EFFECTIVENESS OF ION EXCHANGE WATER FILTERS TO OVERCOME WATER
HARDNESS
ABSTRACT




Why do you want to do this project?
What problem are you trying to solve?
Why do you think the problem is significant?
How do you go about solving on the problem?
INTRODUCTION



Define the hard water.
How the hard water does create problems?
What is carbonate and non-carbonate hardness?
CONTENT





What is ion exchange system?
What is the principle ion exchange system?
What are the health effects of hard water and soft water?
What is the alternative treatment for water hardness?
Compare the alternative method with ion exchange system
CONCLUSION



Is it important to treat water hardness in our daily activities?
Is it important to treat water hardness in our daily activities?
How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this study?
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the
APA format
APPENDICES


This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report
Things like:
– Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys,
Product
Designs,
Packaging
Specs,
Mathematical
Calculations, etc
1
EFFECTIVENESS OF ION EXCHANGE WATER FILTERS TO OVERCOME
WATER HARDNESS
ABSTRACT




To study water hardness treatment using water softener
To treat hard water to soft water using ion exchange system
Hard water will increase the cost in household cleaning tasks
Study the principles in ion exchange system to treat hard water
INTRODUCTION
 Hard water is high in dissolved minerals, both calcium and magnesium. As
water moves through soil and rock, it dissolves small amounts of these
naturally-occurring minerals and carries them into the ground water supply.
 Hard water interferes with almost every cleaning task. With an increase in
both calcium & magnesium, the following are seen:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Soap scum in sinks and bathtubs
Bathtub rings
Spots on dishes or shower doors
Reduced foaming and cleaning abilities of soaps and detergents
Dingy and yellowed clothes with soapy residues that require extra
rinsing to remove
Clogged pipes from buildup of minerals
Increased water heating costs from buildup of minerals, reducing
efficiency of water heaters
Possible skin infections from bacteria trapped in pores underneath
soap scum
All these problems will increase the cost and time of cleaning processes.

Carbonate hardness is the most common and is responsible for
the deposition of calcium carbonate scale in pipes and
equipment. The equation below shows how this deposition is
formed in the presence of heat:
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Carbon dioxide resulting from this reaction can combine with
water to give carbonic acid which causes corrosion of iron or
steel equipment.
Noncarbonate hardness reacts with the carbonate alkalinity
found in soap and detergents in this reaction:
CaSO4 + NaCO3 → CaCO3 + Na2SO4
2
CONTENT







Ion exchange (IE) is a water treatment method that replace calcium and
magnesium ions from water. Both the contaminant and the exchanged
substance must be dissolved and have the same type (+,-) of electrical
charge.
Ion-exchange devices consist of a bed of plastic (polymer) beads covalently
bound to anion groups, such as -COO-. The negative charge of these anions
is balanced by Na+ cations attached to them.
When water containing Ca2+ and Mg2+ is passed through the ion exchanger,
the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are more attracted to the anion groups than the Na+
ions. It is because of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions have smaller sizes compared to Na+
ion. The smaller the size of the cation, the stronger the attraction towards
the negative ions . Hence, they replace the Na+ ions on the beads, and so the
Na+ ions (which do not form scale) go into the water in their place.
Hardness does not pose a health risk. In fact, calcium and magnesium in
your drinking water can help ensure you get the average daily requirements
for these minerals in your diet.
Unfortunately for soft water, many people with high blood pressure or other
health problems must restrict their intake of sodium. Because water softened
by this type of ion exchange contains many sodium ions, people with limited
sodium intakes should avoid drinking water that has been softened this way.
The alternative treatment for water hardness is using Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3
Calcium precipitates as CaCO3, and magnesium precipitates as Mg(OH)2
when react with Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3. These solids can be collected, thus
removing the scale-forming cations from the water supply.
Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)
Ca2+(aq) + 2 CO32-(aq) → CaCO3 (s)
3
Consultation of the solubility guidelines in the experiment reveals that the
Ca(OH)2 of slaked lime is moderately soluble in water. Hence, it can
dissociate in water to give one Ca2+ ion and two OH- ions for each unit of
Ca(OH)2 that dissolves. The OH- ions react with Mg2+ ions in the water to
form the insoluble precipitate. The Ca2+ ions are unaffected by this reaction,
and so we do not include them in the net ionic reaction. They are removed by
the separate reaction with CO32- ions from the soda ash.


This method needs personnel to handle the chemicals and also precautionary
steps.
Suitable for industries sector due to cheaper cost compared to ion exchange
system.
CONCLUSION
 Soft water can improve your daily life. Enjoy fresher laundry and spotless
glasses from soft water. Do less cleaning and scrubbing. Increase water
heater efficiency and more. Nevertheless, many people with high blood
pressure or other health problems must restrict their intake of sodium.
Because water softened by this type of ion exchange contains many sodium
ions.
 For those industries using steam boilers, soft water should be used at all
times to prevent scale build-up and tube stoppage. It is necessary for long
life and efficient boiler service and will reduce the cost of production.
 Human beings are the most intelligent beings on earth so it makes sense that
we have the responsibility to care for our life. Every drop of water is a
blessing from Allah. Wisely use our intelligence to choose the right types of
water for our betterment.
4
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. http://des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/factsheets/dwgb/documents/d
wgb-2-12.pdf
2. http://web.sahra.arizona.edu/programs/akyw/ion.html
3. http://www.culligan.com/en/faq/
4. http://www.parkerboiler.com/pdf/bulletins/Water%20Treatment/1001B-C.PDF
5. http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/live/g1491/build/g1491.pdf
6. http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education2/46-ion-exchangeprinciple.htm
7. http://extoxnet.orst.edu/faqs/safedrink/hard.htm
APPENDIX
5
IS NITROGEN BETTER THAN AIR IN CAR TYRES?
ABSTRACT

Briefly explain how redox reaction can affect the car tyres.

What would happen to car tyres that experienced redox reaction?

Why nitrogen gas is better than air in car tires?

Briefly explain the benefits of using nitrogen gas in car tyres.
INTRODUCTION

What are the characteristic of nitrogen gas?

What are contents of air? (O2, CO2, etc..)

What is the process occur when use air in tyres?

What is redox reaction?

What are the factors affecting redox reaction?
CONTENT

How does air affect the aging of the car tyres? (by redox reaction).

Elaborate and give examples.

Why nitrogen been introduced as an alternative?

Nitrogen has been used in car race and aeroplane. Why?
CONCLUSION

Give own opinion whether air or nitrogen is better for car tyres.

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives
constraints on using nitrogen in car tyres?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
and
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the APA
format
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report

Things like:
– Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys,
Product
Designs,
Packaging
Specs,
Mathematical
Calculations, etc.
6
IS NITROGEN BETTER THAN AIR IN CAR TIRES?
As if the tangled task of maintaining your vehicle without draining your bank account isn't tough enough,
some of the folks who sell and service the tires on your car have come up with another item for your
consideration:
Would you like regular air or nitrogen with your tires?
Nitrogen? OK, expect to be charged as much as $10 per tire for that choice.
Is it worth it? Let's check the basics.
You might trace this latest kink to the concerns of several years ago about blowouts on SUVs, particularly
the Ford Explorer equipped with Firestone tires. What's at issue with nitrogen versus plain old air, which
comes from the pump at the gas station, is that nitrogen is a dryer, more stable gas that's less prone to
changes in pressure due to heat or cold.
Nitrogen has long been used in aircraft tires and in the tires of race cars. Its use in average road cars is
new and controversial. Proponents of nitrogen argue that since studies show that fewer than 60 percent of
drivers rarely if ever check the inflation of their tires, anything that will slow the normal leakage -estimated by some at 1 to 2 pounds per square inch a month -- is a good safety measure. One Web site
that lays out the claims for using nitrogen is www.getnitrogen.org.
It says, essentially, that putting nitrogen in your tires will increase your fuel efficiency because properly
inflated tires will reduce rolling resistance, which can mean as much as a 3 percent better mileage than a
car with under-inflated tires. It also claims that nitrogen will not degrade the interior rubber of the tire or
corrode the wheels, since it contains no oxygen or water vapor - both present in the atmosphere we
breathe and pump into our tires.
But a closer examination of the facts makes some of the claims for nitrogen seem at best anecdotal or
illusory for everyday drivers. First, the air around us is already 78 percent nitrogen, with 21 percent
oxygen and 1 percent other gases. So going to pure nitrogen only squeezes out a small amount of the
oxygen molecules that nitrogen proponents argue are so detrimental. Also, the advantage of nitrogen
being more stable and less prone to changes in pressure due to heat in the tires seems of little benefit to
average drivers. Race teams use it because they can change the handling of the car by adjusting individual
tire pressure by as little as a quarter pound. So having a gas that's ultra stable has real benefits when
dealing with such small degrees.
Nitrogen proponents say that the nature of the gas means it's less prone to leaking out over time through
the pores present in rubber tires. But most air leakage in tires can be traced to poor fit around the rim of
the wheel or the valve stem, rather than gas permeating through the rubber. Claims of nitrogen being more
friendly to the rubber and wheels is also questionable, since most tires wear out the tread on the outside
long before the inner rubber would go bad from exposure to oxygen. The same factors hold true for
wheels, many of which are made from alloys, not straight steel. You're far more likely to damage a wheel
from hitting a curb than see a wheel go bad from oxidation. A good site that takes a contrarian point of
view on nitrogen in passenger car tires is www.eng-tips.com, which is run by engineers. When it comes
down to a dollar decision, it's hard to argue that spending as much as $40 for nitrogen in a set of tires is a
good fiscal move.
Even if you accept the arguments of proponents, at some point you are going to have to add air to your
tires - not even the most ardent nitrogen pushers will say that your tires will never lose pressure. When
that happens, you're most likely to go to the corner gas station, put in a couple of quarters and pump your
tire up with regular old air, which will mix with the nitrogen and degrade its benefits.
7
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CATALYTIC CONVERTER IN VEHICLES TO REDUCE
AIR POLLUTION
ABSTRACT

What problem are you trying to solve? To study how effective catalytic
converter in vehicle as a device to reduce the harmful gases from an internal
combustion engine.

Why do you think the problem is significant?
Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing
harmful gases. However, they also have some shortcomings and adverse
environmental impacts in production.

How do you go about solving on the problem?
Several precautions are suggested to overcome the catalytic converter
problems and the car owner should learn about how catalytic converter
works and be alert for signs of problem.
INTRODUCTION

What is catalytic converter?

What is catalyst?

When was it first used?
CONTENT

What are the constructions of catalytic converter?

What are the unique properties and drawbacks of three catalysts (platinum,
palladium and rhodium) used in catalytic converter?

How the catalytic converter works?

What are the chemical reactions in catalytic converter?

How dangerous air pollution to human being?

What are the shortcomings of catalytic converter?
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives and
constraints on this problem?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the
APA format
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report

Things like:
– Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys,
Product
Designs,
Packaging
Specs,
Mathematical
Calculations, etc.
8
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CATALYTIC CONVERTER IN VEHICLES TO REDUCE
AIR POLLUTION
ABSTRACT

A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions control device that converts toxic
pollutants in exhaust gas to less toxic pollutants, by catalyzing a redox
reaction (oxidation or reduction).

Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing
harmful gases. However, they also have some shortcomings and adverse
environmental impacts in production.

Several precautions are suggested to overcome the catalytic converter
problems and besides that the car owner must have the information to
identify the problems so these problems can be solved.
INTRODUCTION

A catalytic converter is a device used in exhaust systems to reduce the
harmful emissions from an internal combustion engine used in vehicles.

