Robert W. Strayer
Ways of the World: A Brief Global
History with Sources
Second Edition
Chapter 11
Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage:
The Mongol Moment (1200–1500)
Copyright © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
I. Nomadic Peoples
A. Nomadic peoples served as links between peoples
rather than barriers to or opponents of civilization
1. Nomads participated in trade networks, spread
religious ideas inventions, plants, and disease
between peoples
2. All the great trade routes were pioneered by nomads.
Often nomadic groups cut off trade while at other
times they guarded them
3. These trade routes were important communication
links between civilizations. Inventions such as paper
and gunpowder arrived in Europe over trade routes
such as these
B. Pastoral Nomads
1. Pastoral nomads inhabited the large grasslands of central
Asia, the Sudan and East Africa, and highland South
America.
2. Grassland areas had enough rain to support grass but not
agriculture thus the lands were not permanently settled
by sedentary groups
3. As pastoral nomads spread they displaced or absorbed
smaller groups of hunter-gatherers
C. Nomadic Facts
1. Horses were revered by the nomads but were not used in
warfare until the invention of the stirrup and bridles
2. Since nomads were not involved in time-intensive
agriculture, they could spend large amounts of time in
hunting and training with weapons. The horse gave the
nomads a degree of mobility not seen in armies of the
day. Horses also provided nomadic peoples with the
ability to outrun enemies who were chasing them
3. Another nomadic group were the Huns. The Huns warred
with China, toppled the Guptas Empire in India, and
smashed into the crumbling late Roman Empire
4. Much of the movement of these nomadic peoples was
due to drought and intertribal warfare. These migrations
played an important role in the decline and fall of
numerous empires
5. The nomad warriors acquired a reputation for ferocity and
savagery.
6. Most of the great defensive structure were built to keep
nomadic peoples out (Great Wall, Hadrian’s Wall, Roman
German defenses, etc.)
7. Were organized into tribes and clans with leaders elected
by free men.
II. Chinggis (Genghis) Khan – born Temujin
A. Grandfather had defeated the
Qin Empire
B. Temujin had a growing
reputation as fierce
warrior…made alliances
with other groups
1. Elected khagan (supreme
ruler) of Mongol tribes
C. The Mongols at War
1. Highly organized military…all cavalry
2. Natural warriors – skilled with bow / horsemanship
3. Organized into Tumens – 10,000 warriors
4. Use of scouts, spies, and informers
5. Use of new weapons – gunpowder projectiles, and cannon
D. Conquests
1. Xi-Xia Kingdom of China forced to become vassal state
2. Conquered Turkic Empire (Persia) (1219)
a. First Islamic Raid
b. Turks added to Mongol army
The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
E. Life Under the Mongols
1. Despite reputation for ruthlessness, Mongols were
tolerant rulers
2. Interested in new ideas, goods, and tolerated other
religions
3. Established capital at Karakorum
4. Establishment of “Pax Mongolia”
5. Legal code…ended fighting between tribes
6. Safe secure trade routes took commerce to new heights
F. The Death of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan (1227)
1. Buried in secret
2. Empire left to three sons and grandson
a. Third son, Ogedei, elected Khan
3. Mongol expansion continued
4. Russia & Europe became targets of the Golden Horde,
one of the four Khanates created by Chinggis’ death
III. Mongol Push Into Europe and Beyond
A. Conquering Russia (1200s)
1. Russia was a mix of small kingdoms based on trading
cities such as Kiev and Novgorod
2. Despite the threat of Mongol invasion, the Russians
refused to unite or cooperate and were conquered
3. The Mongols mounted the only successful invasion of
Russia in the winter…Napoleon & Hitler later failed
4. Kiev was destroyed but Novgorod was spared due to
their submission
5. Mongols dominated Russia for next 250 years
a. Russian princes were made Mongol vassals and
paid tribute
b. Heavy taxes caused peasants to become serfs
B. Muscovy (Moscow) emerged as dominant Russian city due
to its status as tax collector for the Mongols and center of
Orthodox Church
1. Moscow’s rise coincided with a decline in the power of
the Golden Horde
2. Moscow eventually led a revolt against the Mongols and
broke their control…Ivan III (the Great) was leader
3. Mongol control greatly influenced Russia’s development
a. The power of the nobility over the people was
