Dakota Jessop – Assignment 1
Lecture 1:
Biology – the study of life
Cell theory – cells are the basic living units or building blocks of life
Domain Bacteria – in the three domain system of taxonomy, the group that contains only the Bacteria, a
vast group of unicellular prokaryotes
Domain Archaea – in the three domain system of taxonomy, the group that contains only the Archaea, a
highly diverse group of unicellular prokaryotes
Domain Eukarya – in the three domain system of taxonomy, the group that contains eukaryotic
organisms including protists, fungi, plants, and animals
Eukaryote – a cell characterized by membrane-bounded organelles, most notably the nucleus, and one
that possesses chromosomes whose DNA is associated with proteins; an organism composed of such
cells
Evolution – genetic change in a population of organisms; in general, evolution leads to progressive
change from simple to complex
Hierarchy of biological organization – organizing by putting into groups and subgroups (molecules, cells,
tissues, organs, organs systems, organism, population, community, ecosystem)
Natural selection – the differential reproduction of genotypes; caused by factors in the environment;
leads to evolutionary change
Prokaryote – a bacterium; a cell lacking a membrane-bounded nucleus or membrane-bounded
organelles
Reductionism – reducing complexities to study the simpler components
Science – Latin to know, a way of knowing
Steps of the scientific method – Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Prediction, Test
Lecture 2:
Atom – the smallest unit of an element; the building blocks of all matter
Chemical bond – weak bonds between molecules; ionic and hydrogen bonds
Chemical reaction – they result in changes of the composition of matter
Compound – chemical elements combined in fixed ratios
Covalent bond – the sharing of two atoms outer shell electrons
Electron shell – levels that the electrons travel on
Electron – negative particle of an atom
Element – a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means
Hydrogen bond – a weak association formed with hydrogen in polar covalent bonds; the partially
positive hydrogen is attracted to partially negative atoms in polar covalent bonds
Ion – charged atoms created when atoms gain or lose electrons
Ionic bond – an electrical attraction between ions with opposite charges
Isotope – variant forms of an element
Molecular formula – a formula giving the number of atoms of each of the elements present in one
molecule a specific compound
Molecule – atoms joined together by covalent bonds
Neutron – a particle in the nucleus of the atom with no charge
Product – the end result of a reaction
Reactant – a substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction
Structural formula – a formula that shows the arrangement of atoms in the molecule of a compound
Valence – on the outside
Lecture 3:
Acid – any substance that dissociates in water to increase the hydrogen ion concentration and thus
lower the pH
Adhesion – the tendency of water to cling to other polar compounds due to hydrogen bonding
Base – any substance that dissociates in water to absorb and therefore decrease the hydrogen ion
concentration and thus raise the pH
Buffer – a substance that resists changes in pH; it releases hydrogen ions when a base is added and
absorbs it when and acid is added
Cohesion – the sticking together of particles of the same substance
Heat – a measure of the random motion of molecules
Hydrogen ion – a hydrogen atom that has lost an electron
Hydrophilic – substance that can mix with water
Hydrophobic – substance that can’t mix with water
Molarity – the concentration of a material in solution
Mole – equal in number to the molecular weight of a substance
pH – potential hydrogen
Polar molecule – molecule with opposite charges on opposite sides
Solute – substance that is dissolved
Solution – a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
Solvent – the medium in which one or more solutes is dissolved
Temperature – measures the intensity of heat due to the average kinetic energy of molecules
Lecture 4:
Alcohol – organic compounds with hydroxyl groups
Aldehyde – compounds with a carbonyl group on the end
Amine – organic compounds with amino groups
Amino group – consists of a nitrogen atom attached to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton
Carbonyl group – consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond
Carboxyl group – consists of a carbon atom with a double bond with an oxygen atom and a single bond
to a hydroxyl group
Carboxylic acid – compounds with carboxyl groups
Enantiomer – molecules that are mirror images of each other
Functional group – attachments that replace one or more hydrogen atoms to the carbon skeleton of the
hydrocarbon
Geometric isomer – compounds with the same covalent partnerships that differ in their spatial
arrangement around a carbon-carbon double bond
Hydrocarbon – organic molecules that consist of only carbon and hydrogen atoms
Hydroxyl group – consists of a hydrogen atom forming a polar covalent bond with an oxygen which
forms a polar covalent bond to the carbon skeleton
Isomer – compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore
different chemical properties
Ketone – compounds with the carbonyl group somewhere in the middle of the skeleton
Phosphate group – consists of phosphorus bound to four oxygen atoms
Structural isomer – molecules with the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangement
of atoms
Sulfhydryl group – consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone
Thiol – organic molecules with sulfydryl groups
Lecture 5:
ATP – a nucleotide that is composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups and releases energy
when hydrolyzed to ADP.
Amino acid – set of 20 monomers that are used to construct protein polymers
Carbohydrate – include both sugars and polymers
Dehydration reaction – how monomers are connected by covalent bonds
Denaturation – when a protein is affected by pH, salt concentration, temperature, or any other factors
and loses its functional shape
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – a polymer of nucleic acids
Deoxyribose – a sugar derived from ribose by replacing a hydroxyl group with hydrogen
Disaccharide – double sugars
Double helix – two polynucleotide strands that spiral around an imaginary axis to form a double helix
Fat – compound constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules, glycerol and fatty acids
Fatty acid – consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton
Gene – programs the amino acid sequence of polypeptides and consists of regions of DNA, a polymer of
nucleic acids
Glucose – sugar
Hydrolysis – disassembles the covalent bonds connecting monomers in a polymer
Lipid – fats
Macromolecule – larger molecules
Monomer – small molecules or repeated units in polymers
Monosaccharide – single sugar
Nucleic acid – stores and transmits hereditary information
Nucleotide – consists of three parts: a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
Phospholipids – have two fatty acids attached to glycerol and a phosphate group at the third position
Polymer – chainlike molecules made from ¾ macromolecule types
Polypeptide – polymers of proteins
Polysaccharide – polymers of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages.