Catalytic converters provide a place for the oxidation and reduction of toxic
by-products (like nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, and hydrocarbons) of
fuel into less hazardous substances for the environment such as carbon
dioxide, water vapor, and nitrogen gas.

A catalyst is a substance that causes or accelerates a chemical reaction
without itself being affected. Catalysts participate in the reactions, but are
neither reactants nor products of the reaction they catalyze.

The first catalytic converter was invented by the French engineer Eugene
Houdry around 1950 for use in smoke stacks.

Catalytic converters were first widely introduced in American production cars
in 1975 due to EPA regulations on toxic reductions.
CONTENT
The catalytic converter's construction is as follows:

The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the
core is usually a ceramic monolith with a honeycomb structure, where
particularly high heat resistance is required. Either material is designed to
provide a large surface area.

The washcoat:
- is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials
over a large surface area.
- is made of aluminum oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, or a mixture
of silica and alumina.
- is selected to form a rough, irregular surface, which greatly increases the
surface area and maximizes the catalytically active surface available to
react with the engine exhaust.
- must retain its surface area and prevent sintering of the catalytic metal
particles even at high temperatures (1000 °C).
9

The catalyst itself, most often a mix of precious metals which are platinum,
palladium and rhodium.
The unique properties and drawbacks of three catalysts:

Platinum is a very good oxidation catalyst and has good resistance to poisons
such as sulfur, phosphorus, or lead, which may be present in the exhaust.
Two drawbacks to platinum are its low activity for the conversion of NOx and
its high price relative to palladium.

Palladium, which is currently the cheapest of the three metals, has excellent
activity for the oxidation of hydrocarbons as well as very good thermal
durability. Drawbacks to palladium include its sensitivity to poisons.

Rhodium, currently the most expensive of the three, has by far the highest
activity for the removal of NOx from the exhaust. In addition, it has
significant activity for the oxidation of HC and CO and very good resistance
to the poisons present in the exhaust stream. Its primary drawback is its
high cost.
The working of catalytic converter and the reactions involved:
Two-way

A two-way (or "oxidation") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:
1.
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
2.
Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burnt fuel) to carbon
dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 → xCO2 + (x+1) H2O (a
combustion reaction)

Because of their inability to control oxides of nitrogen, they were superseded
by three-way converters.
Three-way

Three-way catalytic converters (TWC) have the additional advantage of
controlling the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx), in particular nitrous oxide,
a greenhouse gas over three hundred times more potent than carbon
dioxide, a precursor to acid rain and currently the most ozone-depleting
substance.

Most modern cars are equipped with three-way catalytic converters.

A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous functions:
1.
Reduction of nitrogen oxides into elemental nitrogen and oxygen using
platinum and rhodium catalysts: NOx → N2 + O2
2.
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: CO + O2 → CO2
3.
Oxidation of hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water: CxH4x +
2xO2 → xCO2 + 2xH2O
Both oxidation reactions use platinum and palladium as catalysts.
Danger of pollutants:

Nitrogen oxides- these compounds are in the same family as nitrogen
dioxide, nitric acid, nitrous oxide, nitrates, and nitric oxide. When NOx is
released into the air, it reacts with organic compounds in the air and
sunlight, the result is smog. Smog is a pollutant and has adverse effects on
children's lungs. NOx reacting with sulfur dioxide produces acid rain, highly
10


destructive to everything it lands on. NOx can also bind with ozone to create
biological mutations, and reduce the transmission of light (like smog).
Carbon monoxide- this form of CO2 is a harmful variant of a naturally
occurring gas. Odorless and colorless, this gas does not have many useful
functions in everyday processes.
Hydrocarbons- inhaling hydrocarbons from gasoline, household cleaners,
propellants, kerosene and other fuels can cause death in children. Further
complications can be central nervous system impairments and cardiovascular
problems.
The shortcomings of catalytic converter:

Overheating
– Overheating of the catalytic converter is caused by a failing oxygen
sensor.
– The oxygen sensor is responsible for measuring the fuel mix in terms of
air and liquid fuel. When the mix is too rich, this can lead to overheating
the catalytic converter.

Leaded gasoline
– if lead gets inside the fuel and is burned, it leaves a residue that coats the
catalytic metals (Pt, Rh, Pd) and prevents them from contacting the
exhaust fumes and performing the necessary redox reactions.

Catalytic converter theft
– Due to the use of precious metals in the coating of the inner ceramic
structure, many catalytic converters have been targeted for theft.
– The converter is for the most part easy to get to, because it lies on the
outside and under the car.

Environmental impact
– During the conversion of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide is produced.
– Carbon dioxide is one of the most common greenhouse gases and
contributes immensely to global warming.
CONCLUSION

Car owner must have the knowledge on how the catalytic converter works
and the problems by observing the performance of the car as well as the fuel
consumption.

Several precautions that can be suggested to overcome the catalytic
converter problems are:
- in the case of overheating, vehicle owners can use an engine diagnostic
system to figure out if an oxygen sensor has failed. This can lead to
figuring out if the catalytic converter has been “fried” or overheated.
- vehicles should use unleaded gasoline, meaning all the lead has been
taken out of the fuel.
- anti-theft sensor may be used to avoid the catalytic converter theft.
- cheaper metals as catalyst can be an alternative to the precious metals.

Despite the lack of technology to solve the problems brought about by the
catalytic converter (which in due time, may be able to be solved), catalytic
11


converter in vehicles have much to offer, not only to the environment, but
also the economy and the society.
The use of catalytic converter which can reduce air pollution is also aligned
with Islamic teachings that encourage human being as khalifah to do good
not just to each other but also to the environment.
Surah Ar-Rum (30):41
“Mischief has appeared on land and sea because of (the meed) that the
hands of have earned, that (Allah) may give them a taste of some of their
deeds: in order that they may turn back (from Evil)”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
http://www.explorecuriocity.org/Content.aspx?contentid=1779
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/catalyticconverter.htm#sthash.vTaZKPvW.dpuf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter
http://www.howstuffworks.com/catalytic-converter.htm
http://www.absorblearning.com/media/item.action?quick=ve
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmtFp-SV0tY
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0920586199000243
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Kinetics/Case_Studies/Cata
lytic_Converters
http://www.doityourself.com/stry/3-common-catalytic-converterproblems#.Ur-PO0lXjMw#ixzz2opSke7Ss
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-troubleshoot-catalyticconverters.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter
APPENDICES
Ceramic honeycomb catalyst structure.
12
Interior and exterior views of a catalytic converter.
13
THE POSITIVE SIDE OF CAFFEINE -AS ANTIOXIDANT
ABSTRACT
•
Why do you want to do this project? Caffeine intake has been associated with
a variety of harmful but at the same time it has beneficial health effect.
•
What problems are trying to solve? Reduce the negative health effect.
•
Why do you think the problem is significant? Long term and excess intake of
caffeine can lead to fast heart rate, diuresis, restlessness and etc.
•
How do you go about solving on the problem? Natural decaffeinated beverages
as an alternative
INTRODUCTION
•
What is caffeine? –the structure, sources, physical properties?
•
What is antioxidant?- an antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of
other molecules
CONTENT
•
Who and why used caffeine?
•
How caffeine affects your body?
•
How do caffeine works as antioxidant?
•
What are the negative side effects?
•
How it harm the body?
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives and constraints
on this problem?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the APA
format
APPENDICES
 This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you to
refer to in the actual written report
 Things like:
Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys, Product Designs, Packaging Specs, Mathematical Calculations, etc.
14
THE POSITIVE SIDE OF CAFFEINE -AS ANTIOXIDANT
ABSTRACT
Caffeine is used daily by millions of people as stimulants to kick start their day, or
to simply keep them awake. However excessive caffeine intake can lead to a fast
heart rate, diuresis (excessive urination), nausea and vomiting, restlessness,
anxiety, depression, tremors, difficulty sleeping and etc. Due to varies effect of
caffeine to the human health people starts looking for ways to reduce caffeine
intake, decaffeinated beverages can be a great choice.
INTRODUCTION
 Caffeine (C8H10N4O2) is the common name for trimethylxanthine (systematic
name is 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine or 3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6dione)
 naturally produced by several plants, including coffee beans, guarana, yerba
maté, cacao beans, and tea.
 physical properties
Molar mass
194.19 g/mol
Appearance
Odorless, white needles or powder
Density and phase
1.2 g/cm³, solid
Solubility in water
Slightly soluble
Melting point
237 °C
Boiling point
178 °C (sublimes)
Acidity (pKa)
10.4 (40 °C)

An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules
how caffeine works in scavenging the so-called free radicals
CONTENT
• Key component of coffee and tea. Pleasant aroma and bitter taste.
• How caffeine affects your body?
• Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant- includes brain, spinal
cord and other nerves in body.
• Used to provide a boost of energy or a feeling of alertness and to stay
awake longer
• Easily absorbed and distributed and passes into the brain
• Does not accumulate in the bloodstream nor stored in the body.
• How do caffeine works as antioxidant?
• Efficient scavenging of hydroxyl radical
• Effect on the production of hydroxyl radicals which reduce the free
radical that have damaging effects in the body
 What are the negative side effects of caffeine?
 In long-term and excess caffeine intake - caffeine intoxication
15
•
•
•
Excess of 250 milligrams (more than 2-3 cups of brewed coffee), can
result in a state of central nervous system overstimulation called caffeine
intoxication.
Caffeine increases the release of acid in the stomach leading to an upset
stomach or ‘heartburn’.
Caffeine is a diuretic which makes body lose more water
 How it harm the body?
 When people use caffeine every day, their bodies get used to it, and they
don’t get the “good effects” of feeling more awake and able to
concentrate unless they use more of it. This is called “tolerance.” Some
studies show that caffeine causes a physical dependence or addiction. If a
person gets withdrawal symptoms when they suddenly stop using
caffeine, then the person has a physical dependence on caffeine.
Withdrawal symptoms don’t feel good and can include: severe headaches,
muscle aches, temporary feelings of depression, and irritability. When
people experience these symptoms, they often just take in more caffeine.
Approximate caffeine levels in coffee and other products (for similar portions):
Robusta coffee (drip brewed)
140 - 200 mg caffeine per 6 ounce
average cup
Arabica coffee (drip brewed)
75 - 130 mg average 6 ounce cup
Arabica/Excelsa
brewed)
blend
coffee
(drip
40 - 60 mg average 6 ounce cup
Espresso (typical serving)
30 - 50 mg average 1 ounce shot
Instant coffee
40 - 100 mg average 6 ounce cup
97% decaf coffee
3 - 6 mg caffeine per 6-7 ounces average
cup
99.92% Euro decaf standard coffee
8 - 16 mg caffeine per 6-7 ounce average
cup
Hot cocoa
10 - 15 mg caffeine per 6-7 ounce cup
Dark chocolate candy bar
50 - 100 mg caffeine per 6 ounce bar
Milk chocolate candy bar
30 - 50 mg caffeine per 6 ounce bar
Coke, Pepsi, Mountain Dew soda
20 - 26 mg caffeine per 6-7 ounce drink
Green tea (brewed)
12 - 30 mg per 6-7 ounce average cup
Black tea (brewed)
40 - 60 mg per 6-7 ounce average cup
Note: These are averages and do not reflect specific teas or chocolates, nor are
they adjusted for brewing times, etc. They are presented here just as a rough
comparative guide.) Sources: USFDA and Nat. Soft Drink Assoc.
16
CONCLUSION
Despite as antioxidant which is beneficial, some precaution must be considered
while still enjoying a tasty cup of coffee
 Choosing types that have less caffeine / decaffeinated beverages
 Decrease the amount the intake
Islamic perspective:
 A muslim is responsible to take care of their mental, physical, emotional and
spiritual health. Eating and drinking habits that harms the body is prohibited.
 “Eat of the good things We have provided for your sustenance, but commit no
excess therein, lest My Wrath should justly descend on you: and those on whom
descends My Wrath do perish indeed!”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110504095630.htm
2. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/resourcesforyou/consumers/buyingusing
medicinesafely/understandingover-the-countermedicines/ucm205286.pdf
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant
4. http://www.dorchesterhealth.org/caffeine.htm
5. http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/12960921/reload=0;jsessionid=0OmrlT5O8
TW8thENr8JI.4
6. http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2011/May/ChemistryInEveryCup.asp
7. http://www.scienceofcooking.com/caffeine.htm
17
AIRBAGS AND SKIN BURNS
ABSTRACT

What problem are you trying to solve?