consolidated
b. Russia was isolated from the West – did not
experience the Renaissance or Reformation
C. Mongol Retreat from Europe
1. Christians cheered Mongol defeats of Muslims
2. Hungarian and German armies defeated by Mongols
a. Caused real concern in Western Europe…fear
3. The imminent invasion of Europe by the Mongols never
happened due to death of Ogedei and ensuing power
struggle led to their retreat…never returned
D. Attacking Islam
1. Conquered the Abbasid Caliphate, sacked Baghdad, and
defeated the Seljuk Turks
a. This opened up the Middle East to later conquest by
the Ottoman Turks
2. The Mongols were defeated by the Mamluk Turks slave
dynasty of Egypt in 1260 with the cooperation of
Christians in the declining Crusader states
IV. The Mongols in China
A. Led by Kubilai Khan (grandson
of Chinggis Khan), the Mongols
turned on the Song
1. Song China was slowly
conquered…very difficult
2. In 1260 Kubilai assumed the
title of the great khan
3. Kubilai named his regime in China the Yuan Dynasty
4. As ruler of China, Kubilai passed laws to ensure the
Mongols and Chinese remained separate
a. He forbade Chinese scholars from learning Mongol writing
b. Mongols were forbidden to marry ethnic Chinese
c. Only women from nomadic families were selected
as concubines
d. Even friendships between Mongols and Chinese were
discouraged
5. Kubilai was fascinated by Chinese culture
a. He surrounded himself with Chinese advisors
b. He introduced Chinese music and rituals into his court
c. He did refuse to reinstate the civil service exams
6. A new social structure was established with the Mongols at
the top
7. Gender Roles
a. Mongol women remained aloof from Chinese culture
b. They refused to adopt footbinding
--They retained the right to move about freely
c. Because of the short reign of the Mongols, they had little
influence over Chinese women
B. Foreign Cultural Influences
1. Mongol curiosity brought great numbers of foreigners to
the Mongol court including scholars, artisans, and
office-seekers
2. Muslims were favored…brought new knowledge
a. Muslims and Persians brought the sciences to the
Mongols…corrected the Chinese calendar, made
maps, and established hospitals
3. Kubilai welcomed travelers and
emissaries from Europe including
Marco Polo
a. Polo’s book later helped inspire
European exploration
C. Scholar-Gentry Resistance
1. Most saw Mongols as barbarians whose rule endangered
Chinese traditions
2. Kubilai’s policies prevented the scholar-gentry from
dominating politics
3. Kubilai’s favoritism towards foreigners also offended the
scholar-gentry
4. Mongols raised the social status of artisans and
merchants as commerce boomed
D. The Fall of Yuan China (Mongols)
1. Mongols attempted two
invasions of Japan and an
invasion of Vietnam that failed
a. Losses tarnished Mongol
reputation as invincible
2. Revolts against Mongol rule
broke out in Southern China
3. Kubilai’s successors lacked his skill and left rule to corrupt
Chinese underlings
4. The scholar-gentry encouraged peasant revolts and
secret sects hoping to overthrow the dynasty
5. Chaos erupted as Mongol rule collapsed…Ming dynasty
formed
E. The Last Great Nomadic Conquests
1. Timur the Lame or Tamerlane
a. Turkic leader claiming descendency from Chinggis
Khan – extremely cruel
b. Conquered into India, Mesopotamia, Persia, and parts
of Russia
c. Unlike the Mongols, his reign did not expand trade
nor increase international interaction!!!
d. 1405 he dies…empire disintegrates…steppe nomads
never challenge again
IV. The Mongol Empire as a Eurasian
Network
A. Toward a World Economy
1. Not producers or traders but promoters of commerce
2. Security on the Silk Roads
3. Connected to the larger world system
B. Diplomacy on a Eurasian Scale
1. European envoys sent east
2. European discovery of the outside world
3. Mongol linkage of China and Persia
IV. The Mongol Empire as a Eurasian
Network
C. Cultural Exchange in the Mongol Realm
1. Forced population transfers and voluntary migrations
2. Technology transfer and the spread of crops
3. Europe gained the most
IV. The Mongol Empire as a Eurasian
Network
D. The Plague: An Afro-Eurasian Pandemic
1. The Black Death
2. China, 1331, Europe, 1347, and East Africa, 1409
3. The end of the world?
4. Social changes in Europe
5. Demise of the Mongol Empire
V. Reflections: Changing Images of
Pastoral Peoples
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Bad press for nomads
Sources from urban centers
Winners write history
A new history of nomadic achievements
Was Mongol violence unique?