PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
ALL DAY LONG
WOUT ULTEE
UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA
OCTOBER 28, 2012
RESEARCH SHOULD BE PRECEDED BY
THEORY FORMATION
RESEARCH GUIDED BY A THEORY IS MORE
USEFUL THAN RESEARCH WITHOUT A THEORY
RESEARCH SHOULD BE A TEST OF A THEORY,
AN ATTEMPT AT FALSIFICATION, NOT AN
ATTEMPT AT VERIFICATION
BUT WHAT PRECEDES A THEORY?
ACCORDING TO KARL POPPER, A PROBLEM
THEORIES ARE MADE TO SOLVE A PROBLEM
AND THE NICEST PROBLEMS ARE
FALSIFICATIONS OF THEORIES
SCEPTICS SAY THAT SOCIOLOGY IS A
MESSY DISCIPLE
SOCIOLOGY SURELY LOOKS MESSY
SOCIOLOGY’S CATALOG OF PROBLEMS
SEEMS FAR TOO LONG, WITH MANY EXOTIC
TOPICS AND WITHOUT APPARENT LINKS
BETWEEN PROBLEMS
HOWEVER, THERE ARE LINKS BETWEEN
SOCIOLOGY’S PROBLEMS:
FOR INSTANCE, THERE ARE OVERARCHING
PROBLEMS AND SUBPROBLEMS
IN THIS WAY PROBLEMS ARE ‘KNITTED
TOGETHER’
DO RATIONAL
CHOICE
APPROACHES
HAVE
PROBLEMS?
DOES
SOCIOLOGY
HAVE
PROBLEMS?
YES, SOCIOLOGY DOES HAVE
PROBLEMS IN THE SENSE THAT,
BECAUSE OF LIMITED
PROGRESS, SOCIOLOGY
RECEIVES A LOW STATUS IN THE
ACADEMIC HIERARCHY
BUT SOCIOLOGY ALSO DOES NOT
SEEM TO HAVE A GOOD LIST OF
THE QUESTIONS WITH WHICH IT
DEALS
A SCEPTIC WILL SAY THAT THE
LACK OF A LIST OF PROBLEMS
MAKES FOR LIMITED PROGRESS
YET, UPON CLOSER INSPECTION,
SOCIOLOGY DOES HAVE PROBLEMS IN
THE SENSE OF A LIST OF QUESTIONS IT
SEEKS TO ANSWER
AND IN LINE WITH THOMAS KUHN
AND WITH KARL POPPER
THAT LIST OF PROBLEMS IS NOT FIXED
SOCIOLOGY’S HISTORY PROVIDES A
LIST OF PROBLEM SHIFTS
STUDIES FROM BEFORE A
PROBLEM SHIFT BELONG TO THE
OLD GENERATION, STUDIES FROM
AFTER THAT SHIFT BELONG TO THE
NEW GENERATION
THE NEW GENERATION MAINTAINS
THAT THE QUESTIONS OF THE OLD
GENERATION WERE WRONG,
POORLY POSED, ONLY HALF THE
PROBLEM, OR MISCAST
A HISTORICAL EXAMPLE OF A
SCIENTIFIC QUESTION THAT WAS
DISCOVERED TO BE FALSE:
WITH WHAT SPEED DOES THE SUN
CIRCLE AROUND THE EARTH?
THAT QUESTION IS WRONG,
SINCE THE EARTH MOVES AROUND
THE SUN
COPERNICUS MAINTAINED
THAT THE EARTH CIRCLES
AROUND THE SUN
IS THE QUESTION: WITH WHAT SPEED
DOES THE EARTH CIRCLE AROUND THE
SUN
A RIGHT QUESTION?
NO, KEPLER SHOWED THAT THE
MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH AROUND THE
SUN WAS ELLIPTIC
FOLLOW-UP QUESTION:
DO MORE HEAVENLY BODIES MOVE
AROUND THE SUN?
AND, IF SO, IS THEIR MOVEMENT
ELLIPTIC TOO?