Why do you think the problem is significant?

How do you go about solving the problem?
INTRODUCTION

What is the background of airbags?

Why use airbags?
CONTENT

What is sodium azide?

How does an airbag work?

What causes burns on skin when an airbag deploys?

What are the chemical compounds produced from the airbags deployment?

Do airbags harm?

What are the alternatives of sodium azide?

How to minimize injuries from the airbags deployment?
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives
constraints on this problem?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
and
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the APA
format
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report

Things like:
– Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys,
Product
Designs,
Packaging
Specs,
Mathematical
Calculations, etc.
18
AIRBAGS AND SKIN BURNS
ABSTRACT



Airbags may cause severe injuries and burns.
At the beginning, the airbags opened with great speed, so it was proposed to
reduce the speed of deployment.
Alternatives inflator is introduced to replace sodium azide.
INTRODUCTION

The USA was the first country to introduce airbags on a large scale back in
the early 1980s and since then, there has been an estimated 1.8 million
airbag deployments and over 2000 lives have been saved by them, however,
airbags have killed some 90 people by breaking their necks. In Europe
airbags were not introduced until much later, the large-scale use was not
until the early 1990s. Since all drivers in Europe must wear seat belts,
European airbags are generally much smaller and have caused far fewer
injuries than the American equivalents.

The airbags provide safety to the occupants of cars and reduce the mortality
even at 50%.

Airbags are a standard protective device in new cars. They are designed to
give maximum protection when used with the belt.

Safety belts help keep passengers safe distance from the airbag when they
deploy.

Injuries from the airbags deployment include upper extremity fractures, eye
injuries, erythema, skin abrasion and skin burns.
CONTENT

Sodium azide is a white crystalline powder consisting of positive sodium ion
and negative azide ions. The azide ion is the 'interesting' part of the
molecule and is the part which is responsible for much of the molecules'
reactivity.

The azide group is made up three nitrogen atoms joined together. This is a
very unstable arrangement and consequently the azide will readily react to
gain the more stable configuration of nitrogen gas which only has two atoms
of nitrogen bonded together. This is the driving force of the explosive
reactions of sodium azide.
The common synthesis method is the "Wislicenus process," which proceeds in
two steps from ammonia. In the first step, ammonia is converted to sodium
amide:

19
2 Na + 2 NH3 → 2 NaNH2 + H2
The sodium amine is subsequently combined with nitrous oxide:







2 NaNH2 + N2O → NaN3 + NaOH + NH3
As illustrated in the Appendix, when a crash is sensed, the control unit sends
an electrical signal to the inflator. The chemical reaction is initiated by the
igniter, generating primarily nitrogen gas to fill the airbag causing it to
deploy through the module cover. Due to rapid speed change of the vehicles
involved in a crash, airbags must inflate rapidly to decrease the risk of
occupant injuries by protecting them from hitting the vehicle interior. From
the beginning of the crash, the entire deployment process is about 50
milliseconds - faster than the blink of an eye (about 200 milliseconds). Tiny
holes in the bag allow the gas to disperse, absorbing the force of the impact
on the occupant.
This triggers the ignition of about 70 g of sodium azide, which converts to
nitrogen gas (99.2%), water (0.6%) and hydrogen (0.1%). By products of
this combustion include sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and other
metallic oxides, which create a fine alkaline aerosol.
2 NaN3 → 2Na + 3 N2
The airbag chemicals may ignite by contact with the live electrical wiring,
resulting in an explosion of the chemicals and a thermal injury to the driver’s
hand.
Cause of burns:
o friction from physical contact with the surface of the airbag.
o thermal by direct burn from high-temperature gases and indirect burn
due to melting of clothing.
o chemical by contact of alkaline corrosives, especially sodium
hydroxide, with the skin or the mucous membranes of the eyes or by
particulate materials with unknown effects.
The alkaline corrosives are responsible for keratitis, facial erythema and
contact dermal burns of the extremities.
The gases have high temperature, which melts causes chest and hand burns.
Although the risk of burn injury increases with airbag deployment, but
airbags reduced the risk of serious injuries and fatalities in motor vehicle
accidents.
CONCLUSION


The airbags provide safety to the occupants of cars and reduce the mortality
even at 50%. When not used in accordance with international standards can
cause serious injuries. The airbags should always be used in conjunction with
seatbelts.
To reduce injury as a result of airbag inflation, advanced technology inflators
have been developed with the capability to change the inflation pressure.
This helps control the force of deployment based on the intensity of the
crash, the size of the occupant, and their position in the vehicle. These
20



inflators consist of two chambers with dual initiators. Thus, by firing either
one or both of the initiators, the force of the inflation can be controlled.
Chemical burns may be minor or life threatening, but proper treatment may
reduce the chance of infection and damaged caused by the contact with
chemicals.
The alternative propellants to replace sodium azide, for example, a
combination of nitroguanidine, phase-stabilized ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)
or other nonmetallic oxidizers, and a nitrogen-rich fuel other than azide (e.g.
tetrazoles, triazoles, and their salts).
Islamic perspective: One day the Prophet (s.a.w.) saw a bedouin leaving a
camel and he asked the bedouin, "why don't you tie down you camel?" The
Bedouin answered, "I put my trust in Allah." The Prophet said, "Tie your
camel first, then put your trust in Allah." What the Prophet (s.a.w.) has done
here is teaching the bedouin to reduce the risk of losing his camel. Similarly
in many actions of the Prophet (s.a.w.), we saw that he took steps to reduce
risks although he could have done otherwise if he wanted to.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. http://www.cvel.clemson.edu/auto/actuators/airbag.html
2. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/490128_4
3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7995737
4. http://www.all-about-car-accidents.com/resources/auto-accident/car-accidentinjuries/types-airbag-injury
APPENDICES
Figure 1 How airbag works
21
Figure 2a Facial alkali burn caused by airbag deployment
Figure 2b Appearance at 24th days postburn
22
ANTACID: CURE OR HARM?
ABSTRACT

What problem are you trying to solve? Antacid actually worsen
gastrointestinal (GI) problems.

Why do you think the problem is significant? Prolonged use of antacids can
lead to indigestion, constipation, flatulence, diarrhea and serious health
effects such as ulcer and cancer.

How do you go about solving the problem? Natural remedies can cure GI
problems completely if taken properly.
INTRODUCTION

What are GI problems? Acid reflux, heartburn, gastritis and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), cramping,
pain and soreness in the lower abdomen, bloating, nausea and vomiting.

What causes GI problems? Low acid production in the stomach.

What is antacid?

Why use antacid?
CONTENT

What types of antacid are available?

How do the different antacids work?

Do antacid cure or harm the body?

What are the side effects?

How does it harm the body?

Can the side effects be detrimental with prolonged use of antacid?

Is there a cure for the GI problems?
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives and
constraints on this problem? Suggest natural remedies for GI problems.

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
Suggest natural remedies based on the sunnah of Muhammad SAW.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the APA
format
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report
23
ANTACID: CURE OR HARM?
ABSTRACT



People with gastrointestinal (GI) problems take antacid to cure their
symptoms.
However, antacid actually worsen GI problems. Prolonged use of antacids can
lead to indigestion, constipation, flatulence, diarrhea and serious health
effects such as ulcer and cancer
Natural remedies can cure GI problems completely if taken properly
INTRODUCTION




GI problems include acid reflux, heartburn, gastritis and gastro-esophageal
reflux disease (GERD), cramping, pain and soreness in the lower abdomen,
bloating, nausea and vomiting.
GI problems are commonly associated with high acid production in the
stomach. This is false. Low stomach acid production is the most common
cause of GI problems.
Low stomach acid is caused by taking
o the wrong food:
 caffeine: increases acid production by the stomach and can
cause ulcer, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and spastic colon
 alcohol: damages the lining of esophagus, stomach and
intestine
 sterilize the gut and thus killing friendly bacteria and intestinal
flora
o taking too much food than what is required by the body. The body
needs only a certain amount of food to sustain itself. Overeating can
cause many digestive problems.
o Cigarettes: the presence of more than 150 poisonous gases increases
acid production by the stomach and decreases bicarbonate production
by the pancreas. Can lead to indigestion, heartburn, gastritis and
ulcer.
Antacid is commonly used to treat GI problems. May be prescribed by
doctors and pharmacist or obtained over the counter (OTC).
CONTENT


Many OTC brand names: Tums, Gaviscon, Gelusil, Alka-Seltzer, Maalox Plus
etc
Types of antacid:
o Aluminum hydroxide
o Magnesium carbonate
o Magnesium trisilicate
24
o
o
o
o
Calcium carbonate
Other ingredients:
 Alginic acids: contain a foaming agent that floats on top of the
stomach contents to prevent acid reflux. Acid reflux can cause
damage to the esophagus lining.
 Semithicone: reduces flatulence by breaking down gas bubbles
in the GI tract via burping.
H2 blocker such as famotidine and ranitidine
proton pump inhibitors such as lansoprazole and omeprazole

Each antacid works in a different way and has different strength and side
effects. However, the main function of an antacid is to neutralize stomach
acid or reduce the production of acid. Neutralizing stomach acid does not
cure or reduce the GI problems. In fact, it only aggravates the problem by
disturbing the pH balance of the gut. This will destroy the friendly flora in the
gut and cause more severe problems.

Antacids temporarily reduce the pain for an hour or two. GI symptoms
appear again, sometimes with more severe pain. A lot of people have
symptoms more than 2 weeks because antacids do not cure. In fact,
prolonged use (more than 2 weeks) can cause indigestion, constipation
(caused by Al), flatulence, diarrhea (caused by Mg) and other serious health
effects such as ulcer and cancer. In rare cases, the buildup of antacids may
cause kidney stones.

