such as TV commercial.
• Field Experiments, the variables are taken to the field –
news product to houses, users, etc.
30
Software packages
• SPSS – Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences
• SAS – SAS Business Intelligence provides
the information needed in required format.
• STATISTICA
• BMDP - Bio Medical Development
Program
31
Research Report
• Purpose – to convey the result in sufficient
details, so that new findings or new
methods of analysis can be incorporated
into the general store of knowledge in the
area of research.
32
STYLE
•
TECHNICAL REPORT
•
Full written report of the study is required for record
keeping or public dissemination.
i. the method employed
ii. Assumptions made in the course of study
iii. Detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data
•
POPULAR REPORT
•
•
•
•
Results have policy implications
Emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness
Objectives of study
Recommendations for actions
33
CONTENTS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Title
Table of contents
Synopsis
Introduction
Methodology
Discussion section
Recommendations and Implementations
Bibliography
Appendix
34