THE QUESTION OF THE MOVEMENT OF
THE EARTH, ONCE THOUGHT TO BE
THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE, NOW
HAS BECAME ‘HALF THE PROBLEM’
OR EVEN SMALLER, DEPENDING UPON
THE NUMBER OF PLANETS
SHIFTS OCCUR NOT ONLY FROM
WRONG QUESTIONS,
OR MORE GENERALLY, POORLY
POSED OR MISCAST PROBLEMS,
TO MORE APPROPRIATE
QUESTIONS
BUT ALSO FROM QUESTIONS WITH
A LIMITED SCOPE TO MORE
COMPREHENSIVE QUESTIONS
AND FROM SUPERFICIAL
QUESTIONS TO DEEPER
QUESTIONS
SOCIOLOGY IS ABOUT SOCIETIES
IF SOCIOLOGY’S QUESTIONS ARE
ABOUT SOCIETIES
WHAT CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOCIETIES ARE STUDIED BY
SOCIOLOGY?
IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY THERE
ARE PEOPLE WHO TOOK PROBLEMS
OF PHILOSOPHY AND SHOWED THAT
THESE PROBLEMS WERE LIMITED,
‘ONLY HALF THE PROBLEM’
THESE PEOPLE ARE COUNTED AMONG
SOCIOLOGY’S FOUNDERS
I START FROM
KARL MARX
EMILE DURKHEIM
AND MAX WEBER
AS SOCIOLOGY’S FOUNDERS
AND I MAINTAIN THAT ALL THREE
RECAST A LONG-STANDING PROBLEM AND
SHOWED THAT THIS OLD PROBLEM WAS
ONLY HALF THE PROBLEM
FROM THE SCOTTISH MORALISTS JOHN
MILLAR AND ADAM FERGUSON
TO KARL MARX AND WERNER SOMBART
A PROBLEM SHIFT AS REGARDS
INEQUALITY AS ONE OF SOCIOLOGY’S
THREE MAIN PROBLEMS:
NOT ONLY DISPARITIES BETWEEN THE
INHABITANTS OF A SOCIETY AT ONE
MOMENT IN TIME WITH RESPECT TO
ADVANTAGES AND RESOURCES,
BUT ALSO THEIR DOWNWARD AND
UPWARD MOBILITY WITH RESPECT TO
ADAVANTAGES AND RESOURCES
THE SCEPTIC OBJECTION TO THE
INEQUALITY PROBLEM
INEQUALITY MAY REMAIN THE SAME IN
THE COURSE OF A SOCIETY’S HISTORY
BUT THAT DOES NOT MEAN THAT ALL
PEOPLE STAYED ON THE SAME PLACE OF
THE SOCIAL LADDER
INDEED, IF A LONG TIME SPAN IS
COVERED, ALL THE MEMBERS OF A
SOCIETY ARE DEAD
THEREFORE, DO PEOPLE MAINTAIN THE
RANKING OF THEIR FAMILY OF ORIGIN?
THE PERSON WHO MOST CLEARLY
STATED THE MOBILITY PROBLEM WAS
WERNER SOMBART
WHEREAS MARX PREDICTED NOTHING
BUT DOWNWARD MOBILITY AND THE
DISAPPEARANCE OF THE MIDDLE
CLASSES
SOMBART HELD THAT UPWARD
MOBILITY WAS MORE WIDESPREAD IN
THE UNITED STATES THAN IN EUROPE
SOMBART IN 1906 TOOK THE HYPOTHESIS:
THE MORE CAPITAL HAS ACCUMULATED IN A
SOCIETY, THE STRONGER THE OPPOSITION
OF WORKERS AGAINST CAPITALISM WILL BE
FROM THIS HYPOTHESIS HE DERIVED THAT IN
THE UNITED STATES SOCIALISM SHOULD BE
STRONGER THAN IN EUROPE
HOWEVER, THERE WAS NO SOCIALIST PARTY
TO SPEAK OF IN THE UNITED STATES
THE TITLE OF SOMBART’S BOOK:
WHY NO SOCIALISM IN THE UNITED STATES?
SO, SOMBART’S PROBLEM WAS A
CONTRADICTION
BY EXPLAINING IT WITH THE HYPOTHESIS
THAT UPWARD MOBILITY IS MORE
WIDESPREAD IN THE UNITED STATES
THAN IN EUROPE
DID SOMBART GIVE UP ON MARXISM?