Other
o
o
o

Antacid is not for everyone.
o Children: prevents the absorption of calcium for a normal bone
growth. Thus, may cause bone thinning (rickets), cramps and muscle
weakness
o pregnant women: prolonged use during pregnancy and nursing may
cause detrimental effects because the antacid ingredients can reach
the baby
o people with damaged kidneys and certain conditions might have
worsen conditions

Though there is no specific study to proof this, GI problems can be cured
completely with natural remedies if taken properly.
side effects:
decreases HIV drug absorption by up to 23
decreases effectiveness of oral contraceptives
People using NSAIDS drugs for arthritis along with antacids suffer 2½
times more serious gastrointestinal complications than those taking a
placebo
o Antacids not only block drug absorption, they also block your food
absorption of nutrients, especially B12 which is necessary for virtually
all immune responses
25
CONCLUSION

Some natural remedies for the various GI problems:
o Indigestion:
aloe
vera,
bismuth,
supplemental
HCl
and
deglycerrhizinated licorice (DGL), apple cider vinegar, olive oil, black
seed oil and angelica roots
o Constipation: mixture of herbs (includes flaxseed), prunes, colonics
and magnesium
o Diarrhea: BRAT diet (Bananas, white rice, applesauce and herbal tea),
yogurt, bismuth
o Flatulence: activated charcoal and digestive enzymes. Eliminate
combination of high sugar and starch diet. Eliminate milk products
except yogurt and certain cheeses.

Islamic perspective:
o A muslim is responsible to take care of their mental, physical,
emotional and spiritual health. Eating and drinking habits that harms
the body is prohibited.
o A muslim must learn how to take care of their health and avoid harm.
o The Quran mentions black seed oil containing the cure for all diseases
except death.
o The Quran also swears by olive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/antacid-medicines/Pages/Definition.aspx
2. http://www.drhoffman.com/page.cfm/157
3. http://www.healthyhealing.com/dr-lindas-blog/bid/185350/The-Problem-withAntacids
4. http://www.liverdoctor.com/the-shocking-truth-about-reflux-and-antacids/
5. http://jjvirgin.com/4446/9-steps-reduce-acid-reflux-antacids/
6. http://healthwyze.org/index.php/component/content/article/221-why-youshould-use-apple-cider-vinegar-instead-of-antacids-and-baking-soda-forindigestion.html
7. http://www.endfatigue.com/tools-support/How-To-Get-Off-Acid-Blockers--Naturally.html
8. http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=132
9. http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/estaticos/view/95-olive-oil-and-thedigestive-system
10. http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/nonprescription-medications-andproducts-antacids-and-acid-reducers
11. http://naturalhealthtechniques.com/specificdiseasesantacids_problems_associ
ated.htm
26
FIREWORKS: EFFECTS ON HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
ABSTRACT

What problem are you trying to solve?

Why do you think the problem is significant?

How do you go about solving the problem?
INTRODUCTION

What are the types of fireworks?

When fireworks were used to accompany many festivities or celebrations?

Why fireworks were used to accompany many festivities or celebrations?

What are the impacts of fireworks on health and environment?
CONTENT

What are compositions of fireworks?

What chemical reactions are involved in fireworks?

How do fireworks burn into so many colors and patterns?

What metals/metal salts are responsible for the colors in fireworks?

What is the region of electromagnetic wave where visible light is produced?

What are the basic processes involved when fireworks composition emit
light?

How fireworks contribute to environmental pollution?

How fireworks can be toxic to humans?

Do we really need fireworks?
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives
constraints on this problem?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
and
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the APA
format.
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report.

Things like:
– Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys,
Product
Designs,
Packaging
Specs,
Mathematical
Calculations, etc.
27
FIREWORKS: EFFECT ON HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
ABSTRACT
–
Fireworks are widely used in national and cultural celebrations around the
world as night time entertainment to mark special occasions.
–
Fireworks are class of explosive pyrotechnic devices which composed of
heavy metals and other toxins that produce their sparkling shower of colors;
contribute to polluting or damaging our planet and also affecting human
health.
–
Fireworks displays should be conducted by licensed pyrotechnicians with
strict safety rules and regulations.
–
Laser light show or electronic pyrotechnics can be used as alternatives to
fireworks displays.
–
The eco-friendliest alternative to fireworks is to avoid them completely.
INTRODUCTION
–
Fireworks are generally classified as to where they perform, either as a
ground or aerial firework.
–
Types of fireworks:
–
Firecrackers:
–
Sparklers:
–
Aerial fireworks
–
Fireworks were invented in the 7th century in China during Dynasty Sung and
spread to Europe around mid-17th century.
–
Fireworks displays are mainly used for fascination and entertainment to mark
special occasions or celebrations.
–
Fireworks produce smoke, dust, solid debris, light and noise. The smoke and
dust may contain various heavy metals, sulfur-coal compounds and other
toxic chemicals that pollute the environment and can be toxic to humans.
CONTENT
•
•
Colors in fireworks are usually generated by pyrotechnic stars — usually just
called stars which produce intense light when ignited. Stars contain five basic
types of ingredients.
•
A fuel which allows the star to burn
•
An oxidizer: a compound which chemically oxidizes the fuel, necessary
for combustion
•
Color-producing chemicals
•
A binder which holds the compound together
•
A chlorine donor which provides chlorine to strengthen the color of the
flame
The production of light in fireworks, rely on basic chemical principles such as
redox reactions, combustion and the excitement of electrons in metal ions
when heated.
28
–
Redox reactions:
Oxidizers such as nitrates produce the oxygen to burn and reducers such as
sulphur reduce the oxygen into hot gases.
NO3(s) + S (s)  NO (g) + SO2 (g)
With any explosive device, combustion occurs which is a process of rapid
oxidation of a substance with simultaneous release of heat and sometimes
light. During combustion of fireworks some undesirable gases can be
produced such as sulphur dioxide, which contributes to acid rain and air
pollution.
S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)
-
Oxidizers/Oxidising agents
The common oxidizing agents are nitrates, chlorates or perchlorates
to produce the oxygen to burn the mixture.
2NaNO3 (s)  2NaNO2 (s) + 3O2 (g)
KClO4 (s)  KCl (s) + 2 O2 (g) more reactive
-
Reducing Agents
Two common reducing agents are sulphur and charcoal
- burning
the oxygen that the oxidizing agents release, producing hot gases.
S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)
C (s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g)
Combination both of these reducing agents may be slower the reaction.
Therefore reducing agents are used to control the speed of reaction.
To speed the reaction, metals are often added, since metal ions are highly
reactive because they can generate higher temperatures and produce
brighter light.
Collision Theory (Temperature)
"As the temperature of the reaction mixture is increased, the average kinetic
energy of
reactant particles increases. More collisions in unit time have
energy in excess of the activation energy and therefore there are more
productive collisions in unit time.")
Collision Theory
The finer a powder is, the faster a reaction will occur.
Collision Theory (Surface area)
29
"As the surface area of a solid reactant increase, more particles of the
reactant are exposed to collisions with other reactant particles. This results in
more frequent
collisions between reactant particles".
Collision Theory
To slow a reaction down, a thick, compacted substitute such as corn
meal can be used because it is a slow burning organic compound. By using
certain quantities of corn meal and metal ions, it is possible to regulate the
speed of reaction because they burn at different speeds and generate
different temperatures.
Binders:
Binders simply hold the mixture into a nice lump. To bind the lump, either
dextrin damped by water or a shellac compounded damped by alcohol are
used.
The Colors:
The way that metal ions react when exposed to heat is the principle
behind color production. Each metal ion produces a specific color when the
electrons in the metal ions are excited, causing them to jump to a different
energy shell. It is when the electrons return to ground state that they emit
the light.
The region of the electromagnetic wave where visible light is produced, is
between 380 and 780 nm. A glowing object will appear white, if it radiates
wavelengths across this region. If, however, the object emits wavelengths
which belong to a small portion of this region, we will see the corresponding
colour.
Pyrotechnic compositions emit light by three basic processes –incandescence
(blackbody radiation) atomic emission, and molecular emission.
Effects/colors:
Table 1: elements used in fireworks to give color effects.
Symbol
Fireworks Usage
Aluminum is used to produce silver and white flames
Al
and sparks. It is a common component of sparklers.
Ba
C
Ca
Barium is used to create greenish colors in fireworks.
Carbon is one of the main components of black powder,
which is used as a propellant in fireworks. Carbon
provides the fuel for a firework. Common forms include
carbon black, sugar, or starch.
Calcium is used to deepen firework colors. Calcium salts
produce orange fireworks.
Color
silver,
white
apple
green
orange
30
Cl
Cs
Cu
Fe
K
Li
Mg
Na
O
P
Rb
S
Sb
Sr
Ti
Zn
Chlorine is an important component of many oxidizers
in fireworks. Several of the metal salts that produce
colors contain chlorine.
Cesium compounds help to oxidize firework mixtures.
Cesium compounds produce an azure (sky-blue) color in
fireworks.
Copper produces blue-green colors in fireworks and
halides of copper are used to make shades of blue.
Iron is used to produce sparks. The heat of the metal
determines the color of the sparks. Current technology
does not allow the generation of sufficient heat to make
the iron glow blue (as in a "blue giant" star).
Potassium compounds help to oxidize firework mixtures.
Potassium nitrate, potassium chlorate, and potassium
perchlorate are all important oxidizers. The potassium
content can impart a violet-pink color to the sparks.
Lithium is a metal that is used to impart a red color to
fireworks. Lithium carbonate, in particular, is a common
colorant.
Magnesium burns an extremely brilliant—indeed, almost
blindingly so—white, so it is used to add white sparks or
improve the overall brilliance of a firework.
Sodium imparts a yellow color to fireworks, however,
the color is often so bright that it frequently masks less
intense colors.
Fireworks include oxidizers, which are substances that
produce oxygen in order for burning to occur. The
oxidizers are usually nitrates, chlorates, or perchlorates.
Sometimes the same substance is used to provide
oxygen and color.
Phosphorus burns spontaneously in air and is also
responsible for some glow in the dark effects. It may be
a component of a firework's fuel.
Rubidium compounds help to oxidize firework mixtures.
Rubidium compounds produce a violet-red color in
fireworks.
Sulfur is a component of black powder, and as such, it
is found in a firework's propellant/fuel.
Antimony is used to create firework glitter effects.
Strontium salts impart a red color to fireworks.
Strontium compounds are also important for stabilizing
fireworks mixtures.
Titanium metal can be burned as powder or flakes to
produce silver sparks.
Zinc is a bluish white metal that is used to create smoke
effects for fireworks and other pyrotechnic devices.
light blue
bluegreen, blue
yellow
through
red
violet-pink
red
dazzling
white
yellow
violet-red
white
red
silver
31
Effects/patterns:
The pattern that an aerial shell paints in the sky depends on the arrangement of
star pellets inside the shell.
Table 2: patterns effects in fireworks
shell
Effects/patterns
Palm
Contains large comets, or charges in the shape of a solid
cylinder, that travel outward, explode and then curve
downward like the limbs of a palm tree
Round shell
Explodes in a spherical shape, usually of colored stars
Ring shell
Explodes to produce a symmetrical ring of stars
Willow
Contains stars (high charcoal composition makes them longburning) that fall in the shape of willow branches and may
even stay visible until they hit the ground
Roundel
Bursts into a circle of maroon shells that explode in sequence
Chrysanthemum Bursts into a spherical pattern of stars that leave a visible
trail, with an effect somewhat suggestive of the flower
Pistil
Like a chrysanthemum shell, but has a core that is a different
color from the outer stars
Maroon shell
Makes a loud bang
Serpentine
Bursts to send small tubes of incendiaries skittering outward
in random paths, which may culminate in exploding stars
Fireworks contribute to polluting or damaging our planet in various ways
throughout their life cycle.

Manufacturing: Raw materials and energy are used to create the final
firework product. Firework ingredients often come from elements that need
to be mined from the earth. Mining is not exactly environmentally friendly.
Minerals then need to be processed and isolated often with chemicals.
Fireworks use plastic plus paper & cardboard (which kills trees) and are all
made at factories that pollute.