Protein – overwhelming enzymes in a cell and regulate metabolism by selectively accelerating chemical
reactions
Protein structure – primary, secondary, and tertiary structure, are used to organize the folding within a
single polypeptide
Primary - a proteins unique sequence of amino acids
Secondary – hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone
Tertiary – continues to twist, fold and orient itself, until it reaches the final shape: polypeptide subunit
Quaternary – results from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits
Purine – nitrogen base that has a six-membered ring joined to a five-membered ring
Primidine – nitrogen base that has a single six-membered ring
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) – a class of nucleic acids characterized by the presence of the sugar ribose and
the pyrimidine uracil
Ribose – a sugar of the pentose class that occurs widely in nature as a constituent of nucleosides and
several vitamins and enzymes
Steroids – lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused carbon rings
Lecture 6:
Cell wall – contains cellulose; gives the shape and rigidity to the cell
Centriole – a bundle of microtubules used in mitosis
Centrosome - an organelle near the nucleus of a cell that contains the centrioles (in animal cells) and
from which the spindle fibers develop in cell division
Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis
Chromosome – coiled up chromatin fibers
Cilia – locomotor appendages that protrude from certain cells
Cytoplasm/cytosol – everything outside the nucleus within the cell
Cytoskeleton – the cell’s structural support; helps with motility and regulation
Desmosome – anchoring junctions; fasten cells together into strong sheets, much like rivets
Endoplasmic reticulum – membrane system for the movement of various materials in the cell
Extracellular matrix – sticky layer of glycoproteins
Flagellum – locomotor appendage that protrude from certain cells
Gap junction – provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
Glycoprotein – protein molecule modified within the Golgi complex by having a short sugar chain
attached
Golgi apparatus – a center of manufacturing, warehousing, sorting, and shipping
Intermediate filament – fibrous protein coiled into cables; reinforces the cell and helps maintain cell
shape
Light microscope – visible light passes through the specimen and then through glass lenses
Lysosome – sacs of digestive enzymes that are involved in intracellular digestion
Microfilament – the smallest fibers in the cytoskeleton; two intertwined strands of actin
Microtubule – columns of tubulin, give the cell rigidity
Mitochondria – carries out cellular respiration
Nuclear lamina – a network of intermediate laments that maintain the shape of the nucleus
Nucleolus – where ribosomal RNA is synthesized and assembled with proteins
Nucleus – contains a eukaryotic cell’s genetic library
Organelle – specialized part of a cell
Peroxisome – generate and degrade H2O2
Plasma membrane – functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes
for the whole volume of the cell
Plamodesmata – channels that allow plant cells to share water, food, and chemical messages
Prokaryotic cell – has no nucleus or membrane bound organelles
Ribosome – tiny organelles that make proteins using the instructions contained in genes
Rough ER – where location proteins are made
Smooth ER – its enzymes synthesize lipids
Tight junctions – membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming continuous belts around cells
Vacuole – large membrane-bound sac used for storage or digestion purposes
Vesicle – a small intracellular, membrane-bounded sac in which various substances are transported or
stored
Lecture 7:
Active transport – the pumping of individual ions or other molecules across a cellular membrane from a
region of lower concentration to one of higher concentration
Amphipathic molecule – molecules that have both hydrophobic regions and hydrophilic regions
Concentration gradient – a difference in concentration of a substance from one location to another,
often across a membrane
Cotransport - process in which two substances are simultaneously transported across a membrane by
one protein
Diffusion – the net movement of dissolved molecules or other particles from a region where they are
more concentrated to a region where they are less concentrated
Endocytosis – a cell brings in macromolecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the
plasma membrane
Exocytosis – a transport vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the
plasma membrane
Facilitated diffusion – carrier-assisted diffusion of molecules across a cellular membrane through specific
channels from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration
Gated channel – open or close depending on the presence or absence of a physical or chemical stimulus
Hypertonic solution – solution with higher concentration of solutes
Hypotonic solution – solution with the lower concentration of solutes
Integral protein – penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer, often completely spanning he
membrane
Isotonic solutions – solutions with equal solute concentrations
Ligand – a signaling molecule that binds to a specific receptor protein, initiating signal transduction in
cells
Osmosis – passive transport of water
Passive transport – diffusion across a membrane
Peripheral protein – not embedded in the lipid bilayer, and instead they are loosely bounded to the
surface of the protein
Phagocytosis – when the cell engulfs a particle by extending pseudopodia around it and packaging it in a
large vacuole
Pinocytosis – A cell creates a vesicle around a droplet of extracellular fluid
Receptor-mediated endocytosis – very specific in what substances are being transported
Selective permeability – allowing some substances to cross more easily than others
Sodium-potassium pump – actively maintains the gradient of sodium and potassium ions across the
membrane
Transport protein – help diffuse normally impeded molecules and ions across the membrane