NO, MOBILITY IS A PART OF THE
INEQUALITY PROBLEM
JUST LIKE THE OLD PROBLEM OF THE
ONE-MOMENT DISPARATIES IN INCOME
BETWEEN A SOCIETY’S INHABITANTS
MARX’ MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION
WAS ALSO SOMETHING LIKE A
‘CONTRADICTION PROBLEM’:
HOWE IS IT POSSIBLE THAT IN
CAPITALISM, IN CONTRAST TO SLAVERY,
WORKERS HAVE THE FREEDOM TO
MOVE
BUT THEIR LIVING CONDITIONS GET
WORSE AND WORSE?
THE PROBLEM OF FORMAL FREEDOMS
VERSUS ACTUALLY REALIZED OR
MATERIAL FREEDOMS
FROM THOMAS HOBBES
TO EMILE DURKHEIM
A PROBLEM SHIFT:
NOT ONLY VIOLENCE BETWEEN
THE MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY,
BUT ALSO VIOLENCE OF
PERSONS AGAINST
THEMSELVES (SUICIDE)
FROM ADAM SMITH, THE SCOTTISH MORALIST AND
FOUNDER OF ECONOMICS,
TO MAX WEBER, THE GERMAN HISTORIAN OF LAW
A PROBLEM SHIFT:
NOT ONLY ECONOMIC GROWTH, THAT IS,
RATIONALIZATION OF A SOCIETY’S ECONOMY BY
FREE MARKETS,
BUT ALSO BUREAUCRATIZATION,
RATIONALIZATION OF A SOCIETY’S POLITY BY
WRITTEN LAWS
AND DISENCHANTMENT, RATIONALIZATION OF A
SOCIETY’S RELIGIONS BY SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY
RATIONALIZATION AS AN
OVERARCHING PROBLEM
RATIONALIZATION AS A PROBLEM
THAT CAN BE DIVIDED INTO
SUBPROBLEMS
LINDENBERG:
RESEARCH SHOULD BE THEORY-GUIDED
AND THE BEST THEORY TO GUIDE
RESEARCH IS RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
ULTEE:
THEORY-BUILDING SHOULD BE
PROBLEM-DRIVEN
AND THE FAMILY OF RATIONAL CHOICE
AND RATIONAL ACTION THEORIES HAS
BEEN IN SEARCH OF PROBLEMS
WHEREAS SOCIOLOGY HAS A CATALOG
OF CLASSICAL QUESTIONS
WEBER SAID THAT HE, IN HIS EARLY
PAPERS ON THE ETHICS OF
PROTESTANTISM AND THE SPIRIT OF
CAPITALISM, LATER REPRINTED IN HIS
COLLECTED PAPERS ON THE
SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION,
NEVER WAS CONCERNED WITH THE
VERY TRICKY QUESTION OF THE RISE OF
CAPITALISM
INDEED, CAPITALISM JUST IS NOT ONE
SIGULAR PHENOMENON, BUT A BUNDLE
OF PHENOMENA
WEBER UNPACKED THAT BUNDLE
IN THE INTRODUCTION TO HIS
COLLECTED PAPERS ON THE
SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION
WEBER CLEARLY STATED THAT HE
WAS CONCERNED NOT ONLY WITH
THE RISE IN THE WESTERN WORLD
OF CAPITALISM
BUT WITH ANY INSTANCE OF
SOCIETAL RATIONALIZATION
WEBER STUDIED LAW AND INITIALLY CAST THE
QUESTION OF THE ACCUMULATION OF CAPITAL AS
A QUESTION ABOUT THE EMERGENCE OF NORMS
SINCE BANKS FACILITATE THE MOVEMENT OF
CAPITAL, THE QUESTION OF THE EMERGENCE OF
BANKS IS IN ORDER: CATHOLICISM DID FORBID
INTEREST
HOWEVER, WEBER HELD THAT A LOT OF
ENTERPRISES WERE FORMED AND GREW WITHOUT
BANKS LENDING THEM CAPITAL
SO, NEXT TO THE QUESTION OF THE EMERGENCE
OF NORMS ON BANKING, STOOD THE QUESTION OF