Transportation: Firework components are transported to the firework
assembly plant, finished fireworks are transported to their various
distribution centers and stores. Transporting may include planes, boats, and
trucks. I don't need to tell you the pollution that vehicles cause. And don't
forget that the consumer drives to purchase the fireworks, sometimes
hundreds of miles to another state to bypass local restrictions.

Combustion:
o
Air Pollution: The smoke from fireworks consists mainly of fine toxic
dusts (particulate matter) that can easily enter the lungs. This
represents a real threat for people with asthma or multiple chemical
sensitivity (MCS). Smoke from fireworks combustion may contain a
mixture of sulfur-coal compounds, traces of heavy metals, and other
32
toxic chemicals or gases. The combustion cloud can contain harmful
fumes such as ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide. Smoke from
consumer fireworks is of most concern because they are released at a
low level which makes inhalation more likely compared to professional
displays. Additionally, in this time where the issues of climate change
and global warming are being presented with a sense of urgency, we
need to be concerned about the greenhouse gases fireworks produce,
which include Carbon dioxide (CO2) and ozone.
o
Water Pollution: Fireworks fallout can contaminate water supplies and
residue on the ground can be carried away by rain and end up in our
lakes, rivers, or oceans.
o
Noise Pollution: Fireworks can be loud and the vibrations can travel
far. In the middle of the night fireworks often disturb people trying to
sleep. Fireworks can exceed 140 decibels and noise at 85 decibels or
above can damage hearing. Some people also argue the noise from
fireworks scares pets and wildlife like birds, etc.
Table 3: Effects of fireworks on health and environment
Toxic Element
Fireworks Usage
Toxic Effect of Fallout Dust & Fumes
Aluminum
brilliant whites
Contact dermatitis, bioaccumulation
Antimony sulfide
glitter effects
Toxic smoke, possible carcinogen
Arsenic compounds
Used as colorants.
Toxic ash can cause lung cancer, skin irritation
and wart formation.
Barium Nitrate
glittering greens
Poisonous. Fumes can irritate respiratory tract.
Possible radioactive fallout.
Copper compounds
blues
Polychlorinated dioxins and dibenzofurans. Can
bioaccumulate. Cancer risk.
Hexachlorobenzene
(HCB)
Use was supposed
to be banned
globally.
Persistent environmental toxin. Is a
carcinogen, mutagen and a reproductive
hazard.
Lead Dioxide / Nitrate /
Chloride
oxidizer
Bioaccumulation, developmental danger for
kids & unborn babes, may remain airborne for
days, poisonous to plants & animals
Lithium compounds
blazing reds
Toxic and irritating fumes when burned
Mercury (Mercurous
chloride)
chlorine donor
Toxic heavy metal. Can bioaccumulate.
Nitric oxide
fireworks byproduct
Toxic by inhalation. Is a free radical
Nitrogen dioxide
fireworks byproduct
Highly toxic by inhalation. SIDS risk.
Ozone
fireworks byproduct
Greenhouse gas that attacks & irritates lungs
33
Perchlorate Can contaminate ground & surface waters, can
propellant / oxidizer
Ammonium & Potassium
cause thyroid problems in humans & animals
Potassium Nitrate
in black powder
Toxic dusts, carcinogenic sulfur-coal
compounds
Strontium compounds
blazing reds
Can replace calcium in body. Strontium
chloride is slightly toxic.
Sulfur Dioxide
Acid rain from sulphuric acid affects water
gaseous byproduct
sources, vegetation & causes property
of sulfur combustion
damage. SIDS risk.
•
•
Fireworks used for entertainment should be avoided completely due to their
explosive chemical nature are dangerous.
Other uses of fireworks:

Industrial applications

Military applications
CONCLUSION
–
Alternatives:
–
laser light shows which emit no dangerous chemicals
–
use air-launch technology, which utilizes compressed air to launch the
fireworks
instead of gunpowder, in combination with fireworks with lowgunpowder formulations. There is talk of new shells that use "biodegradable
plastic" but what remains to be seen is if they are 100% non-toxic and leave
no nano-plastic
residues after breakdown, plus we still need to know what
conditions they
require to biodegrade.
–
Avoid Chinese made fireworks because of their pattern of using
banned or more
toxic chemicals without regard for the safety of the rest of
the world.
–
"Green fireworks - Low-smoke pyrotechnics produce practically none of
the
smoke or ash that traditional black powder fireworks do. But the
combustion byproducts still contain carbon dioxide which is a harmful
greenhouse gas and
also trace amounts of toxic metal salts. In addition
ammonium perchlorate could
still be used as an oxidant which still has the
potential to contaminate water supplies. In a positive note less heavy metal
salts are needed to produce the color effects.
–
Unfortunately fireworks will never be eco-friendly but will be subject to
greenwashing that distracts people with good intentions from the overall
negative environmental impacts.
–
Government should restrict the use of fireworks, to have ‘clean air act’ –to
allow laws relating to prevention and control of outdoor pollution to be
enacted.
–
Islamisation:
•
Surah Ar-Rum (30):41
34
•
‘Mischief has appeared on land and sea because of (the meed) that the
hands of
men have earned, that (Allah) may give them a taste of
some of their deeds: in order that they may turn back (from Evil)’
Surah Al Isra’ (17):27
‘Verily spendthrifts are brothers of Evil Ones; and the Evil One is to his
Lord (himself) ungrateful’
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everydayinnovations/fireworks.htm
2
www.acs.org/chemmatters
3
http://www.backcountryattitude.com/toxic_fireworks.html
4
http://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=120340
5
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireworks
6
http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everydayinnovations/fireworks.htm
7
http://library.thinkquest.org/15384/chem/
8
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects1997/RebeccaH/
9
http://www.sveafireworks.no/en/content.php?title=fyrverkeri-og-miljo
10
http://environment.about.com/od/healthenvironment/a/toxicfireworks.htm
11
http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2010/06/arejuly-4th-fireworks-bad-for-the-environment/1
12
http://legal-planet.org/2013/07/03/bombs-bursting-in-air-environmentalregulation-of-fireworks/
APPENDICES
1
35
2
36
SAFETY AND USES OF STAINLESS STEEL COOKWARES
ABSTRACT

What problem are you trying to solve? Leaching of heavy metals (iron,
chromium and nickel) into food upon using stainless steel cooking utensils

Why do you think the problem is significant? Although these metals are
essential to body, but excessive ingestion could lead to health problems

How do you go about solving the problem? Take precautionary steps when
using the cookware
INTRODUCTION

What is the history of stainless steel?

What is stainless steel?

What are the benefits of stainless steel as cookware?
CONTENT

What is the classification of stainless steel?

What gives stainless steel its properties?

What is the importance of passivation?

How to select quality stainless steel cookware?

How can stainless steel cookware affect health?

What precautions to take when using stainless steel cookware?
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives
constraints on this problem?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
and
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the APA
format
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report

Things like:
– Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys,
Product
Designs,
Packaging
Specs,
Mathematical
Calculations, etc.
37
SAFETY AND USES OF STAINLESS STEEL COOKWARES
ABSTRACT

The food people eat and how it is cook greatly influenced their health.
Despite the beautiful and durability of stainless steel cookware, but if they
are used incorrectly, they will also release harmful substances.

The damaging heavy metals such as iron, chromium and nickel that leach
into food from the cookware not only can ruin the nutrient of food, alter
enzymes and tastes, but it also could harm our health.
INTRODUCTION

Stainless steel was accidentally discovered in 1913 by an English
metallurgist, Harry Brearly, while he was working on a project to improve
rifle barrels. He discovered that adding chromium to low carbon steel
transformed it to stain resistance material.

Stainless steel is a common name for metal alloys that consist of 10.5% or
more Chromium (Cr) and more than 50% Iron (Fe). In addition to chromium,
nickel and manganese are added to some alloys. It does not corrode, or rust
as easily as ordinary steel, but it is not stain-proof.

It is corrosion resistance because of chromium reacts with oxygen and
creates a layer on the surface of the steel which avoid oxidative corrosion
form on the surface when it is scratched.

Stainless steel cookwares have a significantly longer lifespan than products
made of other materials and require less maintenance costs.

However, studies show that some of the ions which are released from
stainless steel devices are able to destroy or damage enzymes and proteins,
in addition to causing allergic reactions.
CONTENT

Classified by three types:
o
Austenitic: Make up over 70.0% of total stainless steel production.
They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16.0%
chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese. They have a facecentered cubic crystal structure.
o
Ferritic: They contain between 10.5% to 27% chromium and very little
nickel, if any, but some types can contain lead. They have a bodycentered cubic crystal structure. Most compositions include
molybdenum; some, aluminium or titanium. They are less corrosion
resistance, because of the lower chromium and nickel content and also
usually less expensive.
o
Martensitic: They are made of 12.0 to 14.0% of chromium, about
1.0% each of carbon and molybdenum and about 2.0% of nickel. Due
to lower chromium content, it is more brittle and not very effective in
resisting corrosion than other stainless steels.
38





Chromium is a silver-gray metal that shines brightly when polished. It is
odorless, tasteless and malleable. Chromium is a very hard metal (8.5 on a
10 point scale), with moderate density (7.19 gram/cm3), that melts at
1907 oC and boils at 2671 oC. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
The chromium provides rust and corrosion resistance and adds to its
durability. Nickel provides additional rust resistance, increases hardness, and
provides the high polishing characteristics which make stainless steel so
appealing. It is the amount of these alloys that are added to the stainless
steel that determines the quality of the products.
The chromium, through a process called passivation (chemical neutralization
of the surface) forms an invisible layer, chromium oxide, over the iron to
protect it from air and water. If the surface is scratched, the layer quickly
rebuilds itself in the presence of oxygen.
The sizes of chromium atoms and their oxides are similar, so they pack
neatly together on the surface of the metal, forming a stable layer only a few
atoms thick. If the metal is cut or scratched and the passive film is disrupted,
more oxide will quickly form and recover the exposed surface, protecting it
from oxidative corrosion.
Chemical passivation is "the chemical treatment of stainless steel with a mild
oxidant, such as a nitric acid solution, for the purpose of enhancing the
spontaneous formation of the protective passive film." The three major
variables that must be considered and controlled for the passivation process
selection are time, temperature and concentration. Citric acid has become
39







