© ZigZag Education 2013
Photocopiable/digital resources may only be copied by the purchasing institution on a single site and for their own use
1

►
►
►
►
Joseph Stalin emerged as leader of the
Soviet Union following the death of Lenin in 1924.
He faced a sustained battle to succeed
Lenin but eventually overcame his various rivals and then went on to dominate Soviet society and politics for almost 30 years.
During this period, the Soviet Union was transformed from a backward agricultural nation and developed into one of the world’s leading superpowers.
However, such economic and industrial progress came at the expense of widespread repression and social hardship inflicted on the ordinary Soviet population.
2

►
►
►
►
Lenin had instigated and led the 1917
Russian Revolution that had overthrown the Tsarist regime.
Lenin’s image was all-powerful in the years following the revolution, with his images located on the sides of houses, his statue in countless squares, and his portrait hung in offices and shops.
His name was incorporated into buildings, streets, institutions and cities, e.g. Leningrad.
Ambitious communist figures such as
Stalin sought to align themselves with this powerful godlike image in the years that followed the 1917 revolution.
3

►
►
►
►
As Lenin's health began to fail in the early
1920s, Stalin began manoeuvring against his rivals in order to take power in the event of Lenin’s death.
Using his position as General Secretary of the Communist Party from 1922, Stalin began to appoint key allies into important positions within the country’s political system.
He also organised the suppression of
Lenin’s 1922 Testament which was critical of Stalin.
When Lenin eventually died in early 1924,
Stalin was in pole position to take over, ahead of his main rival Trotsky.
4

►
►
►
►
Leon Trotsky was a a charismatic and effective orator who had been actively involved in the 1917 revolution and had successfully led the Red Army during the civil war of 1918–
1920.
Trotsky had a significant level of support and emerged as Stalin’s main rival to succeed Lenin.
He was associated with the radical idea of
‘permanent worldwide revolution’ communism to other nations.
exporting
Stalin wanted to secure the revolution in the
Soviet Union as a priority, and he therefore offered the alternative approach of ‘socialism in one country’.
Having identified Trotsky as his major rival,
Stalin made the first move against him by organising his removal from the powerful
Politburo in 1925.
5

►
►
►
►
►
As well as Trotsky, Stalin faced other rivals who were potential candidates to succeed
Lenin.
From the left wing of the Communist Party, there was Kamenev and Zinoviev who
Stalin initially aligned with in order to isolate
Trotsky.
However, by the mid-1920s he had ousted both figures from their positions within the
Politburo.
Stalin then made a temporary alliance with the moderate right-wing figures of
Bukharin and Rykov, appearing to agree with their support for Lenin’s NEP.
However, by the late 1920s Stalin had also removed them from their positions within government.
6

Strengths:
►
►
►
It created economic growth following the struggles of
‘war communism’ in the early 1920s.
It helped to stabilise the communist regime in power.
It provided independent economic opportunities and freedoms for ordinary Soviet citizens.
Weaknesses:
►
It delivered a slow and cautious level of economic growth and industrialisation.
►
►
Heavy industry remained sluggish and inefficient.
The policy created inequality between the various peasants and farmers, with some citizens growing wealthy and others remaining poor (in conflict with communist principles).
7

Stalin had some key motives for developing rapid economic change across the Soviet Union:
►
►
►
He ultimately came to reject what he believed was the relatively slow and cautious rate of economic and industrial growth that the policy produced, as well as its
‘bourgeois’ values that compromised communist principles.
He had his own ambitious plans for a further ‘revolution
from above’ and desired to accelerate the country’s rate of economic development and strengthen its industrial base.
In moving away from the NEP towards a system of more rapid industrialisation, some historians have claimed that
Stalin was signalling the start of the ‘second
revolution’ from the late 1920s onwards.
8

►
►
►
►
►
►
Discussion Points
►
►
Who were Stalin’s main rivals to succeed Lenin in 1924?
What were the key policy differences between Stalin and his rivals?
How did the left-wing and right-wing communists differ in their overall policy approach?
Why was the NEP (New Economic Policy) a key area of disagreement between the leading Soviet communist figures in the mid-1920s?
What was the significance of Lenin’s Testament?
What factors were most significant in Stalin eventually succeeding Lenin?
How did Stalin use key political institutions and bodies to secure his position in power?
Compare and contrast the importance of Stalin and Trotsky within the
Soviet government after 1917 and summarise why Stalin ultimately triumphed over his main leadership rival.
9