THE EMERGENCE OF NORMS ON ENTERPRISES
LATER ON WEBER CAME TO SEE
THAT THE NORMS OF SOCIETIES
SOMETIMES OR OFTEN REMAIN
DEAD LETTERS
MOST NORMS FORBID SOMETHING,
BUT PEOPLE MAY STILL DO THE
FORBIDDEN THINGS,
PARTICULARLY IF THE
ENFORCEMENT OF NORMS BY
SPECIALISTS COSTS THE STATE A
LOT OF MONEY
WEBER ALSO HELD THAT THERE ARE NORMS
THAT GIVE PEOPLE RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS,
SUCH AS THE FREEDOM TO START AN
ENTERPRISE AND TO FIND A NEW EMPLOYER,
AND THAT THE INHABITANTS OF A SOCIETY WITH
SUCH NORMS MAY NOT USE THESE FREEDOMS
SO, NEXT TO THE QUESTION OF THE
EMERGENCE OF THE NORMS OF
ENTERPRENEURAL CAPITALISM,
STANDS THE QUESTION OF THE DEGREE TO
WHICH PEOPLE USE THESE FREEDOMS
AND THE QUESTION WHICH PEOPLE USE THEM
MORE THAN OTHER PEOPLE
RISE OF CAPITALISM
RISE OF
BANKING
CAPITALISM
RISE OF
ENTERPRENEURAL
CAPITALISM
EMERGENCE OF
THE FREEDOMS
OF ENTERPRISE
AND LABOUR
DIFFERENTIAL USE
OF FREEDOMS OF
ENTERPRISE AND
LABOUR
WEBER ALSO SAID THAT THE RISE OF CAPITALISM
WAS BUT ONE INSTANCE OF RATIONALIZATION,
SINCE THERE ARE MANY SPHERES OF LIFE
TECHNICAL INVENTIONS AS RATIONALIZATIONS
PAINTINGS APPLYING TECHNICAL INVENTIONS AS
RATIONALIZATION IN ART
THE SHIFT FROM SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY AND
PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE TO SCIENCE APPLYING
LOGIC AND EXPERIMENTATION
THE SHIFT FROM RULE BY THE WILL OF A SOCIETY’S
KING TO RULE BY CODIFIED LAWS
RELIGION SYSTEMATIZED BY THEOLOGY
RATIONALIZATION
TECHNICAL
INVENTIONS
RISE OF
SCIENCE
BUREAUCRATIZATION
RISE OF
CAPITALISM
RATIONALIZATION IS AN
OVERARCHING PROBLEM
RATIONALIZATION
TECHNICAL
INVENTIONS
RISE OF
SCIENCE
BUREAUCRATIZATION
THE PROBLEM OF
RATIONALIZATION MAY BE
EXTENDED EASILY BY
DEVISING NEW BRANCHES
RISE OF
CAPITALISM
WEBER SAID ALL THIS IN 1920
BUT WEBER ALMOST ONLY DEALT WITH
THE RISE OF ENTERPRENEURAL
CAPITALISM BECAUSE OF NORM USE
IN 1936 ROBERT MERTON WAS THE
FRIST TO STUDY THE CONTRIBUTION OF
PROTESTANTISM TO THR RISE OF
SCIENCE IN ENGLAND IN THE 17TH
CENTURY
IN THE 1950’s PETER BLAU
RESURRECTED THE PROBLEM OF
BUREAUCRATIZATION FOR THE UNITED
STATES OF HIS DAYS
RATIONALIZATION
TECHNICAL
INVENTIONS
CALENDERS
AND OTHER
SOCIAL
FORMS OF
TIME
RECKONING
RISE OF
SCIENCE
BUREAUCRATIZATION
RISE OF
CAPITALISM
THE EXTENSION OF THE
PROBLEM OF
RATIONALIZATION BY
EVIATAR ZERUBAVEL IN
THE 1970S, 50 YEARS
AFTER WEBER
RANDALL COLLINS SAID IN 1994 IN
FOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TRADITIONS
THAT DURKHEIM WAS NOT
INTERESTED IN SUICIDE AT ALL
WHAT WAS DURKHEIM INTERESTED
IN THEN?
AND WHY WOULD DURKHEIM WRITE
A BOOK ABOUT SOMETHING HE WAS
NOT INTERESTED IN?