popular for its environmentally friendly and hygienic properties, and is
considered an effective substitute for mineral acids. This is why high quality
stainless steel, which undergone the chemical passivation will not rust, even
if it becomes scratched.
The different ranges of quality in stainless steel cookware can be established
by a set of numbers (18/0, 18/8 and 18/10) which should be displayed on
the product or on the package. The numbers refer to the percentage of
content of chromium and nickel added to the iron base. Low end stainless
steel products will usually contain little or no nickel yielding an 18/0 rating.
These products may be subject to rust spotting and usually not be as highly
polished. Stainless steel used in cookware is normally 18% chromium and
10% nickel (18/10). Another important feature that appears in some of the
best stainless steel cookware is a high quality non-stick surface. By having a
good non-stick quality on the pan, less oil is needed in cooking process.
Pans that have the aluminum sandwiched between heavy gauge stainless
steel makes for the best stainless steel cookware on the market. This is
because of the specialized manufacturing process that bonds the aluminum
and stainless steel together for optimum heat conductivity in the pan.
Stainless steel cookware may put reasonable amount of iron, chromium and
nickel trace element in diet. A study indicated that leaching of iron,
chromium and nickel were found into both alkaline and acidic foods and
beverages that were tested, while none of the metals leached into distilled
water. The leaching was detected regardless of using new or old cookware.
Leaching of iron occurred in all foods, nickel occurred in more acidic food,
and chromium occurred in slightly acidic foods.
Stainless steel that has been cleaned and scoured with a metallic pad may
also leach a small amount of nickel into the food, when exposed to alkaline
food.
The concentration of nickel leach out in food products probably do not
constitute hazard to consumer as the amount of nickel leached out is lower
to that of recommended values of EPA (0.02 mg/day).
There are many factors which probably affect the release of iron, chromium
and nickel in food. These will include stainless steel surface area of contact,
physical nature of surface area, pH of food products, its temperature, time
and contact, agitation, chemical composition of steel alloy and presence of
organic chelating constituents like citric acid, tartaric acid and oxalic acid.
For cleanliness and safety reasons, food should be cooked on only hypoallergenic high-grade surgical stainless steel, extremely corrosion resistant to
salts and acids. The addition of titanium makes 316Ti surgical stainless steel
supremely heat tolerant.
CONCLUSION
Cooking acidic foods in stainless steel can result in a small amount of heavy metals
leaching into the foods. Although properly passivated, the surface layer of
chromium oxide is very thin, and would surely be scraped away quickly with sharp
utensils. Thus, plastic utensils are recommended to be used in cooking.
40
For healthy eating, one should use quality stainless steel cookware such as hypoallergenic high-grade surgical stainless steel and learn to cook food below 200 0C to
preserve the nutrients and receive the best value out of food. To prevent further
leaching of metals, cooked foods should not be left for a long time in stainless steel
cookware. A less durable but non-leaching and safer cookware to use is glass,
ceramic and stoneware.
In Surah Al Kahfi: 95 – 98, Allah SWT narrates the history of Zul Qarnain’s journey
more than 1400 years, which provides mankind with invaluable information on how
to make an alloy with iron and carbon.
“And We also sent down iron in which there lies great force and which has many
uses for mankind…” (Quran 57:25)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
http://www.cip.ukcentre.com/stainless1.htm
file:///D:/P/projectchem/stainless steeL/Stainless Steel_Life Without
Plastic.htm
www.ceramcor.com/media/wysiwyg/static-contentpages/product_testing_pdfs/Stainless_Steel_Leaching__Debra_Lynn_Dadd_2011.pdf
http://www.ehow.com/info_8341510_dangers-chrome-leaching-food.html
http://www.ehow.com/facts_6049515_nickel-dangers-stainless-steelpots.html
file:///D:/P/project chem/stainless steel/Surgical Steel Cookware-It is Really
Worth It.htm
http://www.pfonline.com/articles/passivation-of-stainless-steel
41
SODA AND OSTEOPOROSIS: IS THERE A LINK?
ABSTRACT

What problem are you trying to solve? Link between osteoporosis and
drinking carbonated drinks

Why do you think the problem is significant?

How do you go about solving the problem?
INTRODUCTION

What is osteoporosis?

What causes osteoporosis?

What is soda?
CONTENT

Who introduced soda drinks?

What types of soda drinks available?

Which study relates the intake of soda with osteoporosis?

What are the types of calcium available?

What constituents harm the body?

How do they harm the body?

Reactions that occur?

How to prevent this happening?
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives and
constraints on this problem?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be the listing of references in the APA
format
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report

Things like: Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story
Boards, Surveys, Product Designs, Packaging Specs, Mathematical
Calculations, etc
42
SODA AND OSTEOPOROSIS: IS THERE A LINK?
ABSTRACT
What problem are you trying to solve?
- Osteoporosis and related fractures represent major public health problems
Why do you think the problem is significant?
- the aging of the population, the health care burden from fractures is
expected to increase dramatically during the next few decades
- the lifetime risk of fracture exceeds 40% for women and 13% for men, and
hip fractures have been associated with an excess mortality of up to 20%
- survivors require costly long-term nursing home care
How do you go about solving the problem?
- it is of great importance to identify modifiable risk factors for osteoporosis
- numerous dietary behaviors and components have been identified as
important contributors to the risk of loss of bone mineral density (BMD) with
aging
- soft drink consumption has increased rapidly , and has been found to be
associated with low BMD and fractures in adolescent girls (4-6)
- colas in particular, may be associated with lower BMD
- Caffeine and phosphoric acid are ingredients in most colas and has been
identified as risk factors for osteoporosis
- phosphoric acid was shown to interfere with calcium absorption and to
contribute to imbalances that lead to loss of calcium
- consistent robust associations between cola consumption and low BMD in
women
- this is not due to displacement of milk or other healthy beverages in the diet
- the major differences between cola and other carbonated beverages are
caffeine, phosphoric acid, and cola extract
- although caffeine is likely to contribute to lower BMD, the result must also be
observed for decaffeinated cola, the lack of difference in total caffeine intake
across cola intake groups, and the lack of attenuation after adjustment for
caffeine content suggest that caffeine does not explain these results
- the role of phosphoric acid on bone loss requires further investigation
- no evidence exists that occasional use of carbonated beverages, including
cola, is detrimental to bone
INTRODUCTION

What is osteoporosis?
- The word "osteo" comes from the Greek osteon meaning "bone", while
"porosis" comes from the Greek poros meaning "hole, passage"
- The bones of people with osteoporosis become thin and weak and are
much more likely to fracture, especially the hip, spine, and wrist.

What causes osteoporosis?
- Osteoporosis is a disease of the bones.
- It happens when you lose too much bone, make too little bone or
both.
43
-
As a result, your bones become weak and may break from a minor fall
or, in serious cases, even from simple actions, like sneezing or
bumping into furniture.
- Osteoporosis is Common
- Osteoporosis is Serious
Many risk factors can lead to bone loss and osteoporosis. Some of these
things you cannot change and others you can.

What is soda?
CONTENT

Who introduced soda drinks?

What types of soda drinks available?



Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius started to add flavors
A variant of soda in the United States called "phosphate soda" appeared in
the late 1870s.
What constituents harm the body?
There’s research that links drinking certain types of soda with weaker
bones—but carbonation doesn’t seem to be the problem.
Nutrition experts once believed caffeine could be the culprit. In a 2001 study,
deduced that people lost measurable amounts of calcium after drinking
caffeinated sodas. Drinking decaffeinated sodas didn’t appear to have the
same effect. The researchers concluded that if sodas harm bones it’s
probably because people drink them in place of milk.
But another study, reported in 2006 by researchers at Tufts University in
Boston, suggests that colas, specifically, might be problematic.
The likely cause? Phosphoric acid, which is unique to colas, says Katherine
Tucker, Ph.D., lead author of the study. When the body breaks down this
compound, the acidity (or concentration of free hydrogen ions) of the blood
increases. To neutralize acidity, hydrogen ions bind with minerals, including
calcium and magnesium. If they’re not available in the blood, says Tucker,
“the body draws calcium from bones.” The occasional cola drinker probably
needn’t worry. “The real risk is for those who drink cola every day,” says
Tucker.
 What are the types of calcium available?
Calcium is present in different forms.
To evaluate the absorbable calcium of each product we need to know
(a) what the amount of available calcium is, and
(b) what is the biochemical absorption percentage for the compound in ideal
conditions.
Following is a brief summary which addresses how much calcium is actually
available to the human body from commonly available calcium products.
A.) Calcium carbonate {CACO3}
B.) Tribasic Calcium Phosphate {Ca3(PO4)2}
44
C.) Calcium Lactate {(CH3CH[OH]COO)2Ca}
D.) Calcium Citrate {Ca3(C6H307)2}
E.) Ionic Calcium {Ca++}.

1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
How do they harm the body?
 People who consume soft drinks such as Coke have a 48% increase in
heart attack and stroke risk, compared to people who did not drink the
sodas at all or did not drink them every day.
 A study published in the journal Respirology reveals that soft drink
consumption
is
also associated
with
lung
and
breathing
disorders including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD).
The carbonation in Coke causes calcium loss in the bones through a
3-stage process:……………..
 Another problem with most Coke is it also contain phosphoric acid.
Phosphoric acid also causes a draw-down on the body’s store of
calcium.
So Coke softens your bones (actually, makes them weak and brittle)
in 3 ways:
Carbonation reduces the calcium in the bones.
Phosphoric acid reduces the calcium in the bones.
The beverage replaces a calcium-containing alternative, such as milk or
water. Milk and water are not excellent calcium sources, but they are
sources.
 Esophageal cancer was very rare two generations ago — now,
it’s common. The basic mechanism works as follows:
Mechanical damage to cells is a huge risk factor for cancer. It’s why asbestos
particles, for example, cause lung cancer.
All soft drinks cause acid reflux (stomach acid rising up past the esophageal
valve). This is more pronounced when the body is horizontal (as in sleeping),
but the sheer volume of Coke and soft drinks consumed in the USA means
the acid reflux is well past the danger point. Any time you ingest a gassy
drink, you are going to get belching–and acid into the esophagus.
Stomach acid dissolves tissue — that’s its purpose. The stomach lining does
not extend into the esophagus, so the lower esophagus gets damaged by
acid far more frequently in soft drink users than in non soft drink users. This
results in a radical increase in cell mutations, along with a far higher level of
free radicals.
Reactions that occur?

E338 – Orthophosphoric Acid. This can cause irritation of the skin and eyes.
It is used for production of phosphoric acid salts of ammonia, sodium,
calcium, aluminum and also in organic synthesis for the production of
charcoal and film tapes. It is also used in the production of refractory
materials, ceramics, glass, fertilizers, synthetic detergents, medicine,
metalworking, as well as in the textile and oil industries. It is known that
orthophosphoric acid interferes with the absorption of calcium and iron into
45
the body which can cause weakening of bones and osteoporosis. Other side
effects are thirst and skin rashes.