►
►
►
►
Stalin identified the reform of Russian agriculture as a key factor in his attempts to modernise the Soviet Union and enable it to compete with capitalist nations in economic and industrial terms.
The Soviet Union was a largely rural nation, but agriculture was generally unproductive and utilised inadequate farming equipment. Small-scale peasant farms were generally inefficient.
The history of serfdom was another factor in why agricultural living standards were so poor and famines were common.
Stalin ultimately wanted to ‘collectivise’ these small farms and export communism to the countryside.
10

►
►
►
►
Stalin’s policy of collectivisation was aimed at merging various small farms into larger ones that were controlled and run by the state.
By effectively nationalising agriculture, Stalin wanted to be able to organise and coordinate the country’s agricultural resources in a more efficient way.
Collectivisation of agriculture was achieved throughout the 1930s, although there was opposition from the wealthier peasant farmers known as ‘kulaks’, who had benefited from the profits to be made from Lenin’s NEP.
The opposition of the kulaks to the seizures of agricultural produce by Red Army troops was dealt with brutally by the Soviet state, with large numbers of them killed or exiled to the gulag (dekulakisation).
11

►
►
►
►
Having initiated the transformation of the country's agriculture, Stalin set about generating the industrialisation of the Soviet
Union.
He rejected Lenin’s NEP, and, by the late
1920s, Stalin had launched the first of his
Five Year Plans, aimed at using profits from increased levels of agricultural produce to invest in the country’s heavy industries.
This led to a growth in urban areas as many workers moved from the countryside to find work in expanding industrial factories.
The country ultimately enjoyed some significant economic and industrial growth throughout the 1930s, but many ordinary people faced harsh social conditions as a consequence of the country’s rapid economic and industrial growth.
12

Stalin was aware of the changing nature of the needs of the Soviet Union, so different Five Year
Plans developed with a distinct focus:
►
The first Five Year Plan (1928–1932) focused on collectivising agriculture and developing heavy industry.
►
The second Five Year Plan (1933–1937) aimed to improve the range of consumer goods available and build up the country’s transport system.
►
The third Five Year Plan (1938–1941) identified the danger of war and built up the country’s defence needs accordingly.
The plans generally led to economic, industrial and military progress, although general social conditions did not enjoy such positive consequences.
13

►
►
►
►
The centralised power of the state was a key feature of these plans, and Soviet society became even more controlled in both economic and social terms.
Stalin was motivated by a fear of being crushed by the capitalist world; he stated in 1931: ‘We are fifty to a hundred years behind the capitalist countries. We
must close this gap in ten years or they will crush us.’
During the 1930s, the Soviet Union experienced a high rate of economic and industrial growth. This rate exceeded the
Western capitalist nations, although the Soviets began from a lower starting point. However, much of the population continued to live in poor social conditions.
The plans led to an improved military performance during
World War II and the eventual emergence of a Soviet superpower after 1945.
14
►

Discussion Points
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
Why did Stalin want to reform Russian agriculture from the 1920s onwards?
What was the connection between agricultural reform and industrialisation?
How did the policy of collectivisation impact on the rural parts of the
Soviet Union?
How did industrialisation link to urbanisation?
In comparison to the NEP, how did the Five Year Plans represent a more traditional Marxist approach to industrialisation?
How did the Five Year Plans change their focus during the 1930s?
How did external factors and influences shape the momentum of the Five
Year Plans?
Compare and contrast the economic and social impact of Stalin’s Five
Year Plans.
15

►
►
►
►
As Stalin strengthened his grip on power into the 1930s, he remained determined that opposition should be suppressed and prevented from arising.
As industrialisation and economic growth continued, Stalin remained aware of potential rivals to his position, and, while some opposition was real, some was imagined and
Stalin became increasingly paranoid.
In late 1934, Kirov, the Head of the Leningrad Communist
Party, was killed. Some historians have since speculated that Stalin’s regime was involved in his death as it provided
Stalin with the chance to remove a possible rival while also giving him an excuse to crush any others who appeared to threaten his position.
This was the background to ‘The Great Purge’ that erupted between 1936 and 1938.
16