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF COHESION
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF COHESION
HOBBES’
WAR OF ALL
AGAINST
ALL AND OF
RULERS
AGAINST
RULERS
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF COHESION
HOBBES’
WAR OF ALL
AGAINST
ALL AND OF
RULERS
AGAINST
RULERS
LOCKE’S
REBELLION
OF
SUBJECTS
AGAINST
RULERS
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF COHESION
HOBBES’
WAR OF ALL
AGAINST
ALL AND OF
RULERS
AGAINST
RULERS
LOCKE’S
REBELLION
OF
SUBJECTS
AGAINST
RULERS
BENTHAM’S
SWIFT,
SEVERE AND
CERTAIN
SENTENCING
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
HOBBES’
WAR OF ALL
AGAINST
ALL AND OF
RULERS
AGAINST
RULERS
LOCKE’S
REBELLION
OF
SUBJECTS
AGAINST
RULERS
BENTHAM’S
SWIFT,
SEVERE AND
CERTAIN
SENTENCES
DURKHEIM’S
SUICIDE
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
(DIS)COHESION
HOBBES’
WAR OF ALL
AGAINST
ALL AND OF
RULERS
AGAINST
RULERS
LOCKE’S
REBELLION
OF
SUBJECTS
AGAINST
RULERS
BENTHAM’S
SWIFT,
SEVERE AND
CERTAIN
SENTENCES
DURKHEIM’S
SUICIDE
HERE STILL SEEMS TO BE A LEAP FROM
SUICIDE TO COHESION
THERE NO LONGER IS A LEAP IF IT IS
UNDERSTOOD THAT THE MEMBERS OF A
SOCIETY NOT ONLY MAY FIGHT ONE
ANOTHER
BUT THAT THE MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY MAY
ALSO LIVE IN ISOLATION FROM OTHERS
SOCIETIES MAY BE SEGMENTED
SOCIETIES MAY BE LIKE A HEAP OF SAND
LIKE VIOLENCE, THESE PHENOMENA ARE
ALSO FORMS OF DISCOHESION
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION
VIOLENCE AGAINST OTHERS
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION
VIOLENCE AGAINST OTHERS
ECONOMIC
TIES
THROUGH
THE
DIVISION OF
LABOUR
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION
VIOLENCE AGAINST OTHERS
ECONOMIC
TIES
THROUGH
THE
DIVISION OF
LABOUR
SUICIDE AS
CUTTING
THE LAST
TIE TO
SOCIETY
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION
VIOLENCE AGAINST OTHERS
ECONOMIC
TIES
THROUGH
THE
DIVISION OF
LABOUR
SUICIDE AS
CUTTING
THE LAST
TIE TO
SOCIETY
PARTAKING
IN
RELIGIOUS
RITES
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION
VIOLENCE AGAINST OTHERS
ECONOMIC
TIES
THROUGH
THE DIVISION
OF LABOUR
SUICIDE AS
CUTTING
THE LAST
TIE TO
SOCIETY
PARTAKING
IN
RELIGIOUS
RITES
MARRIAGE
AND
DIVORCE
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION
VIOLENCE AGAINST OTHERS
ECONOMIC
TIES
THROUGH
THE DIVISION
OF LABOUR
SUICIDE AS
CUTTING
THE LAST
TIE TO
SOCIETY
ISOLATION
PARTAKING
IN
RELIGIOUS
RITES
MARRIAGE
AND
DIVORCE
ONCE MORE DURKHEIM ON COHESION:
THE PROBLEMS OF ALL OF DURKHEIM’S BOOKS
COHESION
VIOLENCE AGAINST OTHERS
ECONOMIC
TIES
THROUGH
THE DIVISION
OF LABOUR
SUICIDE AS
CUTTING
THE LAST
TIE TO
SOCIETY
ISOLATION
PARTAKING
IN
RELIGIOUS
RITES
MARRIAGE
AND
DIVORCE
PROBLEM STRUCTURES AND THEIR DYNAMICS
P7
P1
P2
P6
P3
P4
P5
THE EXPRESSION THAT THEORY T1 DOES
NOT SOLVE PROBLEM P1
CAN MEAN TWO THINGS:
* IT MAKES PREDICTIONS THAT ARE OFF THE
MARK
* IT DOES NOT MAKE ANY PREDICTIONS AT
ALL ON A CERTAIN TOPIC
THE FIRST CASE INDICATES THAT
SOMETHING IS WRONG WITH T1
THE SECOND CRITICISM AMOUNTS TO