Phosphoric acid is added to food to enhance the antioxidant effects of other
compounds present, and also as an acidity regulator. Too much in diet leads
to loss of calcium in bones and onset of osteoporosis. Phosphoric acid is a
highly acidic ingredient in cola drinks, used to offset the extreme
sweetness. The way the kidneys excrete it is by bonding it with calcium
taken from the bones, which can then leave the bones porous and brittle,
and increase the risk of osteoporosis. A study, published in the Archives of
Paediatric and Adolescent Medicine in 2000, showed that athletic teenage
girls who consume cola drinks have been found to have five times the risk of
bone fractures of those athletic girls who do not consume cola drinks.
3 CaCO3(s) + 2 H3PO4(aq)  Ca3(PO4)2(aq) + 3 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l)
Phosphoric acid binds powerfully to calcium in the intestinal tract,
forming calcium phosphates. This prevents the bound calcium from
being absorbed properly. Fruit acids, which include phosphoric, malic and
others, can also do the same thing to a lesser degree. This is one reason
that people eating a lot of fruit have decayed teeth. It is not just the surface
effects of fruit acids on the dentine of the teeth. It is also the absorption and
binding of calcium by fruit acids, rendering it less absorbable.
This is not to be confused with the fact that absorption of calcium
requires an acid medium in the stomach. This is the truth. However,
the proper acid is hydrochloric acid. This enables calcium, if it is
unbound, to be mixed with amino acids and thereby chelated. This
word means to be bound to a mineral transporter, such as an amino acid or
other molecule. This, in fact, permit greater calcium absorption. However,
binding calcium with other materials, such as phosphorus, creates insoluble
compounds that are poorly absorbed.
The massive amounts of protein in milk result in a 50% loss of calcium in the
urine.
Milk Consumption Does not Prevent Hip Fractures for post-menopausal
women.
As a matter of fact, just the opposite was found to be true. Women
consuming greater amounts of calcium from dairy foods suffered
significantly increased risks of hip fractures. (American Journal of Public
Health 1997;87).
In light of these findings, the dairy industry milk mustache campaign has
proven to be one enormous deception. Bones break because women
eating the wrong foods create an acid condition in their own
bloodstreams, which must be neutralized by available calcium. The
body achieves balance by taking calcium out of its own bones. People
eating the greatest amount of animal protein, especially dairy
46
products, are the ones experiencing accelerated rates of bone loss.
“Dietary protein increases the production of acid in the blood which can be
neutralized by calcium mobilized from the skeleton.”
Focusing upon dietary calcium and protein intake, their paper (Calcified
Tissue International 50:14-18, 192) the research shows: Nations in which
calcium intake averaged 1000 milligrams per day “enjoyed” the highest
rates of hip fractures. Nations in which very little calcium was consumed
exhibited low rates of bone fractures, contrary to what doctors and dairy
industry marketing representatives wish us to believe.
Cow’s milk is both a “great source” of calcium and animal protein.
Nations eating such a “great source” of calcium and animal protein
experience the highest rates of crippling bone disease.
Calcium Absorption
Calcium can not be absorbed and utilized in our bodies without certain trace
minerals, including magnesium and boron and also many others, also being
present.
Calcium absorption needs an acid environment in the stomach for proper
digestion.
Maintenance of a positive calcium balance by the body depends on dietary
intake and the efficiency of absorption of the calcium ion from the intestinal
tract.
Calcium is one of the more difficult elements for the body to digest and
absorb and even more difficult to assimilate. Because calcium forms insoluble
compounds with many of the anions present in food, efficient absorption of
calcium is loaded with problems. In most instances phosphate is the principal
interfering anion.
Of the calcium phosphate complexes, only calcium dihydrogen phosphate is
sufficiently soluble to maintain the necessary levels for absorption of ionic
calcium.
Unfortunately this salt is stable only in highly acid media, such as
stomach acid. And in the alkaline area of the small intestine, the much less
soluble mono-hydrogen phosphate of the highly insoluble tertiary phosphate
is the stable form.
Both of these forms cannot be fully absorbed by the body.
Once calcium has dissolved, its absorption into the body is totally dependent
on the presence of vitamin D in the intestine. Vitamin D, unfortunately, is not
present in most of our food, so our body is dependent on the action of
sunlight on our skin to synthesize vitamin D. Without intestinal vitamin D
being present, ,most of the ionized calcium will pass through the body
unused.
Conditions in the stomach normally provide sufficient acid for the stable
intake of the free calcium ion even in the presence of phosphate ions; but
absorption cannot take place there. As the contents of the stomach (chyme)
are discharges from the stomach and moves through the small intestine, it is
neutralized by the alkaline bile.
47
Calcium absorption takes place in the duodenum, but it is apparent that
solubility considerations counteract to prevent this uptake, except during the
relatively short period of time before the chyme is completely neutralized.
Absorption in the remainder of the intestine is pretty much nonexistent,
because the calcium by then has been precipitated from solution due the
alkalinity produced by the bile.
Ionic calcium, on the other hand, needs no stomach acid to be absorbed and
assimilated. Ionic calcium in water is the best form to use.
Ionic calcium (Ca++) is the only physiologically active form of this
element.
Bone, though considered primarily as the structural support for the
soft tissues of the body, also serves as a storage deposit for ionic
calcium. The bone’s calcium is available to the body and is drawn
upon to maintain normal blood calcium levels during periods of low
calcium intake.
The protein bound calcium of the blood probably serves as a secondary
reservoir, becoming available locally only during excessive loss or use of ionic
calcium.
98% of the ionic calcium is absorbed and assimilated It becomes
obvious that consuming large amounts of calcium tablets to achieve
the desired absorption can have serious negative results.
When non-biologically active forms of minerals are used people, especially
older people, are put at risk as the minerals will neutralize the stomach acids
and damage the digestive process. This makes the ionic form the only logical
choice for anyone who wants to be healthy.

How to prevent this happening?
Society stresses the importance of calcium, but rarely magnesium.
Yet, magnesium is vital to enzymatic activity.
In addition to insuring proper absorption of calcium, magnesium is critical to proper
neural and muscular function and to maintaining proper pH balance in the body.
Good sources of magnesium include beans, green leafy vegetable like kale and
collards, whole grains and orange juice. Non-dairy sources of calcium include green
leafy vegetables, almonds, asparagus, broccoli, cabbage, oats, beans, parsley,
sesame seeds and tofu.
Osteoporosis is NOT a problem that should be associated with lack of
calcium intake. Osteoporosis results from calcium loss.
Magnesium, along with vitamin b6 (pyridoxine), helps to dissolve calcium
phosphate stones which often accumulate from excess dairy intake.
48
CONCLUSION

What are your suggestions or recommendations or alternatives and
constraints on this problem?
"Soda drinkers need to pay extra attention to getting calcium from other
sources," says Dawson-Hughes.
A few steps you can take to boost your bone health:








Can't give soda up entirely? Cut out one or two cans a day (depending
on how much you drink). The Tufts study indicates that it might help
to switch to a non-cola soda (like Sprite or Mountain Dew).
Better still, for every soda you skip, reach for a glass of milk or
fortified orange juice instead. Not only will you be cutting back on any
harmful effect from the soda itself, you'll be adding calcium. (If you're
a diet soda drinker worried about calories, here's a plus: fat-free milk
has even more calcium than higher-calorie whole milk.)
Have a breakfast cereal fortified with calcium -- and pour milk on top.
Add milk instead of water when you prepare things like pancakes,
waffles, and cocoa.
Add nonfat powdered dry milk to all kinds of recipes -- puddings,
cookies, breads, soups, gravy, and casseroles. One tablespoon adds
52 mg of calcium. You can add three tablespoons per cup of milk in
puddings, cocoa and custard; four tablespoons per cup of hot cereal
(before cooking); and 2 tablespoons per cup of flour in cakes, cookies
and breads.
Take a calcium and vitamin D supplement if you aren't getting enough
calcium (1000-1300 mg, depending on your age) in your diet.
Get plenty of weight-bearing and resistance exercise.
How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints/perspectives on this problem?
O you People! Eat of what is on earth, Halal and pure, and do not follow the
footsteps of the Satan; Indeed for he is to you an open enemy (2:168)
Thus, Muslims must eat of the good food that is not detrimental to their
health, besides making sure that it comes from halal sources. Avoid food that
can cause harm to the body system.
Or use this verse:
So eat of the lawful (Halal) and good food (Pure) which Allah has provided for
you. And be grateful for the Graces of Allah, if it is He whom you worship
(16:114)
Students MAY USE the following hadith to clarify their stand.
1. The Prophet (salallahu alaihi wa sallam) said, “Avoid whatever you
have doubts about in favor of what is not (doubtful).” (Tirmidhi)
49
2. Sayyiduna Ka`b Ibn Ujrah (radhiallahu anhu) relates that the Prophet
(salallahu alaihi wasallam) said, “A body nourished with haram will not
enter Jannah”. (Tirmidhi 614)
3. Sayyiduna Abu Hurayrah (radhiallahu anhu) reports that the Prophet
(salallahu alaihi wasallam) said, “A time will come upon the people
wherein a man will not bother what he intakes; whether from
a halal source
or haram.”
(Bukhari
2059)
4. Sayyiduna Abu Hurayrah (radhiallahu anhu) narrates that the Prophet
(salallahu alaihi wasallam) said: “Allah the Almighty is pure and
accepts only that which is pure. Allah (swt) has commanded the
faithful to do that which he commanded the Messengers, and the
Almighty has said: “O Messengers! Eat of the pure things and do
right”. And Allah the Almighty has said: “O you who believe! Eat of the
pure things We have provided you.”, then Rasulullah (salallahu alaihi
wasallam) mentioned (the case of) a man traveling on a long ardous
journey, greatly troubled and distressed, with disheveled hair crying to
Allah swt, O my Lord! O my Lord! But, his food is haram, his drink is
haram, his dress is haram and he is nourished with haram. How then
his du’a be accepted (Muslim 1015)
50
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 2006 American Society for Clinical NutritionColas, but not other
carbonated beverages, are associated with low bone mineral density
in older women: The Framingham Osteoporosis Study


http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/155646.php
http://nof.org/articles/7

http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/osteoporosis_ff.as
p
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_drink


http://health.india.com/diseases-conditions/are-soft-drinks-as-bad-ascigarettes-for-your-health/

http://www.eatingwell.com/nutrition_health/bone_health/can_drinking_seltz
ers_sodas_or_other_carbonated_drinks_harm_bones

http://www.webmd.com/osteoporosis/features/soda-osteoporosis

http://www.collective-evolution.com/2013/09/22/what-happens-to-ourbody-after-drinking-coca-cola/#sthash.x14pIaEM.dpuf

http://www.drlwilson.com/articles/calcium.htm

http://www.mbm.net.au/health/296-385.htm

http://www.uswellnessmeats.com/Calcium_Myth_and_Facts.pdf

http://www.webmd.com/osteoporosis/features/soda-osteoporosis?page=2
51
HYDRAZINE AS ROCKET FUEL
ABSTRACT

Why do you want to do this project?

What problem are you trying to solve?

Why do you think the problem is significant?

How do you go about solving the problem?
INTRODUCTION

What is rocket fuel?

Types of rocket fuel
CONTENT

Chemical Structure of hydrazine

How is it produced?

How does it work as rocket fuel?

What is the pros and cons of hydrazine used as rocket fuel
CONCLUSION

What is your suggestions or recommendations on this problem?

How do you discuss Islamic viewpoints on the problem?
BIBLIOGRAPHY

This section of the project write-up will be listing of references in APA format.
APPENDICES