►
►
►
►
The historian Robert Conquest has referred to the period between 1936 and 1938 as ‘The
Great Terror’, such was its impact across wider Soviet society.
Vast numbers of ordinary people were arrested, exiled, imprisoned in the Gulag or ultimately executed by Stalin's regime. All were accused of betraying the state, but evidence was often very weak.
Purges were carried out by Stalin's secret police (NKVD) and headed for much of this period by Yezhnov (right), although he too was executed in 1940. The extent of Stalin’s control of such matters has been a matter of debate.
The army, Communist Party, old Bolsheviks and ordinary citizens were all affected by this purge that struck fear across Soviet society.
17

►
►
►
►
The purges or ‘Great Terror’ destabilised
Soviet society as Stalin sought to assert his control once and for all.
Key communist figures such as Kamenev,
Zinoviev, Rykov and Bukharin were all executed in high-profile show trials between the period 1936–1938. Tomsky (below right) committed suicide in 1936 before he could be tried by the Stalinist state.
Purges of the army ultimately weakened the strength and effectiveness of the Soviet army in the early stages of World War II.
Purges of key bureaucrats hindered the effectiveness of the Five Year Plans.
Some historians have accused Stalin of overreacting and behaving in a paranoid manner to opposition that largely did not exist.
18

Discussion Points
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
What factors prompted Stalin to launch the ‘Great Purge’ in the mid-
1930s?
What impact did the Great Purge have on Soviet society?
In what ways were the purges an opportunity for Stalin?
How did this period impact on Stalin’s individual power?
What were the major criticisms of the 1936 Constitution?
To what extent were the threats to Stalin’s position real or imagined?
How did the ‘terror’ reinforce order and discipline across wider Soviet society?
Provide examples of how Stalin’s government was both totalitarian and authoritarian during the 1930s in particular.
19

►
►
►
►
It was during the 1930s that Stalin's cult of
personality began to emerge, with an increasing focus on his own importance to the
Soviet nation.
The 1936 Constitution gave him even more power, and images, paintings and icons highlighting his importance became ever more prominent (see above right).
Many of these images would feature Stalin reading books or wearing military uniform, to emphasise his apparent knowledge or his military credentials (despite his lack of a military background!).
By the mid-1930s, Stalin was referred to as the
‘Vozhd’, a Slavonic term meaning ‘leader’ or
‘boss’; his authority was overwhelming and no longer disputed.
20

►
►
►
►
Stalin took a conservative view on social policy and outlawed divorce, abortion and homosexuality as part of his ‘Family Code’ of
1936. This was a reversal of Lenin’s more socially liberal outlook.
Stalin also sought to impose discipline and competition in education, believing that a better educated population would be both more obedient and productive.
In terms of culture, literature and the arts,
Stalin imposed the policy of ‘socialist realism’, and this meant that all artistic works had to abide by the government’s socialistic vision and aspirations.
Organised religion was heavily suppressed under Stalin, and censorship was rife, with limited choice for the more educated population to read other than government propaganda.
21

►
►
►
►
Having firmly secured his domestic position in power during the 1930s, at the end of the decade Stalin faced a growing external threat to both himself and the Soviet Union.
The rise of Germany’s Adolf Hitler (below, from
1933) had caused alarm to the Soviet leader, particularly as throughout the 1930s Hitler expressed fierce anti-communist views and was expanding German territory across Europe.
Stalin became increasingly concerned at the prospect of a European war and focused the third Five Year Plan on building up military equipment and the country’s defences.
With the policy of appeasement being pursued by Britain and France, Stalin eventually sought to strike a deal with Hitler.
22