SAYING THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO EAT SOUP
WITH A KNIFE
BUT SOME THEORIES MAY
SOLVE MORE PROBLEMS THAN
OTHER THEORIES, AND THE
MORE PROBLEMS A THEORY
SOLVES, THE BETTER
P1
P2
T1
P3
RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY SHOULD
BE SUCH A UNIFYING THEORY
MAKING SOCIOLOGY LESS MESSY
BAD AND BETTER QUESTIONS:
FILLING IN ALL THE BLANKS
PSYCHOLOGY IS ABOUT HUMAN BEINGS
SOCIOLOGY IS ABOUT HUMAN SOCIETIES
TRUE, BUT THE STUDY OF SOCIETIES IS
NOT A FULL-FLEDGED PROBLEM
IT IS AT BEST THE SPECIFICATION OF THE
OBJECT TO BE STUDIED
BAD AND BETTER QUESTIONS:
FILLING IN ALL THE BLANKS
SOCIOLOGY STUDIES HOW
SOCIETIES FUNCTION
THAT DOES NOT SAY MUCH:
FUNCTIONING IS NOT YET A
VARIABLE FEATURE OF SOCIETIES
BAD AND BETTER QUESTIONS:
FILLING IN ALL THE BLANKS
SOCIOLOGY STUDIES THE
FREQUENCY WITH WHICH EACH
PARTICULAR PENAL LAW OF
INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES IS
TRESPASSED
HERE A VARIABLE FEATURE OF
SOCIETIES IS SPECIFIED
BAD AND BETTER QUESTIONS:
FILLING IN ALL THE BLANKS
SOCIOLOGY STUDIES THE
FREQUENCY WITH WHICH EACH
PARTICULAR PENAL LAW OF
INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES IS
TRESPASSED
HERE THE SOCIETAL PHENOMENON
TE BE EXPLAINED IS SPECIFIED
BUT NO HINT IS GIVEN OF THE
FACTOR(S) DOING THE
EXPLANATION
BAD AND BETTER QUESTIONS:
FILLING IN ALL THE BLANKS
WHY IS IN 2005 THE MURDER RATE
IN THE USA AND RUSSIA HIGHER
THAN IN THE NETHERLANDS AND
SWEDEN?
THIS IS AN EXPLANATORY
QUESTION, BUT NO CAUSES ARE
SPECIFIED
BAD AND BETTER QUESTIONS:
FILLING IN ALL THE BLANKS
IS IN 2005 THE MURDER RATE IN THE
USA AND RUSSIA HIGHER THAN IN THE
NETHERLANDS AND SWEDEN,
BECAUSE THE FIRST TWO COUNTRIES
HAVE LENIENT LAWS ON GUN
OWNERSHIP, WHILE THE LAST TWO
HAVE RESTRICTIVE LAWS?
THIS QUESTION SPECIFIES A
POSSIBLE CAUSE
FROM DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
BY WAY OF COMPARARIVE QUESTIONS
AND TREND QUESTIONS
TO DEEPER AND DEEPER
EXPLANATORY QUESTIONS
DEPTH HAS NO END
STOPPING RULES ARE ARBITRARY
AND SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED
HOW HIGH IS IN 2005 THE MURDER RATE
IN THE NETHERLANDS?
THIS IS A DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION
THE DESCRIPTION MAY NOT BE EASY
MURDER RATES IN THE STATISTICS OF
DEATH CAUSES MAY DIFFER
FROM MURDER RATES IN POLICE
STATISTICS AND
FROM MURDER RATES IN CONVICTION
STATISTICS
TO WHAT EXTENT DOES THE DUTCH
2005 MURDER RATE DIFFER FROM
THE DUTCH MURDER RATE IN 2000?
THIS IS A TREND QUESTION
TO WHAT EXTENT DOES THE DUTCH
2005 MURDER RATE DIFFER FROM
THE MURDER RATES FOR THAT
YEAR IN RUSSIA, SWEDEN AND THE
UNITED STATES?
THIS IS A COMPARATIVE QUESTION
A TREND QUESTION
PRESUPPOSES AN ANSWER TO A
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTION
AND SO DOES A COMPARATIVE
QUESTION
IF THE DESCRIPTIVE ANSWER IS
FALSE
THEN THE TREND QUESTION AND
THE COMPARATIVE QUESTION ARE
MISGUIDED
IS THE DUTCH 2005 MURDER RATE
LOWER THAN THE UNITED STATES 2005
MURDER RATE BECAUSE GUNS ARE
MORE FREELY AVAILABLE IN THE USA
THAN IN THE NETHERLANDS?