This section will include any pictures/objects that are not in text form for you
to refer to in the actual written report
Things like:
–
Charts, Graphs, Position Maps, Logos, Advertisements, Story Boards,
Surveys, Product Designs, Packaging Specs, Mathematical Calculations, etc.
52
HYDRAZINE AS ROCKET FUEL
ABSTRACT
Since their invention by the Chinese in the 13th Century, rockets have seen a
substantial amount of development, although they still work on the same principle.
Modern rockets come in two main categories, solid fuel and liquid fuel.
Liquid-fuel rockets most commonly use liquid oxygen and either kerosene or liquid
hydrogen. These combinations work well in space and down closer to the ground,
resulting in a multitude of uses from the first stages of the Saturn V and Falcon
rockets to the Space Shuttle’s main engines used to get the orbiter in position in
space.
Solid-rocket fuel is easier and cheaper to handle and make as you don’t have to
cool materials to cryogenic temperatures. This means solid fuel is quite prevalent in
military applications and also the first stages of space rockets. Made from powdered
aluminium and an oxidiser, this fuel is often used in booster rockets to give ’craft
that extra kick needed to lift off and make their way into space.
INTRODUCTION
Propellant is the chemical mixture burned to produce thrust in rockets and consists
of a fuel and an oxidizer. A fuel is a substance that burns when combined with
oxygen producing gas for propulsion. An oxidizer is an agent that releases oxygen
for combination with a fuel. The ratio of oxidizer to fuel is called the mixture ratio.
Propellants are classified according to their state - liquid, solid, or hybrid.
The gauge for rating the efficiency of rocket propellants is specific impulse, stated
in seconds. Specific impulse indicates how many pounds (or kilograms) of thrust
are obtained by the consumption of one pound (or kilogram) of propellant in one
second. Specific impulse is characteristic of the type of propellant, however, its
exact value will vary to some extent with the operating conditions and design of the
rocket engine.
Liquid Propellants
In a liquid propellant rocket, the fuel and oxidizer are stored in separate tanks, and
are fed through a system of pipes, valves, and turbopumps to a combustion
chamber where they are combined and burned to produce thrust. Liquid propellant
engines are more complex than their solid propellant counterparts, however, they
offer several advantages. By controlling the flow of propellant to the combustion
chamber, the engine can be throttled, stopped, or restarted.
53
A good liquid propellant is one with a high specific impulse or, stated another way,
one with a high speed of exhaust gas ejection. This implies a high combustion
temperature and exhaust gases with small molecular weights. However, there is
another important factor that must be taken into consideration: the density of the
propellant. Using low-density propellants means that larger storage tanks will be
required, thus increasing the mass of the launch vehicle. Storage temperature is
also important. A propellant with a low storage temperature, i.e. a cryogenic, will
require thermal insulation, thus further increasing the mass of the launcher. The
toxicity of the propellant is likewise important. Safety hazards exist when handling,
transporting, and storing highly toxic compounds. Also, some propellants are very
corrosive; however, materials that are resistant to certain propellants have been
identified for use in rocket construction.
Liquid propellants used in rocketry can be classified into three types: petroleum,
cryogens, and hypergols.
Petroleum fuels are those refined from crude oil and are a mixture of complex
hydrocarbons, i.e. organic compounds
Hydrazine is also frequently used as a monopropellant in catalytic decomposition
engines. In these engines, a liquid fuel decomposes into hot gas in the presence of
a catalyst. The decomposition of hydrazine produces temperatures up to about
1,100 oC (2,000 oF) and a specific impulse of about 230 or 240 seconds. Hydrazine
decomposes to either hydrogen and nitrogen, or ammonia and nitrogen.
Other propellants have also been used, a few of which deserve mentioning:
Alcohols were commonly used as fuels during the early years of rocketry. The
German V-2 missile, as well as the USA Redstone, burned LOX and ethyl alcohol
(ethanol), diluted with water to reduce combustion chamber temperature. However,
as more efficient fuels where developed, alcohols fell into general disuse.
Hydrogen peroxide once attracted considerable attention as an oxidizer and was
used in Britain's Black Arrow rocket. In high concentrations, hydrogen peroxide is
called high-test peroxide (HTP). The performance and density of HTP is close to that
of nitric acid, and it is far less toxic and corrosive; however it has a poor freezing
point and is unstable. Although HTP never made it as an oxidizer in large bipropellant applications, it has found widespread use as a monopropellant. In the
presence of a catalyst, HTP decomposes into oxygen and superheated steam and
produces a specific impulse of about 150 s.
Nitrous oxide has been used as both an oxidizer and as a monopropellant. It is the
oxidizer of choice for many hybrid rocket designs and has been used frequently in
amateur high-powered rocketry. In the presence of a catalyst, nitrous oxide will
decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen and produce a specific impulse
of about 170 s.
54
Solid Propellants
Solid propellant motors are the simplest of all rocket designs. They consist of a
casing, usually steel, filled with a mixture of solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer)
that burn at a rapid rate, expelling hot gases from a nozzle to produce thrust. When
ignited, a solid propellant burns from the center out towards the sides of the casing.
The shape of the center channel determines the rate and pattern of the burn, thus
providing a means to control thrust. Unlike liquid propellant engines, solid
propellant motors cannot be shut down. Once ignited, they will burn until all the
propellant is exhausted.
There are two families of solids propellants: homogeneous and composite. Both
types are dense, stable at ordinary
Solid propellant motors have a variety of uses. Small solids often power the final
stage of a launch vehicle, or attach to payloads to boost them to higher orbits.
Medium solids such as the Payload Assist Module (PAM) and the Inertial Upper
Stage (IUS) provide the added boost to place satellites into geosynchronous orbit or
on planetary trajectories.
The Titan, Delta, and Space Shuttle launch vehicles use strap-on solid propellant
rockets to provide added thrust at liftoff. The Space Shuttle uses the largest solid
rocket motors ever built and flown. Each booster contains 500,000 kg (1,100,000
pounds) of propellant and can produce up to 14,680,000 Newtons (3,300,000
pounds) of thrust.
Hybrid Propellants
Hybrid propellant engines represent an intermediate group between solid and liquid
propellant engines. One of the substances is solid, usually the fuel, while the other,
usually the oxidizer, is liquid. The liquid is injected into the solid, whose fuel
reservoir also serves as the combustion chamber. The main advantage of such
engines is that they have high performance, similar to that of solid propellants, but
the combustion can be moderated, stopped, or even restarted. It is difficult to
make use of this concept for vary large thrusts, and thus, hybrid propellant engines
are rarely built.
A hybrid engine burning nitrous oxide as the liquid oxidizer and HTPB rubber as the
solid fuel powered the vehicle SpaceShipOne, which won the Ansari X-Prize.
55
CONTENT
Hydrazine
Hydrazine was first used as a rocket fuel during World War II for the Messerschmitt
Me 163B (the first rocket-powered fighter plane), under the code name BStoff (hydrazine hydrate). When mixed with methanol (M-Stoff) and water it was
called C-Stoff.[citation needed]
Hydrazine is also used as a low-power monopropellant for the maneuvering
thrusters of spacecraft, and the Space Shuttle's auxiliary power units (APUs). In
addition, monopropellant hydrazine-fueled rocket engines are often used in terminal
descent of spacecraft. Such engines were used on the Viking program landers in the
1970s as well as the Phoenix lander and Curiosity rover which landed on Mars in
May 2008 and August 2012, respectively.
In all hydrazine monopropellant engines, the hydrazine is passed by a catalyst such
as iridium metal supported by high-surface-area alumina(aluminium oxide)
or carbon nanofibers,[7] or more recently molybdenum nitride on alumina,[8] which
causes it to decompose into ammonia, nitrogen gas, and hydrogen gas according to
the following reactions:[citation needed]
1. 3 N2H4 → 4 NH3 + N2
2. N2H4 → N2 + 2 H2
3. 4 NH3 + N2H4 → 3 N2 + 8 H2
Reactions 1 and 2 are extremely exothermic (the catalyst chamber can reach 800
°C in a matter of milliseconds,[7]) and they produce large volumes of hot gas from a
small volume of liquid,[8] making hydrazine a fairly efficient thruster propellant with
a vacuum specific impulse of about 220 seconds.[9]Reaction 3 is endothermic and so
reduces the temperature of the products, but also produces a greater number of
molecules. The catalyst structure affects the proportion of the NH3 that is
dissociated in Reaction 3; a higher temperature is desirable for rocket thrusters,
while more molecules are desirable when the reactions are intended to produce
greater quantities of gas[citation needed].
Hydrazine is considered a monopropellant, meaning that all we need is hydrazine
and not some other chemical to mix with it. Most rocket fuels require an oxidizer.
That means we have to keep track of two chemicals and they have to be mixed in
the rocket engine in just the right way to provide the desired thrust. Secondly,
hydrazine does not need an ignition source. Again, most rocket fuels need to be
ignited in order to burn. Igniting an engine in space is tough. Only a few rocket
engines are designed to be stopped and restarted. Most fire until they are done,
and then they are turned off, never to be turned on again. Using hydrazine as a
propellant, the engine can be fired as needed, and then when the supply of
hydrazine is cut off, the engine stops. If we turn on the hydrazine again, the engine
56
starts. More hydrazine gives more thrust. Less hydrazine gives less thrust. That
makes hydrazine a nice propellant for thrusters and maneuvering jets.
Downsides of Hydrazine
Breathing hydrazine can cause coughing and irritation of the throat and lungs.
Those effects can occur at fairly low concentrations. At higher concentrations,
hydrazine can trigger tremors or convulsions. Ingesting hydrazine can cause
tremors, nausea, neurological problems, and drowsiness. Hydrazine is very water
soluble, and it can be absorbed through the skin. Prolonged exposure can cause
liver and kidney damage, as well as damage to reproductive organs. Hydrazine has
caused tumors in animal studies, and it is listed as a carcinogen.
When the Space Shuttle lands, the astronauts don’t go piling out of it as soon as it
comes to a stop. Instead, special trucks roll out to it to “safe” the vehicle. This
involves removing any unused hydrazine and “sniffing” the air around the Shuttle to
see if any hydrazine vapors are present. One concern is that traces of hydrazine
may remain in the thruster exhaust ports and pose a hazard to the astronauts. It is
better for them to remain on board the spacecraft than to be exposed to possible
health problems. Only when the all clear is given do the astronauts emerge from
the Shuttle. It was in part due to the risk posed by the hydrazine that the public
was warned to stay away from pieces of debris from the Space Shuttle Columbia
that broke apart and showered much of east Texas with debris. The hydrazine
contamination issue was also cited as a reason to shoot down USA-193, an errant
American reconnaissance satellite rather than letting it crash to Earth of its own
accord in some random location.
Hydrazine is also corrosive and reactive. It breaks down rather readily in the
environment, so long term environmental damage from small spills is unlikely. But,
these chemical properties mean that it is not something that can be stored for
extended periods of time. But, the instability turns out to be something very useful
for rocket propulsion.
CONCLUSION
Hydrazine will continue to be used for many future satellites, space probes and
upper stages in launch vehicles. We cannot expect it to be replaced by nontoxic
fuels over night. Experience with hydrazine and other conventional propellants is
flight proven. Application of new more environmentally friendly propellants will
likely find stiff resistance from risk-averse finance and insurance concerns.
57
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
www.braeunig.us/space/propel.htm
www.astronautix.com/props/hydazine.htm
www.calstatela.edu/dept/chem/08summer/158/25-words-n2h4.pdf
www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/.../HQ_12-281_Green_Propellants.html
http://www.spaceanswers.com/space-exploration/1216/what-is-rocket-fuelmade-of/#sthash.SQwKfV6Y.dpuf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazine#Molecular_structure_and_properties
7.
^ Jump up to:a
b
Vieira, R.; C. Pham-Huu, N. Keller and M. J. Ledoux (2002).
"New carbon nanofiber/graphite felt composite for use as a catalyst support
for hydrazine catalytic decomposition". Chemical Communications (9): 954–
955. doi:10.1039/b202032g.
8.
^ Jump up to:a
b
Chen, Xiaowei; et al. (April 2002). "Catalytic Decomposition
of Hydrazine over Supported Molybdenum Nitride Catalysts in a
Monopropellant Thruster". Catalysis Letters 79: 21–
25.doi:10.1023/A:1015343922044.
9.
Jump up^ Monopropellant Hydrazine Thrusters
10.
Jump up^ "Rocket Propellant Development Efforts at Purdue University PowerPoint PPT Presentation". Retrieved 21 April 2013.
11.
Jump up^ Fahrat, Kamal; Batonneau, Yann; Brahmi, Rachid; Kappenstein,
Charles (September 22, 2011). "Chapter 21: Application of Ionic Liquids to
Space Propulsion". In Handy, Scott.Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science
and Technology. InTech. doi:10.5772/23807.ISBN 978-953-307-605-8.
Retrieved 2013-07-20.
12.
http://www.sen.com/news/13022012.html
13.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/seri/ESASP/0557//0000003.001.html
58