►
►
►
►
In a move that surprised many observers, in
August 1939 Stalin and Hitler signed the
Ribbentrop–Molotov Non-Aggression Pact.
This agreement was effectively a ‘marriage of convenience’ for both leaders, as it allowed
Hitler to focus on the imminent conflict with
Britain and France in the west, while allowing
Stalin further time to prepare for future military conflict with Germany.
Both nations subsequently invaded Poland and
Stalin later seized the Baltic states (Latvia,
Lithuania and Estonia) in a bid to create a
‘buffer zone’ to protect against possible future invasion.
By late 1940, relations between the Soviet
Union and Germany remained tense, and war between them remained very likely.
23

►
►
►
►
In June 1941, the alliance between Stalin and Hitler was shattered when German troops began the invasion of the
Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa).
This development was not a great shock to many observers, but it put Stalin’s regime under great pressure from what was a superior military force.
Hitler felt confident after success on the western front, and he focused on seizing the key Soviet cities such as
Moscow, Leningrad and Stalingrad.
However, Hitler ultimately over-extended his resources and his troops faced a harsh winter alongside a tough
Soviet enemy, whose military and industrial capacity had been greatly boosted by the third Five Year Plan in particular.
24

How well prepared Stalin’s regime was for the
German invasion in 1941 has been the subject of historical debate. In some ways the country was in a strong position, for example:
►
►
►
►
►
The third Five Year Plan had been focused on defence and preparation for a likely war.
The 1939 Nazi–Soviet Pact had given the country extra time for military preparation.
There were strong levels of national unity and patriotism, bolstered by propaganda posters
(see right).
Collectivisation and the hardships of the
1930s had made the country disciplined and ordered.
Stalin was a strong and powerful leader who ordinary Soviet citizens were loyal to, out of fear if nothing else.
25

However, from another perspective, the Soviet Union faced a number of problems when the Germans invaded in 1941, as follows:
►
►
►
►
►
The Soviet army had been significantly weakened by the purges of the 1930s.
The country had limited allies in 1941 and suffered initial military setbacks.
Many Soviet citizens were hostile to Stalin’s repressive regime and initially welcomed the German invasion.
Skilled workers and farmers had also suffered due to government repression, and this had weakened the country’s industry and agriculture.
Following the purges, there was an insufficient number of competent and capable figures who Stalin could delegate power to.
26

►
►
►
►
From mid-1941 onwards, Stalin’s regime was plunged into its biggest ever crisis – namely trying to save the communist state from invasion and destruction from
Hitler’s Nazi forces.
The totalitarian ‘Stalinist’ state that had been constructed over the previous 17 years would now be put to the test like never before in a ‘total war’.
Although Stalin had terrorised many of his own citizens, once the war got underway the majority of the Soviet population loyally rallied to the patriotic cause.
Stalin’s powerful and dominant leadership was now required to operate as ruthlessly and efficiently in a military and international context, as it had done in a domestic context during much of the 1920s and 1930s.
27

►
►
►
►
►
Joseph Stalin died in 1953 after almost 30 years as the allpowerful dictator of the Soviet Union.
He became progressively more authoritarian and autocratic, and, by the end of this period of rule, his dominance was such that people referred to Stalinism and other Soviet political figures and institutions were powerless by comparison.
His growing levels of paranoia against perceived opponents also meant that the Soviet Union became an increasingly terrorised and repressed society.
However, despite such negative social and political implications for ordinary Soviet citizens, in economic, industrial and military terms the Soviet Union made rapid progress between 1924 and
1941 to become one of only two global superpowers by the late 1940s.
Stalin’s legacy is therefore a mixed one, which has sparked significant historical debate in the years that have followed.
28

Discussion Points
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
What factors explain why Stalin had become such a dominant figure in the Soviet Union by 1941?
How did the Five Year Plans and the ‘terror’ strengthen Stalin’s own personal power base?
In what ways did Stalinism impact on the Soviet Union by the early
1940s?
How did Stalinism shape and influence culture, society and political ideology in the Soviet Union between 1924 and 1941?
How did Stalin justify his alliance with Hitler in 1939?
How well prepared was the Soviet Union for the German invasion in
1941?
What were Stalin’s key legacies for the Soviet Union by the time of the
German invasion in 1941?
What factors allowed the Soviet Union to develop as a superpower as the 1940s progressed?
29