THIS IS AN EXPLANATORY QUESTION
THIS EXPLANATORY QUESTION
PRESUPPOSES AN ANSWER TO A
COMPARATIVE QUESTION
IF THE ANSWER TO THE COMPARATIVE
QUESTION IS FALSE, THE EXPLANATORY
QUESTION IS MISGUIDED
ACCORDING TO PROPONENTS OF
LENIENT GUN LAWS, GUNS FRIGHTEN
POTENTIAL CRIMINALS AWAY
SO WHY WOULD LESS STRINGENT LAWS
ON GUN OWNERSHIP MAKE FOR HIGHER
MURDER RATES?
THIS IS A DEEPER EXPLANATORY
QUESTION
IF THE ANSWER TO THE MORE
SUPERFICIAL EXPLANATORY QUESTION
IS FALSE, THE DEEPER EXPLANATORY
QUESTION IS MISGUIDED
DURKHEIM AIMED FOR DEEPER
EXPLANATIONS
HIS STOPPING RULE WAS THAT
SOCIETAL PHENOMENA ARE TO BE
EXPLAINED BY OTHER SOCIETAL
PHENOMENA
THE INDIVIDUALIST PROGRAM IN
SOCIOLOGY HOLDS THAT
SOCIETAL EXPLANATIONS DO NOT
GO DEEP ENOUGH
ONLY EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIETAL
PHENOMENA ARE ACCEPTABLE
WHICH GO BACK TO THE
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
THE RATIONAL CHOICE PROGRAM IN
SOCIOLOGY HOLDS THAT INDIVIDUAL
EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIETAL
PHENOMENA ARE NOT ALWAYS
ACCEPTABLE
THEY SHOULD ALWAYS INVOLVE THE
ASSUMPTION THAT INDIVIDUALS ACT
IN A RATIONAL WAY
THE EVOLUTIONARY PROGRAM IN
SOCIOLOGY HOLDS THAT INDIVIDUAL
EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIETAL
PHENOMENA ARE NOT ALWAYS
ACCEPTABLE
THEY SHOULD ALWAYS INVOLVE THE
SELECTIVE EFFECTS OF
ENVIRONMENTS ON INDIVIDUALS
(PEOPLE ARE NOT ALWAYS RATIONAL,
AND IF THEY ARE NOT RATIONAL THEIR
REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS WILL BE
LIMITED)
THE QUEST FOR DEPTH IS
WORTHWHILE BECAUSE A DEEPER
EXPLANATION MODIFIES THE MORE
SUPERFICIAL EXPLANATION
HOWEVER, WHETHER THIS LOGICAL
POSSIBILITY FREQUENLTY OCCURS
IS ANOTHER MATTER
THE POINT IS NOT TO EXPLAIN
SOCIETAL PHENOMENA BY
INDIVIDUAL ASSUMPTIONS
THE POINT IS TO INTERPRETE
ABSOLUTE PROPERTIES OF
SOCIETIES AS RELATIONAL
PROPERTIES OF SOCIETIES
AND TO EXPLAIN THESE RELATIONAL
SOCIETAL PROPERTIES BY
PROPOSITIONS INVOKING THE
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE MEMBERS
OF A SOCIETY
THIS RULE HAS TWO CONTRASTS:
SOCIETIES, INDIVIDUALS AND THE
MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY
AND THE ABSOLUTE PROPERTIES OF
SOCIETIES AND OF INDIVIDUALS
AND THE RELATIONAL PROPERTIES
OF INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES
(THE ERROR OF HUMMELL AND OPP, THE REDUCTION OF
SOCIOLOGY TO PSYCHOLOGY FROM 1968, IS TO BYPASS
THE RULE TO INTERPRET ABSOLUTE PROPERTIES AS
RELATIONAL PROPERTIES)
REALLY BAD QUESTIONS:
TUNNEL VISION QUESTIONS
OR ONE-TRACK-MIND QUESTIONS
WHY DOES THE EXPLOITED WORKING CLASS
REMAIN PASSIVE?
(THE WORKING CLASS IS NOT EXPLOITED!)
WHICH SELECTIVE INCENTIVE MAKES PEOPLE
JOIN GREENPEACE?
(SHOULD A SELECTIVE INCENTIVE ALWAYS BE
THE CAUSE OF JOINING?)
THE ONE BUT BEST
QUESTIONS:
THE INCOMPATIBILITY
BETWEEN TWO
EXPLANATIONS OF THE SAME
RESEARCH FINDING
SUCH INCOMPATABILITIES
SOMETIMES ARE CALLED
ISSUES
THE BEST QUESTIONS:
CONTRADICTIONS BETWEEN
A NOT SO BAD HYPOTHESIS
AND
STRONG RESEARCH FINDINGS
SUCH CONTRADICTIONS
SOMETIMES ARE CALLED
ANOMALIES OR PUZZLES
MODERNISATION THEORY SOUGHT
TO ANSWER THE QUESTION OF
WHY SOME COUNTRIES ARE MORE
DEVELOPED THAN OTHER
COUNTRIES
WALLERSTEIN MAINTAINS THAT THIS
QUESTION IS WRONG
WALLERSTEIN CLAIMS TO HAVE
SHOWN THAT THE DEVELOPMENT
OF SOME COUNTRIES HINDERED
THE DEVELOPMENT OF OTHER
COUNTRIES
RESEARCH ON ETHNIC
MINORITIES IN THE
NETHERLANDS FOR A LONG
TIME WAS CONCERNED WITH
INEQUALITY QUESTIONS
AROUND 2000 POLICY MAKERS
WANTED MORE RESEARCH ON
INTEGRATION QUESTIONS
THERE WAS AND IS A FEAR FOR
THE EMERGENCE OF A
PARALLEL SOCIETY
CONSISTING OF ISLAMIC
MIGRANTS FROM MOROCCO
AND TURKEY
SEVERAL SCHOLARS THEN REWORDED
THEIR INEQUALITY QUESTIONS AS
COHESION QUESTIONS
THEY DID SO BY TALKING ABOUT
INTEGRATION IN THE LABOUR MARKET
THIS DOES NOT AMOUNT TO A
RECASTING OF A PROBLEM
INDEED THIS REWORDING AMOUNTS TO
A CATEGORY MISTAKE
A PERSON IS INTEGRATED IN A GROUP
AND A PERSON HAS A WEAKER OR
STRONGER POSITION ON A MARKET
MARKETS AND GROUPS ARE
DISPARATE PHENOMENA
UNTIL NOW THE MOST
OBVIOUS QUESTION
ABOUT THE ECONOMIC
INTEGRATION OF ETHNIC
MINORITIES HAS NOT BEEN
ADDRESSED
HOW MANY MOROCCANS
SUPERVISE THE WORK OF
PERSONS WITH FOUR
GRANDPARENTS BORN IN
THE NETHERLANDS?
THAT IS THE MOST
PERTINENT QUESTION
ABOUT ECONOMIC TIES
DAWKINS, THE GOD DELUSION, 2006
DAWKINS IS A BIOLOGIST AND AN
ATHEIST
ATHEISTS POINT TOWARDS SUCH
THINGS AS RELIGIOUS WARS
BIOLOGISTS USE EVOLUTIONARY
THEORIES, AND SOMETHING
PERSISTS BECAUSE IT HAS
SURVIVAL VALUE
A RELIGION IS SOMETHING, SO AN
ATHEIST BIOLOGIST SEEMS IN
DIFFICULTY
DAWKINS, PAGE 172:
When we ask about the survival value
of anything, we may be asking the
wrong question. We need to rewrite
the question in a more helpful way.
Perhaps the feature we are interested
in (religion in this case) does not have
a direct survival value of its own, but
is a by-product of something else that
does.
WHAT DO YOU THINK OF THIS
PROBLEM SHIFT ?
ARE PARADOXES INTERESTING
RESEARCH QUESTIONS?
ACCORDING TO GLENN FIREBAUGH,
THE NEW GEOGRAPHY OF WORLD
INCOME DISTRIBUTION
INCOME INEQUALITY BETWEEN
PERSONS IN ALMOST EVERY
COUNTRY OF THE WORLD IS RISING
WHILE INCOME INEQUALITY BETWEEN
PERSONS, MEASURED BY TAKEN ALL
COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD AS A
SUPER UNIT,
IS DECLINING
HOW IS THIS POSSIBLE?